What is short word formation

Minor
types of word formation mean include reduplication, clipping,
blending, sound interchange, distinctive stress, back-formation and
others.

CLIPPING!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(SHORTENING)

Clipping
as one of minor types of word building consists in the reduction of a
word to one of its parts, e.g.:

• Laboratory
  — lab

• Captain
  — cap

There
are three types of clipping:

1. Back
   clipping is the most common type, in which the beginning is
   retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a
   composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), doc (doctor), exam
   (examination), gas (gasoline).

2. Fore-clipping
   retains the final part. Examples are: phone (telephone).

3. In
   middle clipping, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are:
   flu (influenza), tec (detective).

4. Clipped
   forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound
   most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram),
   op art (optical art). In these cases it is difficult to know whether
   the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a
   blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear.
   According to Bauer (1993), the easiest way to draw the distinction
   is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped
   compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not.

According
to Marchand (1969), clippings are not coined as words belonging to
the standard vocabulary of a language. They originate as terms of a
special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession,
etc. While clipping terms of some influential groups can pass into
common usage, becoming part of Standard English, clippings of a
socially unimportant class or group will remain group slang.

BLENDING

This
type of word building is blending part of two words to form one word
e.g.

• Breakfast
  + lunch = brunch

• Smoke
  + haze = smaze

• Hurry
  + bustle = hustle

The
beginning of one word is added to the end of the other. For example,
brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch. One of the two may be a
whole word if it is short. This is the most common method of
blending.

BACK-FORMATION

Back-formations
are shortened words created from longer words, thus back-formations
may be viewed as a sub-type of clipping.

For
example, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb
resurrect was then backformed hundreds of years later from it by
removing the -ion suffix.

There
is a lot of different examples of back formation in English language:

• air-condition
  from air conditioning

• blockbust
  from blockbuster

• claustrophobe
  from claustrophobia

• darkle
  from darkling

REDUPLICATION

Sapir
observed that nothing is more natural than the prevalence of
reduplication (удвоение)
— the repetition of the base of a word in part or in its entirety. He
observed that, though rare, reduplication is found in English, e.g.:

• goody-goody

• wishy-washy(водянистый)

Rhyme
motivated compounds:

• hurly-burly
  (волненительный)

Ablaut
(change of vowel) motivated compounds:

• tick-tock

• tittle-tattle
  (слухи)

SOUND
INTERCHANGE

Sound
interchange is the way of word building when some sounds are changed
to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English; it was
productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European
languages.

In
many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have
voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced
consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at
the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal position, e.g.
bath — to bathe, life — to live, breath — to breathe etc.

STRESS
INTERCHANGE

Stress
interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic and
French origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs
on the last syllable, e.g. to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port
-`export.

SOUND
IMITATION

It
is the way of word building when imitating different sounds forms a
word. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of
sound imitation:

• Sounds
  produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble,
  to sneeze, to whistle etc.

• Sounds
  produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss (шипеть),
  to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter (щебетать)
  etc.

• Sounds
  produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle
  (шелестеть),
  to clatter (грохотать)
  etc.

MORPHOLOGICAL
VARIATIONs

Morphological
variation takes place when different derivational morphemes are used
without changing the word’s meaning.

• Academic,
  academicals

• Morphologic,
  morphological

LEXICAL
VARIATIONS

Lexical
variations are determined by different registers:

• formal
  / informal

• spoken
  / written

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In linguistics, clipping, also called truncation or shortening,^[1] is word formation by removing some segments of an existing word to create a synonym.^[2] Clipping differs from abbreviation, which is based on a shortening of the written, rather than the spoken, form of an existing word or phrase. Clipping is also different from back-formation, which proceeds by (pseudo-)morpheme rather than segment, and where the new word may differ in sense and word class from its source.^[3]

Creation[edit]

According to Hans Marchand, clippings are not coined as words belonging to the core lexicon of a language.^[2] They originate as jargon or slang of an in-group, such as schools, army, police, and the medical profession. For example, exam(ination), math(ematics), and lab(oratory) originated in school slang; spec(ulation) and tick(et = credit) in stock-exchange slang; and vet(eran) and cap(tain) in army slang. Clipped forms can pass into common usage when they are widely useful, becoming part of standard English, which most speakers would agree has happened with math/maths, lab, exam, phone (from telephone), fridge (from refrigerator), and various others. When their usefulness is limited to narrower contexts, they remain outside the standard register. Many, such as mani and pedi for manicure and pedicure or mic/mike for microphone, occupy a middle ground in which their appropriate register is a subjective judgment, but succeeding decades tend to see them become more widely used.

Types[edit]

According to Irina Arnold [ru], clipping mainly consists of the following types:^[4]

• Final clipping or apocope
• Initial clipping, apheresis, or procope
• Medial clipping or syncope
• Complex clipping, creating clipped compounds

Final and initial clipping may be combined and result in curtailed words with the middle part of the prototype retained, which usually includes the syllable with primary stress. Examples: fridge (refrigerator), Polly (Apollinaris), rona (coronavirus), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective); also flu (which omits the stressed syllable of influenza), jams (retaining the binary noun -s of pajamas/pyjamas) or jammies (adding diminutive -ie).

Final[edit]

In a final clipping, the most common type in English, the beginning of the prototype is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples include ad and advert (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), fax (facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo (memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music), and clit (clitoris).^[5]: 109 An example of apocope in Israeli Hebrew is the word lehit, which derives from להתראות lehitraot, meaning «see you, goodbye».^[5]: 155

Initial[edit]

Initial (or fore) clipping retains the final part of the word. Examples: bot (robot), chute (parachute), roach (cockroach), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university), net (Internet).

Medial[edit]

Words with the middle part of the word left out are few. They may be further subdivided into two groups: (a) words with a final-clipped stem retaining the functional morpheme: maths (mathematics), specs (spectacles); (b) contractions due to a gradual process of elision under the influence of rhythm and context. Thus, fancy (fantasy), ma’am (madam), and fo’c’sle may be regarded as accelerated forms.

Complex[edit]

Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1983),^[6] the easiest way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro—am, photo op, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

23.11.19

What is Word Formation?

Word formation process is subject of morphology where we learn how new words are formed. In linguistics, word formation process is the creation of a new word by making changes in existing words or by creating new words. In other words, it refers to the ways in which new words are made on the basis of other words.

Different Forms of Word Formation

Word Formation process is achieved by different ways to create a new word that includes; coinage, compounding, borrowing, blending, acronym, clipping, contraction, backformation, affixation and conversion.

Compounding

Compounding is a type of word formation where we join two words side by side to create a new word. It is very common type of word formation in a language. Some time we write a compound word with a hyphen between two words and some time we keep a space and sometime we write them jointly. All these three forms are common in all languages.

Common examples of word compounding are:

·         Part + time = part-time

·         Book + case = bookcase

·         Low + paid = low-paid

·         Door + knob = doorknob

·         Finger + print = fingerprint

·         Wall + paper = wallpaper

·         Sun + burn = sunburn

·         Text + book = textbook

·         Good + looking = good-looking

·         Ice + cream = Ice-cream

Borrowing

In word formation process, borrowing is the process by which a word from one language is adapted for use in another language. The word that is borrowed is called a borrowing, a loanword, or a borrowed word. It is also known as lexical borrowing. It is the most common source of new words in all languages.

Common Examples of borrowed words in English language are:

·         Dope (Dutch)

·         Croissant (French)

·         Zebra (Bantu)

·         Lilac (Persian)

·         Pretzel (German)

·         Yogurt (Turkish)

·         Piano (Italian)

·         Sofa (Arabic)

·         Tattoo (Tahitian)

·         Tycoon (Japanese)

Blending

Blending is the combination of two separate words to form a single new word. It is different from compounding where we add two words side by side to make a new word but in blending we do not use both words in complete sense but new/derived word has part of both words e.g. word smog and fog are different words and when we blend them to make a new word, we use a part of each word to make a new word that is smog. We took first two letters from first word (sm) from smoke and last two (og) from fog to derive a new word smog.

Some more examples of blending are:

·         Smoke + murk=smurk

·         Smoke + haze= smaze

·         Motel (hotel + motor)

·         Brunch (breakfast + lunch )

·         Infotainment ( information + entertainment)

·         Franglais ( French + English)

·         Spanglish (Spanish + English )

.

Abbreviations

Abbreviation is a process where we create a new word by making a change in lexical form of a word keeping same meaning. There are three main types of abbreviations.

1.    Clipping / Shortening / Truncation

2.    Acronyms / Initialism

3.    Contraction

Clipping / Shortening / Truncation

Clipping is the type of word formation where we use a part of word instead of whole word. This form of word formation is used where there is a long/multi-syllable word and to save time we use a short one instead of that long word e.g. the word advertisement is a long word and we use its short form ad (ads for plural form) instead of whole word.

Here are some examples of clipping:

·         Ad from advertisement

·         Gas from gasoline

·         Exam from examination

·         Cab from cabriolet

·         Fax from facsimile

·         Condo from condominium

·         Fan from fanatic

·         Flu from Influenza

·         Edu from education

·         Gym from gymnasium

·         Lab from laboratory

Acronyms / Initialism

An acronym is a word or name formed as an abbreviation from the initial letters in a phrase or a multi syllable word (as in Benelux). The initials are pronounced as new single words. Commonly derived word are written in upper case e.g. NATO.

Some common examples of acronyms are:

·         CD is acronym of compact disk

·         VCR is acronym of  video cassette recorder

·         NATO is acronym of North Atlantic Treaty Organization

·         NASA is acronym of National Aeronautics and Space Administration

·         ATM is acronym of  Automatic Teller Machine

·         PIN is acronym of Personal Identification Number

Some time the word is written in lower case (Initial letter capital when at start of sentence)

·         Laser is acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

·         Scuba is acronym of  Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

·         Radar  is acronym of Radio Detecting And Ranging

Contraction

A contraction is a word formed as an abbreviation from a word. Contractions are abbreviations in which we omit letters from the middle of a word or more than one words.

Some common contractions are below:

·         Dr is from Doctor.

·         St is from Saint.

·         He’s from He is.

·         I’ve is from I have.

Affixation

Affixation is the word formation process where a new word is created by adding suffix or prefix to a root word. The affixation may involve prefixes, suffixes, infixes. In prefixes, we add extra letters before root word e.g. re+right to make a new word rewrite. In suffix, we add some extra letters with a base/root word e.g. read+able. In infixes, the base word is changed in its form e.g. the plural of woman is women that creates new word “women”.

1.    Prefixes: un+ plug = unplug

2.    Suffixes: cut + ie = cutie

3.    Infixes: man + plural = men

Zero-derivation (Conversion)

Zero-derivation, or conversion, is a derivational process that forms new words from existing words. Zero derivation, is a kind of word formation involving the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in form, which is to say, derivation using only zero. Zero-derivation or conversion changes the lexical category of a word without changing its phonological shape. For example, the word ship is a noun and we use it also as a verb. See below sentences to understand it.

1.    Beach hotel has a ship to enjoy honeymoon.

2.    Beach hotel will ship your luggage in two days.

In first sentence, the word ship is a noun and in second sentence the word ship (verb) is derived from the action of ship (noun) that transports luggage, so the word ship (verb) has meaning of transportation.

Backformation

Backformation is the word formation process where a new word is derived by removing what appears to be an affix. When we remove last part of word (that looks like suffix but not a suffix in real) from a word it creates a new word.

Some very familiar words are below:

·         Peddle from peddler

·         Edit from editor

·         Pea from pease

Coinage / Neologism

It is also a process of word formation where new words (either deliberately or accidentally) are invented. This is a very rare process to create new words, but in the media and industry, people and companies try to surpass others with unique words to name their services or products.

Some common examples of coinage are: Kodak, Google, Bing, Nylon etc.

Eponyms

In word formation process, sometime new words are derives by based on the name of a person or a place. Some time these words have attribution to a place and sometime the words are attributes to the things/terms who discover/invent them. For example, the word volt is electric term that is after the name of Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.

Some common examples of eponyms are:

·         Hoover: after the person who marketed it

·         Jeans: after a city of Italy Genoa

·         Spangle: after the person who invented it

·         Watt: after the name of scientist James Watt

·         Fahrenheit:  after the name of German scientist Gabriel Fahrenheit

Minor types of word-formation Lecture 9.

§1. Shortening / clipping — significant subtraction, in which part of the original word or word group is taken away. — the reduction of a word to one of its parts (whether or not this part has previously been a morpheme), as a result of which the new form acquires some linguistic value of its own. demo from demonstration fridge from refrigerator vac from vacuum cleaner

Causes of shortening «the strain of modern life» the demands of rhythm loan word assimilation Need for stylistic/emotional colouring

Characteristics of the new word No phonetic changes, but may be spelling changes dub (double), mike (microphone), trank (tranquilizer) Give rise to new words vacuum cleaner → a vac → to vac fancy n (from fantasy), fancy v, fancier n, fanciful a, fancifully adv, fancifulness n, fancy-ball n, fancy-dress n, fancy-work (a word-family) Belongs to the same part of speech as the prototype. Usually follows the syllabic principle of word division, pep (sl.) ‘vigour’, ‘spirit’ from pepper, or plane from aeroplane exceptions: prep (school sl.) ‘homework’ from preparation Have pronounced stylistic colouring as long as their connection with the prototype is alive, so that they remain synonyms hanky from handkerchief; ma from mama; nightie from nightdress (nursery slang)

Typical English patterns Most shortened words are nouns Verbs are rarely shortened, but for to rev from to revolve and to tab from to tabulate to phone, to taxi, to vac, to vet are not curtailed, but converted words Shortened adjectives are very few and mostly reveal a combined effect of shortening and suffixation comfy (comfortable), dilly (delightful), imposs (impossible), mizzy (miserable)

The correlation of a curtailed word with its prototype The curtailed form is a variant or a synonym differing from the full form quantitatively, stylistically and sometimes emotionally doc (doctor), exam (examination), Becky (Rebecca), Frisco (San Francisco), Japs (the Japanese). can substitute their prototypes render one of the possible meanings of the prototype (are monosemantic) to dub (from double) ‘to make another sound recording in a cinema film in a different language’. The curtailed form is a separate word, the denotative or lexico-grammatical meaning of it being very different fan (from a fanatic); fancy (fantasy); miss (mistress). develop semantic structures of their own

Types of shortening According to the clipped part: final clipping (or apocope) ad, advert (advertisement); coke (coca-cola); ed (editor); fab (fabulous) initial clipping (or aphesis) creates separate lexical units with a meaning very different from that of the prototype cute a, n (Am) (acute); to mend (amend); a story (history); to tend (attend). Final and initial clipping may be combined (only the middle part remains). flu (influenza); frig or fridge (refrigerator); tec (detective) medial clipping (or syncope) maths (mathematics), specs (spectacles)

§ 2. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words considered essential for grammatical completeness but not for the conveyance of the intended lexical meaning (shortening of phrases chiefly set expressions). sitdown (sitdown demonstration) daily (daily newspaper) finals (final examinations) perm (permanent wave) pop (popular music)

§ 3. Blending / telescoping Blends (fusions, portmanteau words) are words that combine two words and include the letters or sounds they have in common as a connecting element. They have the first constituent represented by a stem whose final part may be missing, and the second constituent — by a stem of which the initial part is missing.

br unch eakfast l + = brunch Bit (the fundamental unit of information) short for binary digit bloodalyzer and breathalyzer for apparatuses making blood and breath tests slimnastics (blend of slim and gymnastics)

Types of blends Additive blends transformable into a phrase consisting of the respective complete stems combined by the conjunction and: smoke + fog = smog ‘a mixture of smoke and fog’. French + English = Frenglish slang + language = slanguage Restrictive blends transformable into an attributive phrase where the first element serves as modifier of the second medicare ← medical care; positron ← positive electron; telecast ← television broadcast motel ← motorists’ hotel

§ 4. Abbreviation and acronymy words formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the successive parts of a phrasal term

Types of orthoepic correlation between written and spoken forms 1) Acronym is a written form which reads as an ordinary English word UNO [‘junou] — United Nations Organization NATO — the North Atlantic Treaty Organization SALT — Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. laser — light amplification by stimulated emission radiation

2) Initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading, i.e. pronounced as a series of letters. B.B.C. [‘bi:’bi:’si:] — the British Broadcasting Corporation M.P. [’em’pi:] — Member of Parliament P.M. — Prime Minister S.O.S. [‘es’ou’es] — Save Our Souls, a wireless Morse code-signal of extreme distress

3) Shortened form of a written word or phrase used in a text in place of the whole for economy of space and effort. In oral speech the unabbreviated words are pronounced bldg for building, govt for government, wd for word ltd for limited, B.A. for Bachelor of Arts, N.Y. for New York State some with alteration oz (ounce); Xmas (Christmas) doubling of initial letters shows plural forms pp/p.p. (pages)

4) Latin abbreviations which sometimes are not read as Latin words but substituted by their English equivalents. a.m. (Lat ante meridiem) — in the morning; cf. (Lat conferre) — compare; e.g. (Lat exempli gratia) — for example; ib(id) (Lat ibidem) — in the same place; i.e. (Lat id est) — that is Actual letters are also read in the cases: a.m. [‘ei’em], e.g., i.e., p.m.

5) abbreviations for famous persons’ names and surnames George Bernard Shaw is often alluded to as G.B.S. [‘d3i:’bi:’es] Herbert George Wells as H.G 6) the first element is a letter and the second a complete word. A-bomb (atomic bomb), V-sign 7) popular (or jocular) etymology Jeep ‘a small military motor vehicle’ comes from g.p. [‘d3i:’pi:l (the initials of general purpose). Okay, OK may be an illiterate misinterpretation of the initials in all correct

§ 5. Sound interchange an opposition in which words or word forms are differentiated due to an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root. the root vowel change food – to feed root consonant change to speak — speech life – to live full – to fill; whole – to heal; knot – to knit; tale – to tell to bear — burden; to bite — a bit; to ride – a road; to believe – a belief

§ 6. Distinctive stress In English homographic, mostly disyllabic nouns and verbs of Romanic origin follow one pattern: ′conduct (“behaviour”) to con′duct (“to lead or guide (in a formal way)” accent, impact, compound, conflict, contest, contract, contrast, convict, digest, import, increase, insult, object (subject, project), perfume, permit, present, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, survey.

Verbs retained this stress as many native disyllabic verbs were also stressed in this way: be′come, be’lieve for’bid, for’get, for’give. The native nouns are mostly forestressed and in the process of assimilation many loan nouns came to be stressed on the first syllable. Same pattern is valid for adjectives and verbs: ‘absent – to ab’sent; ‘frequent — to fre’quent; ‘perfect – to per’fect; ‘abstract – to ab’stract.

It is NOT a regular pattern! Forestressed verbs and nouns: comment, exile, figure, quarrel, focus, process, program Verbs and nouns with the stress on the second syllable both: accord, account, advance, amount, approach, attack, attempt, concern, defeat, distress, escape, exclaim, research

§ 7. Sound imitation (onomatopoeia or echoism) is the naming of an action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a sound associated with it. babble, blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush, splash These words don’t reflect the real sounds directly, because the same sounds are represented differently in different languages They are very expressive and sometimes it is difficult to tell a noun from an interjection.

Mostly they name sounds or movements in verb category, but verbs easily turn into nouns: bang, boom, bump, hum, rustle, smack Semantically: sounds produced by human beings in the process of communication or in expressing their feelings: babble, chatter, giggle, grunt, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whine, whisper sounds produced by animals, birds and insects: buzz, croak, crow, howl, moo, mew, neigh, purr, roar the sound of water bubble or splash the noise of metallic things: clink, tinkle noise of forceful motion: clash, crash, whack, whip, whisk

§ 8. Back-formation the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure has only diachronic relevance beggar → to beg, butler → to butle, typewriter → to typewrite pea comes from ME pese ← Lat pisa, but the English speakers thought that sweet peas(e) was a plural and turned the combination peas(e) soup into pea soup cherry from OFr cerise The most productive type of back-formation in present-day English is derivation of verbs from compounds that have either -er or -ing as their last element.

Practical task # 8 1. Match the words and the types of word-formation at work in each case: loss (←lose) to vacuum-clean to hiss radar (radio detection and ranging) hi-tech (style) a granny a docudrama distinctive stress ellipsis Clipping Blending Sound interchange Acronymy Abbreviation Back-formation Sound imitation

2. Is BRUNCH an additive or a restrictive blend? 3.Give a TRUE or False answer Acronyms differ from abbreviations in that they can be read as ordinary words. All borrowed disyllabic verbs, when converted into nouns, shift the stress to the first syllable following a common English pattern. Sound interchange is a currently productive pattern of word-formation. The word “weekly” with the meaning “a weekly newspaper is an abbreviation.