What is the definition of the word structure

• Defenition of the word structure

  • The whole of the different elements of a company organ.
  • Something built up of distinct parts.
  • To give structure to.
  • the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships; «the social organization of England and America is very different»; «sociologists have studied the changing structure of the family»
  • the complex composition of knowledge as elements and their combinations; «his lectures have no structure»
  • give a structure to; «I need to structure my days»
  • a particular complex anatomical structure; «he has good bone structure»
  • the manner of construction of something and the disposition of its parts; «artists must study the structure of the human body»; «the architecture of a computer’s system software»
  • a thing constructed; a complex construction or entity; «the structure consisted of a series of arches»; «she wore her hair in an amazing construction of whirls and ribbons»
  • the manner of construction of something and the arrangement of its parts; «artists must study the structure of the human body»; «the structure of the benzene molecule»
  • a thing constructed; a complex entity constructed of many parts
  • the manner of construction of something and the arrangement of its parts
  • a particular complex anatomical part of a living thing
  • the complex composition of knowledge as elements and their combinations
  • the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
  • give a structure to

Synonyms for the word structure

• • anatomical structure
  • architecture
  • arrange
  • arrangement
  • assembly
  • bodily structure
  • body structure
  • build up
  • building
  • complex body part
  • composition
  • configuration
  • configure
  • constitute
  • constitution
  • construct
  • construction
  • edifice
  • form
  • formation
  • make up
  • makeup
  • organization
  • organize
  • put together
  • shape
  • social organization
  • social structure
  • social system

Similar words in the structure

• • structure
  • structure’s
  • structures

Meronymys for the word structure

• • base
  • foot
  • form of government
  • foundation
  • fundament
  • groundwork
  • plate
  • political system
  • society
  • structural member
  • substructure
  • understructure

Hyponyms for the word structure

• • airdock
  • altar
  • alveolar bed
  • apodeme
  • arcade
  • arch
  • architecture
  • area
  • arena
  • arrangement
  • aster
  • balance
  • balcony
  • ball
  • bascule
  • blade
  • boarding
  • bodily cavity
  • body
  • bony labyrinth
  • bowl
  • branchial arch
  • branchial cleft
  • bridge
  • building
  • building complex
  • bulb
  • caliculus
  • calycle
  • calyculus
  • capsule
  • card-house
  • cardcastle
  • cardhouse
  • carina
  • cartilaginous structure
  • catchment
  • cauda
  • cavity
  • cavum
  • centromere
  • chiasm
  • chiasma
  • cingulum
  • class structure
  • coil
  • colonnade
  • column
  • complex
  • computer architecture
  • concha
  • convolution
  • corner
  • cornu
  • corona
  • costa
  • counterbalance
  • cross
  • cytoarchitectonics
  • cytoarchitecture
  • cytoskeleton
  • deathtrap
  • decussation
  • defence
  • defense
  • defensive structure
  • divider
  • door
  • edifice
  • entablature
  • equilibrium
  • equipoise
  • erection
  • establishment
  • fabric
  • false bottom
  • feudal system
  • feudalism
  • filament
  • filum
  • floor
  • fold
  • form
  • fountain
  • framework
  • fundus
  • funiculus
  • germ
  • gill arch
  • gill bar
  • gill cleft
  • gill slit
  • glans
  • guide
  • gyrus
  • hangar
  • head
  • helix
  • hill
  • honeycomb
  • horny structure
  • house of cards
  • housing
  • hull
  • impediment
  • impedimenta
  • infrastructure
  • infundibulum
  • interstice
  • jungle gym
  • kinetochore
  • lacrimal apparatus
  • lamination
  • landing
  • landing place
  • landmark
  • layer
  • lens nucleus
  • level
  • limbus
  • living accommodations
  • lodging
  • lookout
  • lookout station
  • masonry
  • matriarchate
  • matriarchy
  • membranous labyrinth
  • memorial
  • meritocracy
  • monument
  • morphology
  • mound
  • neural structure
  • nucleolar organiser
  • nucleolar organizer
  • nucleolus organiser
  • nucleolus organizer
  • nucleus
  • observation tower
  • observatory
  • obstructer
  • obstruction
  • obstructor
  • offset
  • organisation
  • organization
  • osseous labyrinth
  • pad
  • partition
  • passage
  • passageway
  • patriarchate
  • patriarchy
  • pattern
  • peristome
  • phrase structure
  • pillar
  • plate
  • platform
  • plexus
  • plica
  • pluralism
  • porch
  • post and lintel
  • prefab
  • projection
  • public works
  • quoin
  • radicle
  • receptor
  • reconstitute
  • repair shed
  • restructure
  • rete
  • rib
  • root
  • rotator cuff
  • sail
  • segregation
  • sentence structure
  • separatism
  • set-back
  • setoff
  • shape
  • shelter
  • shipway
  • shoebox
  • sign
  • signboard
  • skeletal structure
  • slipway
  • sound structure
  • span
  • spiral
  • sports stadium
  • stadium
  • storey
  • story
  • substructure
  • superstructure
  • supporting structure
  • syllable structure
  • syntax
  • syrinx
  • system
  • tooth
  • tooth root
  • tower
  • transept
  • trestlework
  • tube
  • tube-shaped structure
  • unguis
  • uvea
  • valve
  • vascular structure
  • vaulting
  • volute
  • ways
  • weapons platform
  • wellhead
  • whorl
  • wind tunnel
  • word structure
  • zona
  • zone

Hypernyms for the word structure

• • artefact
  • artifact
  • body part
  • cognition
  • composition
  • constitution
  • coordinate
  • knowledge
  • make-up
  • makeup
  • noesis
  • organise
  • organize
  • physical composition
  • scheme
  • system

See other words

• • What is virago
  • The definition of stripe
  • The interpretation of the word strip
  • What is meant by strikebreaker
  • The lexical meaning strike
  • The dictionary meaning of the word strigil
  • The grammatical meaning of the word strider
  • Meaning of the word stride
  • Literal and figurative meaning of the word violin
  • The origin of the word virginal
  • Synonym for the word virid
  • Antonyms for the word stud
  • Homonyms for the word student
  • Hyponyms for the word study
  • Holonyms for the word virologist
  • Hypernyms for the word stuff
  • Proverbs and sayings for the word stunner
  • Translation of the word in other languages virology

A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized.^[1] Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, minerals and chemicals. Abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space.

The structure of a DNA molecule is essential to its function.

Load-bearingEdit

A traditional Sami food storage structure

Gothic quadripartite cross-ribbed vaults of the Saint-Séverin church in Paris

Buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams, bridges and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. Built structures are broadly divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including building structures, architectural structures, civil engineering structures and mechanical structures.

The effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional (ropes, struts, beams, arches), two-dimensional (membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults), or three-dimensional (solid masses).^[2]: 2 Three-dimensional elements were the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. A one-dimensional element has one dimension much larger than the other two, so the other dimensions can be neglected in calculations; however, the ratio of the smaller dimensions and the composition can determine the flexural and compressive stiffness of the element. Two-dimensional elements with a thin third dimension have little of either but can resist biaxial traction.^[2]: 2–3

The structure elements are combined in structural systems. The majority of everyday load-bearing structures are section-active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional (bending) structures. Other types are Vector-active structures such as trusses, surface-active structures such as shells and folded plates, form-active structures such as cable or membrane structures, and hybrid structures.^{[3]: 134–136}

Load-bearing biological structures such as bones, teeth, shells, and tendons derive their strength from a multilevel hierarchy of structures employing biominerals and proteins, at the bottom of which are collagen fibrils.^[4]

BiologicalEdit

In biology, one of the properties of life is its highly ordered structure,^[5] which can be observed at multiple levels such as in cells, tissues, organs, and organisms.

In another context, structure can also observed in macromolecules, particularly proteins and nucleic acids.^[6] The function of these molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition, and their structure has multiple levels. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy. The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a peptide backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen and two carbon atoms. The secondary structure consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding. The two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a back and forth bending of the polypeptide chain, and the quaternary structure is the way that tertiary units come together and interact.^[7] Structural biology is concerned with biomolecular structure of macromolecules.^[6]

ChemicalEdit

Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure. The structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom; these are the electrons that determine the role of the atom in chemical reactions.^{[8]: 71–72} Bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds and functional groups are shown.^[9]

Atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a unit cell. The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and translations (movements of all the points by the same amount). Each crystal has a finite group, called the space group, of such operations that map it onto itself; there are 230 possible space groups.^{[10]: 125–126} By Neumann’s law, the symmetry of a crystal determines what physical properties, including piezoelectricity and ferromagnetism, the crystal can have.^{[11]: 34–36, 91–92, 168–169}

MathematicalEdit

MusicalEdit

A large part of numerical analysis involves identifying and interpreting the structure of musical works. Structure can be found at the level of part of a work, the entire work, or a group of works.^[12] Elements of music such as pitch, duration and timbre combine into small elements like motifs and phrases, and these in turn combine in larger structures. Not all music (for example, that of John Cage) has a hierarchical organization, but hierarchy makes it easier for a listener to understand and remember the music.^[13]: 80

In analogy to linguistic terminology, motifs and phrases can be combined to make complete musical ideas such as sentences and phrases.^[14][15] A larger form is known as the period. One such form that was widely used between 1600 and 1900 has two phrases, an antecedent and a consequent, with a half cadence in the middle and a full cadence at the end providing punctuation.^{[16]: 38–39} On a larger scale are single-movement forms such as the sonata form and the contrapuntal form, and multi-movement forms such as the symphony.^[13]

Edit

A social structure is a pattern of relationships. They are social organizations of individuals in various life situations. Structures are applicable to people in how a society is as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships. This is known as the social organization of the group.^[17]: 3 Sociologists have studied the changing structure of these groups. Structure and agency are two confronted theories about human behaviour. The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought is one of the central issues in sociology. In this context, agency refers to the individual human capacity to act independently and make free choices. Structure here refers to factors such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs, etc. that seem to limit or influence individual opportunities.

DataEdit

In a singly linked list, each element has a data value and a pointer to the next element.

In computer science, a data structure is a way of organizing information in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.^[18] Data structures are built out of two basic types: An array has an index that can be used for immediate access to any data item (some programming languages require array size to be initialized). A linked list can be reorganized, grown or shrunk, but its elements must be accessed with a pointer that links them together in a particular order.^[19]: 156 Out of these any number of other data structures can be created such as stacks, queues, trees and hash tables.^[20][21]

In solving a problem, a data structure is generally an integral part of the algorithm.^[22]: 5 In modern programming style, algorithms and data structures are encapsulated together in an abstract data type.^[22]: ix

SoftwareEdit

Software architecture is the specific choices made between possible alternatives within a framework. For example, a framework might require a database and the architecture would specify the type and manufacturer of the database. The structure of software is the way in which it is partitioned into interrelated components. A key structural issue is minimizing dependencies between these components. This makes it possible to change one component without requiring changes in others.^[23]: 3 The purpose of structure is to optimise for (brevity, readability, traceability, isolation and encapsulation, maintainability, extensibility, performance and efficiency), examples being: language choice, code, functions, libraries, builds, system evolution, or diagrams for flow logic and design.^[24] Structural elements reflect the requirements of the application: for example, if the system requires a high fault tolerance, then a redundant structure is needed so that if a component fails it has backups.^[25] A high redundancy is an essential part of the design of several systems in the Space Shuttle.^[26]

LogicalEdit

As a branch of philosophy, logic is concerned with distinguishing good arguments from poor ones. A chief concern is with the structure of arguments.^[27] An argument consists of one or more premises from which a conclusion is inferred.^[28] The steps in this inference can be expressed in a formal way and their structure analyzed. Two basic types of inference are deduction and induction. In a valid deduction, the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, regardless of whether they are true or not. An invalid deduction contains some error in the analysis. An inductive argument claims that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely.^[28]

See alsoEdit

• Abstract structure
• Mathematical structure
• Structural geology
• Structure (mathematical logic)
• Structuralism (philosophy of science)

ReferencesEdit

Further readingEdit

External linksEdit

• Wüthrich, Christian. «Structure in philosophy, mathematics and physics (Phil 246, Spring 2010)» (PDF). University of California San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2015. (syllabus and reading list)

The
modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between
the external
and
the
internal structures
of the word.

By
external
structure of the word we
mean its morphological
structure.
For example, in the word post-impressionists
the
following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-,
im-, the
root press,
the
noun-forming suffixes —ion,
—ist,
and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s.
All these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word
post-impressionists.

The
internal
structure of the word, or
its meaning,
is
commonly referred to as the word’s semantic
structure. This
is the word’s main aspect. Words can serve the purposes of human
communication solely due to their meanings.

The
area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word
is called semantics.

Another
structural aspect of the word is its unity.
The word possesses both external (or formal) unity and semantic
unity. Formal unity of the word is sometimes interpreted as
indivisibility. The example of post-impressionists
has
already shown that the word is not indivisible. Yet, its component
morphemes are permanently linked together in opposition to
word-groups, both free and with fixed contexts, whose components
possess a certain structural freedom, e.g. bright
light, to take for granted.

The
formal unity of the word can best be illustrated by comparing a word
and a word-group comprising identical constituents. The difference
between a
blackbird and
a black bird is
explained by their relationship with the grammatical system of the
language. The word blackbird,
which
is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing:
blackbird/s.
The
first constituent black
is
not subject to any grammatical changes. In the word-group a black
bird each
constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own: the
blackest birds I’ve ever seen. Other
words can be inserted between the components: a
black night bird.

The
same example may be used to illustrate what we mean by semantic
unity.

In
the word-group a black
bird each
of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept: bird
– a
kind of living creature; black
– a
colour.

The
word blackbird
conveys
only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features
of any word: it always conveys one concept, no matter how many
component morphemes it may have in its external structure.

A
further structural feature of the word is its susceptibility
to
grammatical employment. In speech most words can be used in different
grammatical forms in which their interrelations are realized.

All
that we have said about the word can be summed up as follows.

The
word
is
a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication,
materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning,
susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and
semantic unity.

1. The main problems of lexicology

Two
of these have been already underlined. The
problem of word-building is
associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with
processes of making new words. Semantics
is
the study of meaning. Modern approaches to this problem are
characterized by two different levels of study: syntagmatic
and
paradigmatic.

On
the syntagmatic
level, the
semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear
relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other
words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed,
described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts.

On
the paradigmatic
level, the
word is studied in its relationships with other words in the
vocabulary system. So, a word may be studied in comparison with other
words of similar meaning. E.g. work
n – labour
n.
Work работа,
труд; 1
the
job that a person does especially in order to earn money. This word
has many meanings (in
Oxford Dictionary – 14),
many synonyms and idioms [`idiemz]: creative
work творческая
деятельность; public
work общественные
работы;
his life`s work дело
его жизни; dirty
work (difficult,
unpleasant) 1
чёрная работа; 2
грязное
дело, подлость.
Nice
work! Отлично!
Здорово!
Saying (поговорка):
All
work and no play makes Jack a dull boy (мешай
дело с бездельем, проживёшь век с
весельем)
–
it is not healthy to spend all your time working; you need to relax
too.

Labour:
“work”
и “labour” не взаимозаменимы; labour
– 1 work,
especially physical work: manual
labour,
a
labour camp
– исправительно-трудовой
лагерь; 2
people
who work: a
shortage of labour; cheap labour; skilled labour –
квалифицированные
рабочие, Labour
Party; labour relations; a labour of
Sisyphus;
Sisyphean
labour [,sisi‘fi:en]
сизифов труд; тяжёлый и бесплодный труд
– of a task impossible to complete. From the Greek myth in which
Sisyphus was punished for the bad things he had done in his life with
the never-ending task of rolling a large stone to the top of a hill,
from which it always rolled down again.

Other
words of similar meaning (e.g. to
refuse v – to reject v),
of
opposite meaning (e.g. busy
adj – idle adj; to accept v – to reject v),
of
different stylistic characteristics (e.g. man
n – chap n – bloke n – guy n).
Man
–
chap
(coll.)
–
парень, малый; a
good chap
–
славный малый; old
chap – старина;
chap
– BrE,
informal,
becoming old-fashioned – used to talk about a man in a friendly
way: He
isn`t such a bad chap really. Bloke
(coll.)
тип,
парень: He
seemed like a nice bloke.
Guy
– coll.
US – малый;
tough
guy железный
малый; wise
guy умник;
guys
(informal,
especially US) a
group of people of either sex: Come
on, you guys!

Consequently,
the main problems of paradigmatic studies are synonymy,
antonymy, functional styles.

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Al-Qa’ida does not follow a traditional command structure, wear uniforms, carry its arms openly, or mass its troops at the borders of the nations it attacks. Nonetheless, it possesses the demonstrated capability to strike with little notice and cause significant civilian or military casualties.

John O. Brennan

ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORD STRUCTURE

From Latin structūra, from struere to build.

PRONUNCIATION OF STRUCTURE

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF STRUCTURE

Structure is a verb and can also act as a noun.

WHAT DOES STRUCTURE MEAN IN ENGLISH?

Definition of structure in the English dictionary

The first definition of structure in the dictionary is a complex construction or entity. Other definition of structure is the arrangement and interrelationship of parts in a construction, such as a building. Structure is also the manner of construction or organization.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO STRUCTURE

PRESENT

PAST

FUTURE

CONDITIONAL

IMPERATIVE

NONFINITE VERB FORMS

WORDS THAT RHYME WITH STRUCTURE

SYNONYMS OF «STRUCTURE»

The following words have a similar or identical meaning as «structure» and belong to the same grammatical category.

TRANSLATION OF STRUCTURE

Find out the translation of structure to 25 languages with our English multilingual translator.

TENDENCIES OF USE OF THE TERM «STRUCTURE»

The term «structure» is very widely used and occupies the 2.497 position in our list of most widely used terms in the English dictionary.

Principal search tendencies and common uses of structure

FREQUENCY OF USE OF THE TERM «STRUCTURE» OVER TIME

10 QUOTES WITH «STRUCTURE»

Famous quotes and sentences with the word structure.

10 ENGLISH BOOKS RELATING TO «STRUCTURE»

Discover the use of structure in the following bibliographical selection. Books relating to structure and brief extracts from same to provide context of its use in English literature.

10 NEWS ITEMS WHICH INCLUDE THE TERM «STRUCTURE»

Find out what the national and international press are talking about and how the term structure is used in the context of the following news items.

REFERENCE

« EDUCALINGO. Structure [online]. Available <https://educalingo.com/en/dic-en/structure>. Apr 2023 ».

types:

show 336 types…

hide 336 types…

airdock, hangar, repair shed

a large structure at an airport where aircraft can be stored and maintained

altar

a raised structure on which gifts or sacrifices to a god are made

arcade, colonnade

a structure composed of a series of arches supported by columns

arch

(architecture) a masonry construction (usually curved) for spanning an opening and supporting the weight above it

area

a part of a structure having some specific characteristic or function

balcony

a platform projecting from the wall of a building and surrounded by a balustrade or railing or parapet

balcony

an upper floor projecting from the rear over the main floor in an auditorium

bascule

a structure or device in which one end is counterbalanced by the other (on the principle of the seesaw)

boarding

a structure of boards

body

the external structure of a vehicle

bridge, span

a structure that allows people or vehicles to cross an obstacle such as a river or canal or railway etc.

building, edifice

a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place

building complex, complex

a whole structure (as a building) made up of interconnected or related structures

catchment

a structure in which water is collected (especially a natural drainage area)

coil, helix, spiral, volute, whorl

a structure consisting of something wound in a continuous series of loops

colonnade

structure consisting of a row of evenly spaced columns

column, pillar

a vertical cylindrical structure standing alone and not supporting anything (such as a monument)

corner, quoin

(architecture) solid exterior angle of a building; especially one formed by a cornerstone

cross

a wooden structure consisting of an upright post with a transverse piece

deathtrap

any structure that is very unsafe; where people are likely to be killed

defence, defense, defensive structure

a structure used to defend against attack

door

a structure where people live or work (usually ordered along a street or road)

entablature

(architecture) the structure consisting of the part of a classical temple above the columns between a capital and the roof

erection

a structure that has been erected

establishment

a public or private structure (business or governmental or educational) including buildings and equipment for business or residence

false bottom

a horizontal structure that partitions a ship or box (especially one built close to the actual bottom)

floor, level, storey, story

a structure consisting of a room or set of rooms at a single position along a vertical scale

fountain

a structure from which an artificially produced jet of water arises

guide

a structure or marking that serves to direct the motion or positioning of something

card-house, cardcastle, cardhouse, house of cards

an unstable construction with playing cards

housing, living accommodations, lodging

structures collectively in which people are housed

hull

the frame or body of a ship

jungle gym

a structure of vertical and horizontal rods where children can climb and play

lamination

a layered structure

landing, landing place

structure providing a place where boats can land people or goods

lookout, lookout station, observation tower, observatory

a structure commanding a wide view of its surroundings

masonry

structure built of stone or brick by a mason

memorial, monument

a structure erected to commemorate persons or events

hill, mound

structure consisting of an artificial heap or bank usually of earth or stones

impediment, impedimenta, obstructer, obstruction, obstructor

any structure that makes progress difficult

divider, partition

a vertical structure that divides or separates (as a wall divides one room from another)

platform, weapons platform

any military structure or vehicle bearing weapons

porch

a structure attached to the exterior of a building often forming a covered entrance

post and lintel

a structure consisting of vertical beams (posts) supporting a horizontal beam (lintel)

prefab

a prefabricated structure

projection

any structure that branches out from a central support

public works

structures (such as highways or schools or bridges or docks) constructed at government expense for public use

sail

any structure that resembles a sail

offset, set-back, setoff

structure where a wall or building narrows abruptly

shelter

a structure that provides privacy and protection from danger

shoebox

a structure resembling a shoebox (as a rectangular building or a cramped room or compartment)

sign, signboard

structure displaying a board on which advertisements can be posted

arena, bowl, sports stadium, stadium

a large structure for open-air sports or entertainments

superstructure

structure consisting of the part of a ship above the main deck

supporting structure

a structure that serves to support something

tower

a structure taller than its diameter; can stand alone or be attached to a larger building

transept

structure forming the transverse part of a cruciform church; crosses the nave at right angles

trestlework

a supporting structure composed of a system of connected trestles; for a bridge or pier or scaffold e.g.

vaulting

(architecture) a vaulted structure

shipway, slipway, ways

structure consisting of a sloping way down to the water from the place where ships are built or repaired

wellhead

a structure built over a well

wind tunnel

a structure resembling a tunnel where air is blown at known velocities for testing parts of aircraft

honeycomb

a structure of small hexagonal cells constructed from beeswax by bees and used to store honey and larvae

balance, counterbalance, equilibrium, equipoise

equality of distribution

abattoir, butchery, shambles, slaughterhouse

a building where animals are butchered

abutment arch

an arch supported by an abutment

academy

a learned establishment for the advancement of knowledge

aisle

part of a church divided laterally from the nave proper by rows of pillars or columns

amphitheater, amphitheatre, coliseum

an oval large stadium with tiers of seats; an arena in which contests and spectacles are held

apartment, flat

a suite of rooms usually on one floor of an apartment house

apartment building, apartment house

a building that is divided into apartments

architecture

an architectural product or work

arm, branch, limb

any projection that is thought to resemble a human arm

auditorium

the area of a theater or concert hall where the audience sits

aviary, bird sanctuary, volary

a building where birds are kept

back porch

a porch for the back door

baggage claim

an area in an airport where arriving passengers can collect the luggage that has been carried in the hold of the aircraft

Bailey bridge

a temporary bridge designed for rapid construction

ballpark, park

a facility in which ball games are played (especially baseball games)

bar

an obstruction (usually metal) placed at the top of a goal

barbette

(formerly) a mound of earth inside a fort from which heavy gun can be fired over the parapet

barbacan, barbican

a tower that is part of a defensive structure (such as a castle)

barrier

a structure or object that impedes free movement

basement, cellar

the lowermost portion of a structure partly or wholly below ground level; often used for storage

bathhouse, bathing machine

a building containing dressing rooms for bathers

beacon, beacon light, lighthouse, pharos

a tower with a light that gives warning of shoals to passing ships

bell tower

a tower that supports or shelters a bell

billboard, hoarding

large outdoor signboard

billet

lodging for military personnel (especially in a private home)

block

housing in a large building that is divided into separate units

blockade

something that prevents access or progress

block, blockage, closure, occlusion, stop, stoppage

an obstruction in a pipe or tube

boards

the boarding that surrounds an ice hockey rink

bodywork

the exterior body of a motor vehicle

bowling alley

a building that contains several alleys for bowling

box

any one of several designated areas on a ball field where the batter or catcher or coaches are positioned

brass, memorial tablet, plaque

a memorial made of brass

brattice

a partition (often temporary) of planks or cloth that is used to control ventilation in a mine

breakfast area, breakfast nook

a place for light meals (usually near a kitchen)

brickwork

masonry done with bricks and mortar

brim

a circular projection that sticks outward from the crown of a hat

broken arch

an arch with a gap at the apex; the gap is usually filled with some decoration

bulkhead

a partition that divides a ship or plane into compartments

bullpen

a place on a baseball field where relief pitchers can warm up during a game

bullring

a stadium where bullfights take place

barrow, burial mound, grave mound, tumulus

(archeology) a heap of earth placed over prehistoric tombs

burr

rough projection left on a workpiece after drilling or cutting

camber arch

an arch with a straight horizontal extrados and a slightly arched intrados

camp

temporary lodgings in the country for travelers or vacationers

cantilever bridge

bridge constructed of two cantilevers that meet in the middle

cattle grid, cattle guard

a bridge over a ditch consisting of parallel metal bars that allow pedestrians and vehicles to pass, but not cattle

cenotaph, empty tomb

a monument built to honor people whose remains are interred elsewhere or whose remains cannot be recovered

center, centre

a building dedicated to a particular activity

bema, chancel, sanctuary

area around the altar of a church for the clergy and choir; often enclosed by a lattice or railing

chapterhouse

a building attached to a monastery or cathedral; used as a meeting place for the chapter

cheval-de-frise, chevaux-de-frise

defensive structure consisting of a movable obstacle composed of barbed wire or spikes attached to a wooden frame; used to obstruct cavalry

choir

the area occupied by singers; the part of the chancel between sanctuary and nave

church tower

the tower of a church

circus

(antiquity) an open-air stadium for chariot races and gladiatorial games

cleat

a metal or leather projection (as from the sole of a shoe); prevents slipping

clock tower

a tower with a large clock visible high up on an outside face

club, clubhouse

a building that is occupied by a social club

college

a complex of buildings in which an institution of higher education is housed

condominium

housing consisting of a complex of dwelling units (as an apartment house) in which each unit is individually owned

control tower

a tower with an elevated workspace enclosed in glass for the visual observation of aircraft around an airport

cookhouse

a detached or outdoor shelter for cooking

corbel arch

(architecture) an arch constructed of masonry courses that are corbelled until they meet

corner, nook

an interior angle formed by two meeting walls

cornice

the topmost projecting part of an entablature

court, courtyard

an area wholly or partly surrounded by walls or buildings

covered bridge

a bridge whose passageway is protected by a roof and enclosing sides

dead-air space

an unventilated area where no air circulates

deck

a porch that resembles the deck on a ship

deck-house

a superstructure on the upper deck of a ship

dining area

an area arranged for dining

dock, dockage, docking facility

landing in a harbor next to a pier where ships are loaded and unloaded or repaired; may have gates to let water in or out

covered stadium, dome, domed stadium

a stadium that has a roof

dorm, dormitory, hall, residence hall, student residence

a college or university building containing living quarters for students

drawbridge, lift bridge

a bridge that can be raised to block passage or to allow boats or ships to pass beneath it

bubbler, drinking fountain, water fountain

a public fountain to provide a jet of drinking water

drip, drip mold, drip mould

(architecture) a projection from a cornice or sill designed to protect the area below from rainwater (as over a window or doorway)

dry masonry

masonry without mortar

dugout

either of two low shelters on either side of a baseball diamond where the players and coaches sit during the game

abode, domicile, dwelling, dwelling house, habitation, home

housing that someone is living in

embankment

a long artificial mound of stone or earth; built to hold back water or to support a road or as protection

enclosure

a structure consisting of an area that has been enclosed for some purpose

fallout shelter

a shelter to protect occupants from the fallout from an atomic bomb

fan vaulting

an elaborate system of vaulting in which the ribs diverge like fans

farm building

a building on a farm

feedlot

a building where livestock are fattened for market

firetrap

a building that would be hard to escape from if it were to catch fire

flange, rim

a projection used for strength or for attaching to another object

flashboard, flashboarding

boarding place along the top of a dam to increase its height

flat arch, straight arch

an arch with mutually supporting voussoirs that has a straight horizontal extrados and intrados

flue, fluke

flat bladelike projection on the arm of an anchor

football stadium

a stadium where football games are held

footbridge, overcrossing, pedestrian bridge

a bridge designed for pedestrians

fortification, munition

defensive structure consisting of walls or mounds built around a stronghold to strengthen it

fort, fortress

a fortified defensive structure

framework

a structure supporting or containing something

front porch

a porch for the front door

fuselage

the central body of an airplane that is designed to accommodate the crew and passengers (or cargo)

gallery

narrow recessed balcony area along an upper floor on the interior of a building; usually marked by a colonnade

gambling den, gambling hell, gambling house, gaming house

a public building in which a variety of games of chance can be played (operated as a business)

gazebo, summerhouse

a small roofed building affording shade and rest

goalmouth

(sports) the area immediately in front of the goal

government building

a building that houses a branch of government

gravestone, headstone, tombstone

a stone that is used to mark a grave

glasshouse, greenhouse, nursery

a building with glass walls and roof; for the cultivation and exhibition of plants under controlled conditions

first floor, ground floor, ground level

the floor of a building that is at or nearest to the level of the ground around the building

gun enclosure, gun turret, turret

a self-contained weapons platform housing guns and capable of rotation

hall

a large building for meetings or entertainment

hall

a large building used by a college or university for teaching or research

Hall of Fame

a building containing trophies honoring famous people

hank

a coil of rope or wool or yarn

haven, oasis

a shelter serving as a place of safety or sanctuary

head

a projection out from one end

hideaway, retreat

an area where you can be alone

high altar

the main altar in a church

high-rise, tower block

tower consisting of a multistoried building of offices or apartments

encumbrance, hinderance, hindrance, hitch, incumbrance, interference, preventative, preventive

any obstruction that impedes or is burdensome

hippodrome

a stadium for horse shows or horse races

hospice

a lodging for travelers (especially one kept by a monastic order)

hostel, student lodging, youth hostel

inexpensive supervised lodging (especially for youths on bicycling trips)

hotel

a building where travelers can pay for lodging and meals and other services

casino-hotel, hotel-casino

a building that houses both a hotel and a casino

house

a dwelling that serves as living quarters for one or more families

house

a building in which something is sheltered or located

hovel, hut, hutch, shack, shanty

small crude shelter used as a dwelling

army hut, field hut, hut

temporary military shelter

institution

an establishment consisting of a building or complex of buildings where an organization for the promotion of some cause is situated

boss, knob

a circular rounded projection or protuberance

laminate

a sheet of material made by bonding two or more sheets or layers

library

a building that houses a collection of books and other materials

line of defence, line of defense

defensive structure consisting of a barrier that can be employed for defense against attack

living quarters, quarters

housing available for people to live in

lobe

a rounded projection that is part of a larger structure

attic, garret, loft

floor consisting of open space at the top of a house just below roof; often used for storage

loft, pigeon loft

a raised shelter in which pigeons are kept

loft

floor consisting of a large unpartitioned space over a factory or warehouse or other commercial space

loge

balcony consisting of the forward section of a theater mezzanine

loggia

a roofed arcade or gallery with open sides stretching along the front or side of a building; often at an upper level

lug

a projecting piece that is used to lift or support or turn something

mantelet, mantlet

portable bulletproof shelter

health facility, healthcare facility, medical building

building where medicine is practiced

megalith, megalithic structure

memorial consisting of a very large stone forming part of a prehistoric structure (especially in western Europe)

entresol, mezzanine, mezzanine floor

intermediate floor just above the ground floor

first balcony, mezzanine

first or lowest balcony

minaret

slender tower with balconies

ministry

building where the business of a government department is transacted

manufactured home, mobile home

a large house trailer that can be connected to utilities and can be parked in one place and used as permanent housing

mooring mast, mooring tower

a tower for mooring airships

dead room, morgue, mortuary

a building (or room) where dead bodies are kept before burial or cremation

national monument

memorial consisting of a structure or natural landmark of historic interest; set aside by national government for preservation and public enjoyment

nave

the central area of a church

obelisk

a stone pillar having a rectangular cross section tapering towards a pyramidal top

observation dome

lookout consisting of a dome-shaped observatory

observatory

a building designed and equipped to observe astronomical phenomena

obstacle

an obstruction that stands in the way (and must be removed or surmounted or circumvented)

office block, office building

a building containing offices where work is done

opium den

a building where opium is sold and used

orchestra pit, pit

lowered area in front of a stage where an orchestra accompanies the performers

outbuilding

a building that is subordinate to and separate from a main building

outwork

subsidiary defensive structure lying outside the main fortified area

overhang

projection that extends beyond or hangs over something else

flyover, overpass

bridge formed by the upper level of a crossing of two highways at different levels

packinghouse

a building where foodstuffs are processed and packed

panopticon

an area where everything is visible

pantheon

a monument commemorating a nation’s dead heroes

patio, terrace

usually paved outdoor area adjoining a residence

perfumery

an establishment where perfumes are made

peristyle

a colonnade surrounding a building or enclosing a court

phrontistery

an establishment for study and learning (sometimes including modern universities)

pied-a-terre

lodging for occasional or secondary use

pier arch

an arch supported on piers

pit

(auto racing) an area at the side of a racetrack where the race cars are serviced and refueled

pit

(commodity exchange) the part of the floor of a commodity exchange where trading in a particular commodity is carried on

business establishment, place of business

an establishment (a factory or an assembly plant or retail store or warehouse etc.) where business is conducted, goods are made or stored or processed or where services are rendered

house of God, house of prayer, house of worship, place of worship

any building where congregations gather for prayer

planetarium

a building housing an instrument for projecting the positions of the planets onto a domed ceiling

industrial plant, plant, works

buildings for carrying on industrial labor

pointed arch

an arch with a pointed apex; characteristic of Gothic architecture

bateau bridge, floating bridge, pontoon bridge

a temporary bridge built over a series of pontoons

poorhouse

an establishment maintained at public expense in order to provide housing for the poor and homeless

portico

a porch or entrance to a building consisting of a covered and often columned area

presbytery

building reserved for the officiating clergy

press gallery

an area (sometimes in a balcony) set aside for reporters (especially in a legislative hall)

prong

a pointed projection

proscenium arch

the arch over the opening in the proscenium wall

lay-by, layby, pull-off, rest area, rest stop

designated paved area beside a main road where cars can stop temporarily

power pylon, pylon

a large vertical steel tower supporting high-tension power lines

pylon

a tower for guiding pilots or marking the turning point in a race

quad, quadrangle

a rectangular area surrounded on all sides by buildings

quartering

living accommodations (especially those assigned to military personnel)

rampant arch

an arch whose support is higher on one side than on the other

rattrap

filthy run-down dilapidated housing

asylum, refuge, sanctuary

a shelter from danger or hardship

eatery, eating house, eating place, restaurant

a building where people go to eat

rest house

a building used for shelter by travelers (especially in areas where there are no hotels)

ribbon development

building complex in a continuous row along a road

rink, skating rink

building that contains a surface for ice skating or roller skating

Roman building

a building constructed by the ancient Romans

room

an area within a building enclosed by walls and floor and ceiling

rope bridge

a bridge consisting of ropes

rotunda

a building having a circular plan and a dome

round arch

an arch formed in a continuous curve; characteristic of Roman architecture

rowlock arch

an arch that is formed with more than one concentric row of voussoirs

ruin

a ruined building

safety arch

an undecorated arch that is included in order to strengthen or support a construction

sandwich board

signboard consisting of two hinged boards that hang front and back from the shoulders of a walker and are used to display advertisements

school, schoolhouse

a building where young people receive education

school system

establishment including the plant and equipment for providing education from kindergarten through high school

scoinson arch, sconcheon arch

an arch that supports part of the wall

sconce

a shelter or screen providing protection from enemy fire or from the weather

scoreboard

a large board for displaying the score of a contest (and some other information)

screen

partition consisting of a decorative frame or panel that serves to divide a space

family circle, peanut gallery, second balcony, upper balcony

rearmost or uppermost area in the balcony containing the least expensive seats

segmental arch

a shallow arch; an arch that is less than a semicircle

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Seven Wonders of the World

impressive monuments created in the ancient world that were regarded with awe

shelter

temporary housing for homeless or displaced persons

shingle

a small signboard outside the office of a lawyer or doctor, e.g.

shooting gallery

a building (usually abandoned) where drug addicts buy and use heroin

shot tower

tower of a kind once used to make shot; molten lead was poured through a sieve and dropped into water

shouldered arch

an arch consisting of a horizontal lintel supported at each end by corbels that project into the aperture

signal box, signal tower

a building from which signals are sent to control the movements of railway trains

silo

a cylindrical tower used for storing silage

diminished arch, scheme arch, skeen arch, skene arch

an arch whose height is less than half its width

frame, skeletal frame, skeleton, underframe

the internal supporting structure that gives an artifact its shape

skew arch

an arch whose jambs are not at right angles with the face

skybox

an elevated box for viewing events at a sports stadium

skyscraper

a very tall building with many stories

snow bank, snowbank

a mound or heap of snow

spike

a sharp-pointed projection along the top of a fence or wall (or a dinosaur)

squinch

a small arch built across the interior angle of two walls (usually to support a spire)

steel arch bridge

a steel bridge constructed in the form of an arch

spire, steeple

a tall tower that forms the superstructure of a building (usually a church or temple) and that tapers to a point at the top

stonework

masonry done with stone

stoep, stoop

small porch or set of steps at the front entrance of a house

storage space

the area in any structure that provides space for storage

cyclone cellar, storm cellar, tornado cellar

an underground shelter where you can go until a storm passes

fastness, stronghold

a strongly fortified defensive structure

student union

a building on a college campus dedicated to social and organizational activities of the student body

support

supporting structure that holds up or provides a foundation

supporting tower

a tower that serves to support something

suspension bridge

a bridge that has a roadway supported by cables that are anchored at both ends

tap house, tavern

a building with a bar that is licensed to sell alcoholic drinks

telco building, telecom hotel

a building that houses telecommunications equipment

temple

an edifice devoted to special or exalted purposes

tenon

a projection at the end of a piece of wood that is shaped to fit into a mortise and form a mortise joint

collapsible shelter, tent

a portable shelter (usually of canvas stretched over supporting poles and fastened to the ground with ropes and pegs)

house, theater, theatre

a building where theatrical performances or motion-picture shows can be presented

threshing floor

a floor or ground area for threshing or treading out grain

toll bridge

a bridge where toll is charged for crossing

tooth

something resembling the tooth of an animal

tooth

one of a number of uniform projections on a gear

totem pole

a tribal emblem consisting of a pillar carved and painted with totemic figures; erected by Indian tribes of the northwest Pacific coast

tract housing

housing consisting of similar houses constructed together on a tract of land

trestle bridge

a bridge supported by trestlework

trimmer arch

an arch built between trimmers in a floor (to support the weight of a hearth)

triumphal arch

a monumental archway; usually they are built to commemorate some notable victory

truss bridge

a bridge supported by trusses

Tudor arch, four-centered arch

a low elliptical or pointed arch; usually drawn from four centers

tumbler

a movable obstruction in a lock that must be adjusted to a given position (as by a key) before the bolt can be thrown

turnaround

an area sufficiently large for a vehicle to turn around

turret

a small tower extending above a building

university

establishment where a seat of higher learning is housed, including administrative and living quarters as well as facilities for research and teaching

gallery, veranda, verandah

a porch along the outside of a building (sometimes partly enclosed)

viaduct

bridge consisting of a series of arches supported by piers used to carry a road (or railroad) over a valley

wall

an architectural partition with a height and length greater than its thickness; used to divide or enclose an area or to support another structure

watchtower

an observation tower for a lookout to watch over prisoners or watch for fires or enemies

bagnio, bawdyhouse, bordello, brothel, cathouse, house of ill repute, house of prostitution, sporting house

a building where prostitutes are available

widow’s walk

a lookout atop a coastal house

conformation

a symmetrical arrangement of the parts of a thing

proportion, symmetry

balance among the parts of something

median

a paved or landscaped dividing area between opposing lanes of travel on a highway

mission

a building or compound used by a group carrying out religious and humanitarian work

WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH

  I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.

II.   Structural types of words.

III.   Principles of morphemic analysis.

  IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.

I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.

Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.

Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.

Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.

 Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes  pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.

It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.

The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.

Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.

Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.

Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.

Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.

II. Structural types of words.

The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.

According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.

These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.

But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.

III. Principles of morphemic analysis.

In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.

A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:

un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.

A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

1. un- / gentlemanly

2.   un- / gentleman / — ly

3.   un- / gentle / — man / — ly

4.   un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.

The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number  of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.

According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.

According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree-  in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.

As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or  receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes  re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.

It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.

IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.

The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.

Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.

In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.

Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.

Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.

Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.

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Найти в Wikkipedia статьи с фразой: Word structure in modern english

Princeton’s WordNetRate this definition:3.7 / 6 votes

1. structure, constructionnoun

   a thing constructed; a complex entity constructed of many parts

   «the structure consisted of a series of arches»; «she wore her hair in an amazing construction of whirls and ribbons»

2. structurenoun

   the manner of construction of something and the arrangement of its parts

   «artists must study the structure of the human body»; «the structure of the benzene molecule»

3. structurenoun

   the complex composition of knowledge as elements and their combinations

   «his lectures have no structure»

4. structure, anatomical structure, complex body part, bodily structure, body structurenoun

   a particular complex anatomical part of a living thing

   «he has good bone structure»

5. social organization, social organisation, social structure, social system, structureverb

   the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships

   «the social organization of England and America is very different»; «sociologists have studied the changing structure of the family»

6. structureverb

   give a structure to

   «I need to structure my days»

WiktionaryRate this definition:3.5 / 2 votes

1. structurenoun

   A cohesive whole built up of distinct parts.

   The birds had built an amazing structure out of sticks and various discarded items.

2. structurenoun

   The underlying shape of a solid.

   He studied the structure of her face.

3. structurenoun

   The overall form or organization of something.

4. structurenoun

   A set of rules defining behaviour.

   For some, the structure of school life was oppressive.

5. structurenoun

   Several pieces of data treated as a unit.

   This structure contains both date and timezone information.

6. structurenoun

   Underwater terrain or objects (such as a dead tree or a submerged car) that tend to attract fish

   There’s lots of structure to be fished along the west shore of the lake; the impoundment submerged a town there when it was built.

7. structurenoun

   A body, such as a political party, with a cohesive purpose or outlook.

   The South African leader went off to consult with the structures.

8. structurenoun

   A set along with a collection of finitary functions and relations.

9. structureverb

   To give structure to; to arrange.

Samuel Johnson’s DictionaryRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. Structure

   Etymology: structure, Fr. structura, from structus, Latin.

   1. Act of building; practice of building.

   His son builds on, and never is content,
   Till the last farthing is in structure spent.
   John Dryden.

   2. Manner of building; form; make.

   Several have gone about to inform them, but for want of insight into the structure and constitution of the terraqueous globe, have not given satisfaction.
   John Woodward.

   3. Edifice; building.

   Ecbatana her structure vast there shews,
   And Hecatompylos her hundred gates.
   John Milton.

   High on a rock of ice the structure lay.
   Alexander Pope.

   There stands a structure of majestick frame.
   Alexander Pope.

WikipediaRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. Structure

   A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, minerals and chemicals. Abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space.

Webster DictionaryRate this definition:3.0 / 1 vote

1. Structurenoun

   the act of building; the practice of erecting buildings; construction

2. Structurenoun

   manner of building; form; make; construction

3. Structurenoun

   arrangement of parts, of organs, or of constituent particles, in a substance or body; as, the structure of a rock or a mineral; the structure of a sentence

4. Structurenoun

   manner of organization; the arrangement of the different tissues or parts of animal and vegetable organisms; as, organic structure, or the structure of animals and plants; cellular structure

5. Structurenoun

   that which is built; a building; esp., a building of some size or magnificence; an edifice

6. Etymology: [L. structura, from struere, structum, to arrange, build, construct; perhaps akin to E. strew: cf. F. structure. Cf. Construe, Destroy, Instrument, Obstruct.]

FreebaseRate this definition:2.0 / 1 vote

1. Structure

   Structure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society. From a child’s verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art. In early 20th-century and earlier thought, form often plays a role comparable to that of structure in contemporary thought. The neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer is sometimes regarded as a precursor of the later shift to structuralism and poststructuralism.
   The description of structure implicitly offers an account of what a system is made of: a configuration of items, a collection of inter-related components or services. A structure may be a hierarchy, a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space.

Chambers 20th Century DictionaryRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. Structure

   struk′tūr, n. manner of building: construction: a building, esp. one of large size: arrangement of parts or of particles in a substance: manner of organisation: an organic form.—adj. Struc′tūral, morphological.—n. Structūralisā′tion.—adv. Struc′tūrally, in a structural manner.—adjs. Struc′tured, having a certain structure; Struc′tureless.—adv. Struc′turely, in structure, by construction.—n. Struc′tūrist, one who rears structures. [L. structura—struĕre, structum, to build.]

Editors ContributionRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. structure

   A number of materials, mechanisms, methods to construct.

   The structure of the house was known and created with efficiency.

   Submitted by MaryC on April 22, 2020  

2. ---

   structure

   The various elements of a whole, how the elements connect and their purpose.

   The structure of the property is accurate and demonstrates excellent architectural structures.

   Submitted by MaryC on January 24, 2020  

3. ---

   structure

   To feel, know and understand intuitively what is required and how every facet connects together and works.

   The organisation structure is logical, rational, easy and simple.

   Submitted by MaryC on January 24, 2020  

Matched Categories

1. • Artifact
   • Cognition
   • Constitution
   • Organize

British National Corpus

1. Spoken Corpus Frequency

   Rank popularity for the word ‘structure’ in Spoken Corpus Frequency: #720

2. Written Corpus Frequency

   Rank popularity for the word ‘structure’ in Written Corpus Frequency: #965

3. Nouns Frequency

   Rank popularity for the word ‘structure’ in Nouns Frequency: #211

How to pronounce structure?

How to say structure in sign language?

Numerology

1. Chaldean Numerology

   The numerical value of structure in Chaldean Numerology is: 8

2. Pythagorean Numerology

   The numerical value of structure in Pythagorean Numerology is: 1

Examples of structure in a Sentence

1. The Caixin/Markit Purchasing Managers ‘:

   This shows that previous stimulus policies have begun to take effect, while the economic structure steadily improved, the economy has started to show signs of stabilizing, reducing the need for a further stimulus.

2. Administrator Greg Bickford:

   He just took the roof off the structure, and now he’s compliant, it’s a non-story.

3. Kiyoshi Masui:

   This carries a record within it of the structure of the universe that it has traveled through on its way to get from the source to us, because of this, we think that they are going to be the ultimate tool for studying the universe.

4. Chief Development Officer Thomas Weber:

   The structure is ready, the teams are working and the initial results from road tests are coming in quick succession.

5. John Hocevar:

   The structure of PPE will make it particularly hazardous for marine life, gloves, like plastic bags, can appear to be jellyfish or other types of foods for sea turtles, for example. The straps on masks can present entangling hazards.

Popularity rank by frequency of use

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Translations for structure

From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary

• هيكلArabic
• структураBelarusian
• структураBulgarian
• estructuraCatalan, Valencian
• strukturaCzech
• strwythuroWelsh
• strukturieren, StrukturGerman
• strukturoEsperanto
• estructuraSpanish
• ساختارPersian
• rakennelma, järjestelmä, rakenneFinnish
• structureFrench
• struchtúrIrish
• dèanamh, togailScottish Gaelic
• estruturaGalician
• מתכונת, מבנה, תצורה, מסגרתHebrew
• striktiHaitian Creole
• struktúra, szervezet, felépítés, szerkezetHungarian
• structuraInterlingua
• byggingIcelandic
• מבנהHebrew
• 構造, 構造体Japanese
• structureLatin
• രൂപംMalayalam
• struktur, rangkaMalay
• structureren, structuurDutch
• estruturar, registro, estruturaPortuguese
• структураRussian
• रूपम्Sanskrit
• strukturera, strukturSwedish
• структураUkrainian
• cấu trúcVietnamese

Get even more translations for structure »

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