Содержание
Словосочетание
Словосочетание / группа слов (phrase / word-combination) — это комбинация слов, которое играет определённую роль в грамматической структуре предложения. Словосочетание может не иметь законченного значения или смысла за пределами предложения, но оно действует как единое целое (грамматическая единица) и имеет свои внутренние грамматические связи между словами, её образующими:
Классы словосочетаний
Разделение словосочетаний на классы (phrase classes) определяется двумя основными подходами, это классификация словосочетаний основанная на их внутренней структуре и классификация словосочетаний основанная на функции в предложении, которую они выполняют.
Классификация словосочетаний по внутренней структуре
Согласно структурной кларификации за основу в словосочетании берётся слово, принадлежащее к определённому классу слов, это слово выделяется как верша (стержневое слово, главный элемент; англ. head [hed]). Так группа слов существительного, это словосочетание, вершиной которого является существительное, например: существительное «book» является основой именной группы «very interesting book», а «very interesting» — это его зависимые элементы.
Между вершиной и зависимыми могут образовываться различные связи, на основе этих связей выделяют два основных вида зависимых, это модификатор и комплемент.
На основе классификация словосочетаний по внутренней структуре выделяют следующие словосочетания:
Функциональная классификация словосочетаний
-
адвербиальное словосочетание (adverbial phrase) – выполняет функцию наречия, как член предложения — обстоятельство,
-
определительная группа слов – выполняет функцию определителя.
Примеры словосочетаний
Например, в предложении: «For the sake of our future the first place in our living must be taken by our children.» можно выделить следующие группы слов:
-
«for the sake of our future» – обстоятельство, представленное предложной группой слов:
-
«the sake of our future» – именная группа слов:
-
«the sake» – именная группа слов,
-
«of our future» – предложная группа слов:
-
«our future» – именная группа слов,
-
-
-
-
«the first place in our living» – подлежащие, представленное именной группой слов:
-
«the first place» – именная группа слов,
-
«in our living» – предложная группа слов:
-
«our living» – группа слов герундия,
-
-
-
«must be occupied by our children» – сказуемое, представленное глагольной группой слов,
-
«occupied by our children» – группа слов причастия:
-
«by our children» – предложная группа слов:
-
«our children» – именная группа слов.
-
-
-
Если не указано иное, содержание ESL.Wiki предоставляется на условиях лицензии «Creative Commons «Attribution-ShareAlike» (Атрибуция — На тех же условиях) 4.0 Всемирная» (CC BY-SA 4.0)
The
theory of phrase or word combination in linguistics has a long
tradition going back to the 18-th century. According to Russian
scholars the term ‘word combination’ (словосочетание)
can be applied only to such groups of words which contain at least
two notional words forming a grammatical unit. Thus Soviet linguists
restrict the use of the term ‘word combination’ to combination of
notional words. Western scholars hold a different view of the
problem. They consider that every combination of two or more words
constitutes a unit which they term ‘phrase’. In other words,
western linguists do not limit the term ‘phrase’ to combination
of notional words and do not draw a sharp distinction between the two
types of word-groups such as ‘wise men’ and ‘to the
lighthouse’. The first and the most important difference of opinion
on the question between soviet and western scholarsconcerns the
constituents of the word groups forming grammatical units.
Another
debatable problem in soviet linguistics was whether a predicative
combination of words forms a word combination.
It
is generally known that a sentence is based on predication and its
purpose in communication. A word combination has no such aim. Word
combinations are more like words because they are employed for naming
things, actions, qualities and so on. In contrast with soviet
linguists some western scholars make no difference between subject –
predicate combinations of words and other word combinations, though
some western theories bear considerable resemblance to Russian ideas.
There’s
no traditional terminology in the works of English and American
scholars discussing combinations of words; and different terms are
used to express the same idea (phrase, combination of words, cluster
of words, word group).
9. The Sentence
When
we speak or write we convey our thougths through sentences. A
sentence is the only unit of language which is capable of expressing
a communication containing some kind of information. But linguistics
is at difficulty to define it. One of the definitions is ‘the
sentence is the smallest communication unit expressing a more or less
complete thought and having a definite grammatical structure and
intonation’. In most sentences intonation functions as part of a
whole system of formal characteristics.
The sentence and the word group (phrase)
Neither
words no word groups can express communication. Cf. the arrival of
the delegation is expected next week (a sentence). It is a structure
in which words are grouped (arranged) according to definite rules
(patterns).
Another
difference between the sentence and the phrase is predicativity.
Predicativity comprises tense and mood components. The sentence
together with predicativity expresses a fact, while a phrase gives a
nomination without time reference:
The
doctor arrived. The doctor’s arrival.
Predication
is a word or combination of words expressing predicativity. Thus the
essential property of sentence is predicativity and intonation.
Classification of Sentences
Sentences
are classified 1) according to the types of communication and 2)
according to their structure.
In
accordance with the types of communication sentences are divided
into:
Declarative
(giving information). E.g. the book is interesting (statement).
Interrogative
(asking for information). E.g. is the book interesting? (question).
Imperative
(asking for action). E.g. give me the book! (command, request).
Each
of these 3 kinds of sentences may be in the affirmative and negative
form, exclamatory and non- exclamatory.
Types of
Sentences According to Structure
I
a) Simple sentences containing one predication (subject-predicate
relationship)
b)
Composite sentences containing one or more predications Composite
sentences are divided into compound and complex sentences.
II.
Simple sentences and main clauses may be two-member and one-member
sentences.
The
two-member sentence pattern is typical of the vast majority of
sentences in English. It is a sentence with full predication. (The
Sun shines. She walks fast).
If
a simple sentence contains the subject and the predicate only, it is
called unextended. E.g. spring came.
If
a sentence comprises secondary parts besides the main parts, it is
called extended. E.g. Dick came home late.
The
one-member sentence contains only one principle part, which is
neither the subject nor the predicate. E.g. Thieves! Fire! A cup of
tea, please! A one-member sentence sometimes resembles a two-member
sentence. E.g. No birds singing in the dawn. It may be complex in
structure: e.g. And what if he had seen them embracing in the
moonlight?
Imperative
sentences with no subject also belong here: Get away from me!
If
the main part is expressed by an infinitive, such a one-member
sentence is called an infinitive sentence: Oh, to be in England!
The
exclamatory character is a necessary feature of these sentences.
Infinitive sentences are very common in represented speech.
Types of
One-member Sentences in English
Nominative
(substantive) E.g. Another day of fog.
Verbal
(Imperative: Don’t believe him! ,Infinitive: Only to think of it!
,Gerundial: No playing with fire!)
Adjectival
one-member sentences: Splendid! How romantic!
Types of
Sentences According to their Completeness
-
Complete
(non-elliptical) sentences. -
Incomplete
(elliptical) sentences.
Elliptical
sentences are such sentences in which one or several parts are
missing as compared with analogous sentences where there is no
ellipsis. Elliptical sentences may freely be changed into complete
sentences, the missing part of the sentence being supplied from the
preceding or following context, by means of intonation: e.g. I sat
near the window, he – near the door (= he sat near the door).
Playing, children? (= are you playing, children?) Cf. A small but
cosy room (a one-member sentence); in the background stands/ is a
little writing table (an elliptical two-member sentence). The main
sphere of elliptical sentences is of course dialogue.
Соседние файлы в папке Gosy
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
Russian is rich in rules and ambiguousinterpretation of words. In order to correctly understand what has been said and build the most competent proposals that other people will understand, it is necessary to know what words one can use with one another and which ones should not be used. It is useful to know what a word combination is, what kind of phrases are in Russian, how to correctly apply them in practice in written and spoken language.
Definition and signs of the phrase
A phrase is a group of two or moreSignificant words that are connected together grammatically and in meaning. In the phrase there is a main word and one or more dependent words. Between the main and dependent words a relationship of a certain kind is always established. If there is no connection between words, then these words are not a word combination. The main signs of such a connection are the common case, gender, etc. A vivid example of illiteracy is the inconsistency in the case of the noun and the adjective, although in meaning they are a phrase.
In order to learn the rules of thiscoordination, it is necessary to understand that such a phrase. The main word in a word combination is an object, a sign or an action, and the dependent word explains or expands the concept of the main. From the main word, you can always formulate a question for the dependent word. For example, the phrase «spring forest». The main word «forest», dependent — «spring». We ask the question from the main word. What forest? — Spring. Therefore, we have done the right analysis of the word combination, it is compiled correctly, the relationship is established, these words are a phrase. In this phrase one word subordinates the other and forms the form of the second word.
Composition of collocations
Phrases are divided into two main types: simple and complex. Simple phrases are formed from two words — from the main and dependent. Complex phrases consist of three or more words or from several simple phrases. This is the most important thing that one must understand when studying that such a phrase is complex. Examples of simple phrases we meet very often in oral speech and in writing. «Wooden table», «smart dog», «grocery store», «steep climb» — these are all examples of simple word combinations. «Wooden table in the corner,» «intelligent dog on a leash,» «grocery store around the corner,» «steep climb near the bridge» — examples of complex word combinations.
Proposal and phrase
Very often confuse the whole sentence andword combination. To understand what the sentence is different from the phrase, it is necessary to know that the subject and the predicate of one sentence form a lexical pair, but do not form a word combination. For example, «The wind blew» — a proposal, and «blowing wind» — a phrase. The «wind» is the subject, the «blow» is the predicate, together these two words form a complete sentence. And the words «blowing» and «wind» are connected by a common masculine gender and nominative case, this phrase.
Continuing to list what is notphrase, it is necessary to mention other members of the sentence. The phrase «homogeneous» members of the sentence is not in the list, in opposition, that is, they are equidistantly connected by a coherent connection: then a birch, a rowanberry; great, but weightless; books, notebooks, pens, pencils.
Compound forms of words and phraseological phrases can also not be called phrases.
Types of word combinations
Phrases are divided into several types independing on which part of the speech is the main word. Studying that such a nominal phrase, one must remember four ways of forming such combinations.
- Named phrase — word combination, inwhich is the main word noun, adjective, numeral or pronoun. Examples of word combinations, where the main word is a noun: late evening, fresh flowers. Examples of word combinations, where the main word is an adjective: necessary for life, useful for health. Examples of word combinations, where the main word is a numeral: seven kids, fifteen schoolchildren. Examples of word combinations, where the main word is a pronoun: someone wise, someone from above.
- A verbal phrase is a phrase,where the main word is a verb or a verbal form — participle or gerund. In the phrase «I’ll go for a walk», «run to the horizon» the main word is a verb. Communion the main word is, for example, in the phrases «a passing kilometer», «flying around the floor». Similarly, it is possible to define phrases with the main word gerund: «sitting in front of the TV», «putting on a dress».
The phrase is traditionally considered an independent syntactic unit, fundamentally different from the sentence. It appears in the language for nominative purposes. A complex name bearing in itself the same nominative function that a word has, is a phrase.
The sentence and the phrase — how to distinguish them?
The difference between the word-combination and the word does not need an explanation. The very name of the term indicates it. And how does the phrase differ from the sentence? First of all, it is a combination of word and word form, the implementation of the obligatory and typically optional faculties. In «Russian grammar-80» the phrase is understood as a semantic-grammatical model of word spreading.
The proposal is an extremely complex and multifaceted unit. Behind each of them are 3 samples: formal, semantic and communicative (pragmatic). The main grammatical meaning of the sentence is predicativity, which makes it possible to correlate information about extralinguistic reality (the fact of communication) with that speech situation in which the utterance is generated (with the act of communication). This is how the phrase differs from the sentence, briefly.
In the syntax, only free phrases are studied, that is, in which the independent lexical meanings of the words included in it are fully preserved. If they are lost, we are dealing with phraseological units that are no longer the subject of grammar.
Construction of word combinations
Phrases are built on a certain historically formed in the language model, that is, reproduced in speech. They have a system of forms of change, a paradigm that completely coincides with the paradigm of the main word (here is another difference of the phrase from the sentence).
They can include not only two components: the main and the dependent (a simple phrase). In a sentence, several components (more than two) can be combined in meaning and grammatically, between which there are different kinds of syntactic dependence.
Types of multicomponent word combinations
They may be:
— combined (consistent submission): buy a desk, my father’s friend;
— complex (parallel submission): widely known in the city, give a friend a book;
— common (with heterogeneous definitions at the main): an antique crystal vase, a juicy uncoated grass;
— merged (formed when the proposal is formed): bought newspapers and magazines, woolen and silk fabrics.
Analysis of word combinations
The first procedure of analysis is to extract a whole word-block from the sentence, define its type and divide it into simple (two-component) blocks.
The second step is the analysis of a simple phrase combination, taking into account many parameters characterizing it according to the following scheme:
1) the initial form;
2) spurious ownership of the main word;
3) the type of syntactic connection and means of expression;
4) the type of syntactic relations;
5) conditionality of the form of the dependent word;
6) model (structural diagram).
Conditionality of the form of the dependent word
The conditional nature of the form of the dependent word can be determined by the grammatical properties of the principal, for example, belonging to a certain class of words (part of speech) or to a particular grammatical category. Thus, the ability to determine with the help of an adjective is inherent in nouns: a cheerful milkman, an old book.
Verbs as a grammatical class of words are determined by qualitative adverbs: work hard, speak loudly. All these phrases are grammatically conditioned. The presence of a dependent form in the accusative case without a preposition is determined by lexico-grammatical properties, the transitivity of the main verb: read the book, drink milk.
The form of the dependent word can be determined by the belonging of the principal to a certain semantic class or lexical-semantic group (LSG). Thus, all words with the meaning of verbal communication form word combinations with a dependent noun in the form of an instrumental with the preposition «c»: to talk with someone, to discuss with someone. Lexems of different parts of speech, including the modal component (possibility, desire, necessity, etc.) in their meaning, have the infinitive of the verb as dependent: to want to learn, we must learn, the desire to learn, ready to learn. All these phrases are semantically conditioned.
Finally, the form of the dependent word can be determined by the individual lexical meaning of the principal. In this case, even representatives of one LSG can form different phrases: selling fruits — selling fruit; Pay for travel — pay for travel; To be proud of another is to bow before a friend. In this case, they speak of lexically conditioned phrases.
The difference from other combinations of words
Knowing how the phrase differs from the sentence, it is necessary to distinguish it from other combinations of words.
As a special syntactic unit with a number of properties and having a language model (structural scheme), it must be distinguished from the following combinations of words in the sentence:
1) from predicative combinations (subject + predicate): the boy runs;
2) from semi-predictive: and he, rebellious, asks for storms;
3) from the co-authors: trees and shrubs grew in the clearing;
4) from the apposition combinations (combination of the application and the word being defined): the student Ivanov went out;
5) from combinations that arise only in the sentence: father and son were very similar.
Knowing how the phrase differs from the sentence and other combinations of words in it, you will intelligently parse and not allow grammatical errors. This is an important point in the study of the «syntax» section, since the above elements are basic in it, and they need to be delimited. We hope, we have explained clearly in this article how to distinguish the word combination from the sentence.
A phrase is a combination of 2 or more words which is a gram. unit, i.e. there exists definite syntagmatic & syntactic relation between the words and the phrase is not supposed to be an analytical form of some word. The constituent elements of the phrase may belong to diff. parts of speech. If there is no semantic, syntactic relation, then it’s not a phrase: He took it badly (phrase), He took it bad (not a phrase). There is a specific type of phrase called syntactic construction. Syntactic constructions are those word-combinations which serve as a separate part of the sentence usually represented by 1 word. It is supposed to display some kind of predicative relation. We saw him cross the street (We saw – predicative relation, him cross – syntactic construction. |The difference between a sentence & a phrase is: 1) they have different functions; 2) a phrase can undergo grammatical changes without destroying itself: write letters – wrote letters – will write letters – it’s 1 phrase. BUT Last year he wrote a lot of letters to our friends – He writes a lot of letters – these are diff. sentences. |Sentence is a predicative unit, its function is predication. It’s a minimum synt. unit used in the communicative speech acts, built up according to some definite structural & intonational patterns & possessing some properties (categories) of the sentence, such as predicativity, modality, temporality, communicativity. |Structurally sentences fall into 2 major groups: 1) simple; 2) composite. |Simple have only 1 predicative relation, i.e. 1 subject & 1 predicate: Children jump and run in the street. |Composite may be compound & complex. |Compound consist of clauses, minimum 2 coordinate clauses; in complex sent-s 1 clause is principal, another 1 – subordinate. |In the speech sent-s do not occur separately, they’re supposed to be connected both semantically-topically & syntactically. These groups of words form textual unities & the process is called cumulation. Units of speech are cumulemes. |These groups may also be called complex syntactic unities or supra-phrasal unities. In the written speech they’re called paragraphs which have their own internal organization, they’re characterized by predicativity & modality. Paragraphs are connected into bigger units – texts. Paragraph groupings are cumulated into whole texts.
25. Syntagmatic relations in syntax. Syntactic relations & syntactic connections
Syntagmas are parts which the sentence may be broken into. Syntactic relations may be of 2 kinds: 1) equipotent (between words related to 1 another on equal basis)=coordinate; 2) dominational (between syntactically unequal words)=subordinate. In the case of equipotent relation the words in the phrase aren’t modified with 1 another, but the 2nd word is modifier of the other. |According to the nature of the headword in the dominational word-combinations phrases can be subdivided into: noun phrases (good friend), verb phrases (to go quickly), pronominal phrases (for him to go), adjectival phrases (very nice), adverbial phrases (very well). Synt.relations have their own connections. Equipotent relations have 2 types of connections: 1) syndetic (deals with conjunctions and, but, or); 2) asyndetic (realised through comma: no moon, no stars). Dominational have 4 types: 1) agreement (concord) – the headword & the adjunct must have the same grm.form: this girl – these girls; 2) government – subordinate word is used in the form required by the headword but not coinciding to it: We invited him to the party (not he); 3) attachment (adjoinment) – there must exist some syntactic relations between words: to run quickly (not brightly); 4) enclosure – 1 element of the phrase is enclosed between the elements of the other which is usually headword: the then president.
27. Predicative word-combinations. Primary and secondary predication. Infinitival, participial and gerundial construction, their function in the sentence
Predicative word-combinations are those consisting of N+V and displaying some kind of predicative relation (the relation between subject and predicate of the phrase) man writes-man wrote. If this noun & verb in predicative phrase coincide with subject & predicate of the sentence this type of predication is called primary. If it isn’t the case our phrase will present secondary nomination: The lessons over(secondary),everybody went(primary predication) home. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case; the noun or pronoun is not the subject of the sentence. The door and window of the vacant room being open, we looked in. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier: (a)of time (b)of cause (c)of attendant circumstances. (d)of condition. The Nominative Absolute Construction is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time or attendant circumstances. In the function of an adverbial modifier of time this construction is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the Objective Participial Construction Participle 1 Indefinite Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object. Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the participle. The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle I) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence. The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.
The Objective-with-the-infinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object, The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate. Edith is said to resemble me. The for-to- Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition for. The construction can have different functions in the sentence. It can be:1. Subject (often with the introductory it). 2. Predicative. 3. Complex object. 4. Attribute. 5. Adverbial modifier; (a) of purpose. (b) of result. Predicative constructions with the gerund. Like all the verbals the gerund can form predicative constructions, i. e. constructions in which the verbal element expressed by the gerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element expressed by a noun or pronoun. I don’t like your going off without any money. The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in different ways.1. If it denotes a living being it may be expressed: (a) by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun, b) by a noun in the common case.2. If the nominal element of the construction denotes a lifeless thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common case (such nouns, as a rule, are not used in the genitive case) or by a possessive pronoun. I said something about my clock being slow. 3. The nominal element of the construction can also be expressed by a pronoun which has no case distinctions, such as all, this, that, both, each, something. I insist on both of them coming in time. Again Michael… was conscious of something deep and private stirring within himself.
|
Практические расчеты на срез и смятие При изучении темы обратите внимание на основные расчетные предпосылки и условности расчета… |
Функция спроса населения на данный товар Функция спроса населения на данный товар: Qd=7-Р. Функция предложения: Qs= -5+2Р,где… |
Аальтернативная стоимость. Кривая производственных возможностей В экономике Буридании есть 100 ед. труда с производительностью 4 м ткани или 2 кг мяса… |
Вычисление основной дактилоскопической формулы Вычислением основной дактоформулы обычно занимается следователь. Для этого все десять пальцев разбиваются на пять пар… |
