What is loan word

Examples and related termsEdit

Linguistic classificationEdit

In EnglishEdit

Languages other than EnglishEdit

Cultural aspectsEdit

Leaps in meaningEdit

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

SourcesEdit

External linksEdit

A language, like the people who speak it, cannot exist in isolation. The original words, peculiar only to one or another language, constitute its basis. But just as the mutual influence of cultures, traditions and economic realities of countries that have long and fruitfully cooperating with each other is inevitable, so the mutual influence of the linguistic environment of the peoples living in these countries is inevitable. Therefore, in each language there is a certain percentage of words that were born in another language, but came into use. The Russian language is, of course, no exception.

Reasons for borrowing

Borrowed in Russian are words that have a foreign language origin, but are used in oral or written speech by people who speak Russian. The reasons for borrowing words from other languages can be divided into external and internal.

External reasons include situations when an object was introduced into the everyday life of the people, previously unknown to this people. Along with the object, its name «came», for example, such things as a drum, a cauldron, an iPad came into our life along with the names.

Another external reason for borrowing was the use of a foreign word to designate some specific object or phenomenon, if it was impossible to find an exact analogue in Russian or it turned out to be too cumbersome. So, when creating the first theaters in Russia, the very word «theater» was borrowed, replacing the original Russian word «disgrace», meaning a spectacle, a performance in general, and over time, and changed its meaning.

Internal reasons for borrowing include the need to name in one word a phenomenon or an object that has a descriptive analogue in Russian, for example, «cruise» instead of «a journey involving visiting several settlements, starting and ending at the same point.» In addition, words are borrowed that have a similar grammatical structure with those already familiar. So, to the words “policeman” and “gentleman” borrowed in the 19th century, such later borrowings as a businessman, a yachtsman, an athlete were easily and organically “added”. And finally, at a certain period of history, the use of foreign words becomes fashionable. So, in modern society, words such as «security» instead of «guard», «teenager» instead of «teenager», etc. are actively used.

What languages were words borrowed from?

In different eras, words were most actively borrowed from different linguistic cultures. This depended on which countries and peoples Russia had in that historical period the most developed cultural and economic ties.

In the pre-Christian era, the most widespread were borrowings from the languages of related Slavic peoples, with whom the Rusich tribes conducted active trade, and sometimes even fought. So, borrowings from the languages of other Slavic peoples, as well as from the Turkic languages, are considered the most ancient.

A separate group was made up of the so-called Old Slavicisms — words taken from the Old Slavonic written language used for Orthodox divine services and the recording of theological texts. Their «arrival» in the Russian language is associated with the adoption of Christianity.

During the development of science, words borrowed from Latin and Greek were actively used. This is explained by the fact that most of the medieval Western texts of scientific content were written in Latin. And Latin, in turn, actively used the earlier Greek terminology.

After the 17th century, when Russia began to conduct active trade and cultural exchange with the countries of Western Europe, words from German and French began to come into the Russian language in large numbers. These were military, trade, art history and scientific terms, as well as words that reflected the changed life of the nobility. And if at first borrowings from the German language prevailed, then by the 19th century most of the borrowed words were of French origin. And this is not surprising: sometimes in the upper strata of society they were more fluent in French than their native Russian.

Recently, most of the borrowings have come into the Russian language from the English language. English is currently one of the most widely used languages of interethnic communication, so the process of English borrowing is historically logical.

Developed and untapped borrowing

Many words that came from other languages are already perceived by Russian speakers as «native». Sometimes the information that the words «notebook» or «sundress» are borrowed is surprising. Such borrowings are called mastered.

In addition to them, there are also so-called undeveloped borrowings. These include words denoting objects and phenomena that are not characteristic of Russian culture (exoticism), foreign language inclusions, which sometimes retain a foreign spelling or are written in Russian letters, but do not lend themselves to the general rules for changing Russian words, as well as internationalisms, i.e. words that sound the same in many unrelated languages.

In lexicology, a loanword (also spelled loan word) is a word (or lexeme) imported into one language from another language. These words are also called a borrowed word or a borrowing. The term loanword, from the German Lehnwort, is an example of a calque or loan translation. The terms loanword and borrowing are, at best, imprecise. As countless linguists have pointed out, it’s extremely unlikely that a borrowed word will ever be returned to the donor language.

Over the past 1,500 years, English has adopted words from more than 300 other languages. «Loanwords make up a huge proportion of the words in any large dictionary of English,» notes Philip Durkin in Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. «They also figure largely in the language of everyday communication and some are found even among the most basic vocabulary of English.»

Loanwords in Academics

Scholars such as Lyle Campbell and Philip Durkin as well as Ugandan-born British linguist Francis Katamba and even author and linguistic researcher Kerry Maxwell have commented on and explained loanwords. Read on to view what they said on the subject.

Lyle Campbell

«[One] reason why words are taken over from another language is for prestige, because the foreign term for some reason is highly esteemed. Borrowings for prestige are sometimes called ‘luxury’ loans. For example, English could have done perfectly well with only native terms for ‘pig flesh/pig meat’ and ‘cow flesh/cow meat,’ but for reasons of prestige, pork (from French porc) and beef (from French boeuf) were borrowed, as well as many other terms of ‘cuisine’ from French—cuisine itself is from French cuisine ‘kitchen’—because French had more social status and was considered more prestigious than English during the period of Norman French dominance in England (1066-1300).»

Philip Durkin

«Among Spanish loanwords that are likely to be used by most speakers of contemporary English without particular consciousness of their Spanish origin, and certainly not with reference only to Spanish-speaking cultures, are: machete (1575), mosquito (1572), tobacco (1577), anchovy (1582), plantain ‘type of banana’ (1582; 1555 as platano), alligator (1591); earlier lagarto)…, (probably) cockroach (1624), guitar (a. 1637, perhaps via French), castanet (1647; perhaps via French), cargo (1657), plaza (1673), jerk ‘to cure (meat)’ (1707), flotilla (1711), demarcation (1728; perhaps via French), aficionado (1802), dengue (1828; the ulterior etymology is uncertain), canyon (1837), bonanza (1844), tuna (1881), oregano (1889).»

«Today English borrows words from other languages with a truly global reach. Some examples that the Oxford English Dictionary suggests entered English during the past 30 years include tarka dal, a creamy Indian lentil dish (1984, from Hindi), quinzhee, a type of snow shelter (1984, from Slave or another language of the Pacific Coast of North America), popiah, a type of Singaporean or Malaysian spring roll (1986, from Malay), izakaya, a type of Japanese bar serving food (1987), affogato, an Italian dessert made of ice cream and coffee (1992)…

«Some words slowly build up in frequency. For instance, the word sushi [from Japanese] is first recorded in English in the 1890s, but the earliest examples in print all feel the need to explain what sushi is, and it is only in recent decades that it has become ubiquitous, as sushi has spread along the high street and into supermarket chiller cabinets in most corners of the English-speaking world. But, commonplace though sushi may be today, it hasn’t made its way into the inner core of English in the same way as words like peace, war, just, or very (from French) or leg, sky, take, or they (from Scandinavian languages).»

Francis Katamba

«By using a particular language, bilingual speakers may be saying something about how they perceive themselves and how they wish to relate to their interlocutor. For instance, if a patient initiates an exchange with a doctor in the doctor’s surgery in Yiddish, that may be a signal of solidarity, saying: you and I are members of the same sub-group. Alternatively, rather than choosing between languages, these two people may prefer code-switching. They may produce sentences which are partly in English and partly in Yiddish. If foreign words are used habitually in code-switching, they may pass from one language into another and eventually become fully integrated and cease being regarded as foreign. That is probably how words like chutzpah (brazen impudence), schlemiel (a very clumsy, bungling idiot who is always a victim), schmaltz (cloying, banal sentimentality) and goyim (gentile) passed from Yiddish into (American) English. The fact that there is no elegant English equivalent to these Yiddish words was no doubt also a factor in their adoption.»

Kerry Maxwell

«A tongue-in-cheek alternative to ringxiety is ‘fauxcellarm,’ an ingenious blend of the French loan word faux, meaning ‘false,’ cell, from cellphone, and alarm, which when spoken out loud sounds similar to ‘false alarm.’»

Loanwords in Popular Culture

The late British actor Geoffrey Hughes also provided an explanation of how loanwords work in a variety of languages, as the following quote from the soap opera star who also provided the voice of Paul McCartney in the film «Yellow Submarine,» shows.

Geoffrey Hughes

«A threefold distinction derived from German is applied by scholars to loan words on the basis of their degree of assimilation in the new host language. A Gastwort (‘guest word’) retains its original pronunciation, spelling, and meaning. Examples are passé from French, diva from Italian, and leitmotiv from German. A Fremdwort (‘foreign word’) has undergone partial assimilation, as have French garage and hotel. Garage has developed a secondary, Anglicized pronunciation (‘garrij’) and can be used as a verb; hotel, originally pronounced with a silent ‘h,’ as the older formulation an hotel shows, has for some time been pronounced like an English word, with the ‘h’ being sounded. Finally, a Lehnwort (‘loan word’) has become a virtual native in the new language with no distinguishing characteristics. Loan word is thus an example of itself.»

Sources

• Philip Durkin, Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English, 2014
• Geoffrey Hughes, A History of English Words. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, 2000
• Lyle Campbell, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed. MIT Press, 2004
• Philip Durkin, «Does English Still Borrow Words From Other Languages?» BBC News, February 3, 2014
• Francis Katamba, English Words: Structure, History, Usage, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2005
• Kerry Maxwell, «Word of the Week.» Macmillan English Dictionary, February 2007

The
term loan-word
is
equivalent to borrowing.
By
translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are
not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the
same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own
language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious
that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems)
which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being
translated separately: masterpiece
(from
Germ. Meisterstück),
wonder child (from
Germ. Wunderkind),
first dancer (from
Ital. prima-ballerina),
collective farm (from
R. колхоз),
five-year
plan (from
R. пятилетка).
The
Russian колхоз
was
borrowed twice, by way of translation-loan (collective
farm) and
by way of direct borrowing (kolkhoz).
The
case is not unique. During the 2^nd
World
War the German word Blitzkrieg
was
also borrowed into English in two different forms: the
translation-loan lightning-war
and
the direct borrowings blitzkrieg
and
blitz.

6. Etymological doublets. International words.

Etymological
doublets.
Sometimes the word is borrowed twice from the same language. As a
result we have 2 different words with different spellings and
meanings. But historically they come back to one and the same word.
They are called etymological doublets. The words shirt
and
skirt
etymologically
descend from the same root. Shirt
is
a native word, and skirt
is
a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet
there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin.
Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both
denote articles of clothing. They may enter the vocabulary by
different routes. Some of these pairs, like shirt
and
skirt,
consist
of a native word and a borrowed word: shrew,
n.
(E.) —
screw,
n.
(Sc.). Others are represented by two borrowings from different
languages which are historically descended from the same root: senior
(Lat.)
—
sir
(Fr.),
canal
(Lat.)
—
channel
(Fr.),
captain
(Lat.)
—
chieftan
(Fr.).
Still others were borrowed from the same language twice, but in
different periods: corpse
[ko:ps]
(Norm. Fr.) —
corps
[ko:]
(Par. Fr.), travel
(Norm.
Fr.) —
travail
(Par.
Fr.), cavalry
(Norm.
Fr.) —
chivalry
(Par.
Fr.), gaol
(Norm.
Fr.) —
jail
(Par.
Fr.). Etymological
triplets (i.
e. groups of three words of common root) occur rarer, but here are at
least two examples: hospital
(Lat.)
—
hostel
(Norm.
Fr.) —
hotel
(Par.
Fr.), to
capture (Lat.)
—
to
catch (Norm.
Fr.) —
to
chase (Par.
Fr.). A doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from
which it was derived (see Ch. 6
for
a description of shortening as a type of word-building): history
—
story,
fantasy —
fancy,
fanatic —
fan,
defence —
fence,
courtesy —
curtsy,
shadow —
shade.
There
also can be etymological triplets – 3 words in the language having
the same source: hospital (Lat.) – hostel (Norman) – hotel (Fr.).
International
words.
It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages,
and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are
significant in the field of communication. Many of them are of Latin
and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are international, e. g.
philosophy,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics,
lexicology. There
are also numerous terms of art: music,
theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna. Political
terms frequently occur in the international group of borrowings:
politics,
policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism.
20th
c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of
new international words: atomic,
antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The
latter is a Russian borrowing, and it became an international word
(meaning a man-made satellite) in 1961,
immediately
after the first space flight by Yury Gagarin. The English language
also contributed a considerable number of international words to
world languages, such as sports terms: football,
volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.
Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport
their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries,
become international: coffee,
cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.
International
words are mainly borrowings.

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Asked by: Brittany Cartwright DVM

Score: 4.6/5
(66 votes)

Loanwords are not only recognized as the most common of language contact phenomena but also occupy an important position in general linguistics due to the evidence they bring to our understanding of the grammatical structure of language and to the theory of language change and historical linguistics.

What is an English loanword?

in the History of English. Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. … They simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in.

Which language has the most loanwords?

Since World War II, English has become by far the leading exporter of “loanwords,” as they’re known, including nearly universal terms like “OK,” “Internet,” and “hamburger.” The extent to which a language loans words is a measure of its prestige, said Martin Haspelmath, a linguist at the Max Planck Institute.

What is loanword phonology?

Loanword Phonology is the study of how non-native forms are adapted to conform to. the segmental, phonotactic, suprasegmental and morphophonological restrictions of. the borrower language.

Why do we loan words from other languages?

Borrowing and lending of words happens because of cultural contact between two communities that speak different languages. Often, the dominant culture (or the culture perceived to have more prestige) lends more words than it borrows, so the process of exchange is usually asymmetrical.

38 related questions found

A loanword (or «loan word») is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word «loanword» is itself a calque of the German «Lehnwort», [ [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=loan Online Etymology Dictionary] ] while «calque» is a loanword from French. Loanwords can also be called «borrowings».

Classes of borrowed words

Certain classes of words are more commonly borrowed than others, usually words for exotic concepts or ideas. What is «exotic» varies from language to language. Thus, English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords, and most of the technical vocabulary referring to classical music is borrowed from Italian.

By contrast, function words such as pronouns, numbers, and words referring to universal concepts, are usually not borrowed, but have been in some cases, eg. English «they» from Old Norse «».

Classification of borrowings

The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influence [Cf. the two survey articles by Oksaar (1996: 4f.), Stanforth (2002) and Grzega (2003, 2004).] . The basic theoretical statements all depart from Betz’s nomenclature. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” and supplements the system with English terms [The following comments and examples are taken from Grzega, Joachim (2004), «Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu?», Heidelberg: Winter, p. 139, and Grzega, Joachim (2003), [http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/grzega1032.pdf “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”] , » [http://www.onomasiology.de Onomasiology Online] » 4: 22-42.] :

# importation
## foreign word = non-integrated word from a foreign language, e.g. E «café» (from French); Sp. «whisk(e)y» (from English) (*the word whiskey in fact comes from the Irish phrase «uisce beatha» which means the water of life, «aqua vitae»); E ‘ (< G ‘); It. «mouse» ‘computer device’ (< E «mouse» ‘rodent; computer device’).
## loan word = integrated word from a foreign language, e.g. E «music» (from French «musique»); Sp. «chófer» (from French «chauffeur»).
# partial substitution: composite words, in which one part is borrowed, another one substituted, e.g. OE «Saturnes dæg» ‘Saturday’ (< Lat. «Saturni dies»), G «Showgeschäft» ‘literally: show-business’ (< E «show business»), G «Live-Sendung» ‘literally: live-broadcast’ (< E «live broadcast»).
# substitution
## loan coinage
### loan formation
#### loan translation = translation of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. OE «Monan dæg» ‘Monday’ (< Lat. «Lunae dies»), Fr. «gratte-ciel» and Sp. «rasca·cielos» ‘both literally: scrape-sky’ (< E «skyscraper»), E «world view» (< G «Welt·anschauung»), AmSp. «manzana de Adán» (< E «Adam’s apple»; vs. EurSp. «nuez [de la garganta] » ‘literally: nut [of the throat] ’).
#### loan rendering = translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. E «brother·hood» (< Lat. «frater·nitas» [= Lat. «frater» ‘brother’ + suffix] ) .
### loan creation coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to replace a foreign word, e.g. E «brandy» (< Fr. «cognac»).
## loan meaning = indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e.g. OE «cniht» ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (< Lat. «discipulus» ‘student, disciple of Jesus’), OE «heofon» ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (< Lat. «caelum» ‘sky, abode of the gods, Christian heaven’), G «Maus» and Fr «souris» ‘rodent + computer device’ (< E «mouse» ‘rodent, computer device’).

On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) «Loanwords» show morphemic importation without substitution. [. . .] . (2) «Loanblends» show morphemic substitution as well as importation. [. . .] . (3) «Loanshifts» show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen has later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s (1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz (1949) again.

Weinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines «simple words» “from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.

Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of vocabulary change, or onomasiological change, have recently been proposed by Peter Koch (2002) and Joachim Grzega (2003, 2004).

Ghil’ad Zuckermann’s analysis of multisourced neologization (2003) [Zuckermann, Ghil’ad (2003), [http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.aspx?is=140391723X ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’] , Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.] challenges Einar Haugen’s classic typology of lexical borrowing [Haugen, Einar (1950), «The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing», «Language» 26, pp. 210-231.] . While Haugen categorizes borrowing into either substitution or importation, Zuckermann explores cases of «simultaneous substitution and importation» in the form of camouflaged borrowing. He proposes a new classification of multisourced neologisms, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples of such mechanisms are phonetic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phono-semantic matching. Phono-semantic matching is distinct from calquing. While calquing includes (semantic) translation, it does not consist of phonetic matching (i.e. retaining the approximate sound of the borrowed word through matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existent word/morpheme in the target language).

Beyond words

Idiomatic expressions and phrases, sometimes translated word-for-word, can be borrowed, usually from a language that has «prestige» at the time. Often, a borrowed idiom is used as a euphemism for a less polite term in the original language. In English, this has usually been Latinisms from the Latin language and Gallicisms from French. If the phrase is translated word-for-word, it is known as a calque.

Loanwords in English

English has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in «Ordered Profusion» by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:

* French and Norman, including Old French, Old Norman, Anglo-French and Anglo-Norman: 28.3%
* Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%
* Germanic languages, including Old and Middle English: 25%
* Greek: 5.32%
* No etymology given or unknown: 4.03%
* Derived from proper names: 3.28%
* All other languages contributed less than 1%

However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and Middle English occupy the vast majority.

The reasons for English’s vast borrowing include:
* (to a relatively small extent) the existence of other languages native to Britain;
* the invasion of England by the Vikings and the Normans;
* its modern importance; and
* the flexibility of its syllable structure.

This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English language to incorporate new words. However, the English pronunciations of loanwords often differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the language it was borrowed from is not able to recognize it as a loanword when spoken.

English has often borrowed words from the cultures and languages of the British Colonies. For example, words borrowed from Hindi include syce/sais, dinghy, chutney, pundit, wallah, pajama/pyjamas, bungalow and jodhpur. Other examples include trek, aardvark, laager, wildebeest and veld from Afrikaans, shirang, amok (Malay) and sjambok (Malay via Afrikaans).

English also acquires loanwords in which foreign sounds are part of the foreign pronunciation. For example, the Hawaiian word «okinaaokinaā» is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the usual English pronunciation, IPA| [ˈɑ.ɑ] , does not contain the glottal stop. In addition, the English spelling usually removes the okina and macron diacritic [citebook|last=Elbert|first=Samuel H.|last2=Pukui|first2=Mark Kawena|title=Hawaiian Dictionary|place=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaiokinai Press|year=1986|edition=revised and enlarged edition|isbn=0824807030|page=389] .

Affixes

The majority of English affixes, such as «un-«, «-ing», and «-ly», were present in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately from Latin. The English verbal suffix «-ize» comes from Greek -ιζειν via Latin «-izare».

Other languages

Direct loans, expressions translated word-by-word, or even grammatical constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms. Similarly, loans from Swedish — like the word smörgåsbord — are called sveticisms or svecismsFact|date=October 2007. In French, the result of perceived over-use of English loanwords and expressions is called franglais. English loanwords in French include ‘le weekend’, ‘le job’ (in France) or ‘la job’ (in Canada) and ‘le biftek’ (beefsteak). Denglisch is English influence on German. Another popular term is Spanglish, the English influence on the Spanish language and Dunglish the English influence on the Dutch language.

During the Ottoman period, Turkish literature became heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic borrowings. During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, which is now called Ottoman Turkish, considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many Turkish, Persian and Arabic words were also loaned to other languages of the empire, such as Bulgarian and Serbian. After the empire fell in World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language Association, during which many loanwords were replaced with equivalent words derived from Turkic roots. The language reform was a part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk’s Reforms, and included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has many loanwords derived from French, such as «pantalon» for ‘trousers’ and «komik» for ‘funny’ (from Fr. «comique»), all of them pronounced very similarly (except for the French pronunciation of the letter ‘r’).

The Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over the borrowing of English words and syntax in Italian. English words are often used where they are more convenient than a longer Italian expression, as in «computer» for «elaboratore elettronico» or «week-end» for «finesettimana»; but also where equally convenient Italian words already exist, as in «fashion» for «moda» and «meeting» for «conferenza».

Words are occasionally borrowed with a different meaning than the meaning in the source language. Among the most well-known examples of this is the German word «Handy», which is a borrowing of the English adjective «handy», but means mobile phone and is thus a noun. Conversely, in English the prefix «über-«, taken from German, is used in a way that it is rarely used in German.

Words borrowed into different languages are sometimes spelled as in the original language (such as many of the loanwords above). Sometimes loanwords retain original (or near-original) pronunciation, but undergo a spelling change to represent the orthography of the adopting language. Welsh is a language where this is done with some consistency, with words like «gêm» (game), «cwl» (cool), and «ded-gifawe» (dead giveaway).

Some languages, such as Jèrriais, have a tendency to apply historical sound-shift patterns to new borrowed words; while Jèrriais speakers would have little difficulty pronouncing «parki», «partchi» (to park) is the word used, displaying the typical Norman ki->tchi shift.

Most languages modify loanwords to fit native pronunciation patterns. An excellent example of this is Japanese. Japanese contains a tremendous amount of loanwords (gairaigo). Ignoring ancient influence from China, recently most Gairaigo has come from English, though there have been significant borrowings from Dutch, German and other languages. There are almost always significant pronunciation shifts (baseball -> beisubaru). Longer terms often are shortened (word processor -> wapuro). In some cases the original meaning shifts considerably through unexpected logical leaps (smorgasboard -> baikingu (Viking): the word smorgasboard is of Norse origin). In other cases the words are borrowed and used in totally inexplicable contexts, with words picked seemingly at random. This is often the case in the names of small businesses, or in artistic works as seen in many anime and manga series such as Bubblegum Crisis. Gairaigo is such a large part of the modern Japanese vocabulary that there are specialized dictionaries for it.

Reborrowing

It is possible for a word to travel from one language to another and then back to the original language in a different form, a process called «reborrowing». A specific example of this is the French «le biftek», which is borrowed from the English «beefsteak», while the English «beef» is originally from the Norman (cf. French «le bœuf»).

Another example of this is found in Northern Africa where the Spanish word «Zapato» is used for the word shoe. However, the word «Zapato» came from the Arabic word for shoe: «Sabbat» (سباط) which was borrowed by the Spanish when the Islamic Arabs were living in Andalusia (modern day Spain).

Literature

* Betz, Werner (1949): «Deutsch und Lateinisch: Die Lehnbildungen der althochdeutschen Benediktinerregel». Bonn: Bouvier.
*Betz, Werner (1959): “Lehnwörter und Lehnprägungen im Vor- und Frühdeutschen”. In: Maurer, Friedrich / Stroh, Friedrich (eds.): «Deutsche Wortgeschichte». 2nd ed. Berlin: Schmidt, vol. 1, 127-147.
*Cannon, Garland (1999): “Problems in studying loans”, «Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society» 25, 326-336.
*Duckworth, David (1977): “Zur terminologischen und systematischen Grundlage der Forschung auf dem Gebiet der englisch-deutschen Interferenz: Kritische Übersicht und neuer Vorschlag”. In: Kolb, Herbert / Lauffer, Hartmut (eds.) (1977): Sprachliche Interferenz: Festschrift für Werner Betz zum 65. Geburtstag. Tübingen: Niemeyer, p. 36-56.
*Gneuss, Helmut (1955): «Lehnbildungen und Lehnbedeutungen im Altenglischen». Berlin: Schmidt.
*Grzega, Joachim (2003): [http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/grzega1032.pdf “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”] , » [http://www.onomasiology.de Onomasiology Online] » 4, 22-42.
*Grzega, Joachim (2004): «Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu?» Heidelberg: Winter.
*Haugen, Einar (1950): “The analysic of linguistic borrowing”. «Language» 26, 210-231.
*Haugen, Einar (1956): “Review of Gneuss 1955”. «Language» 32, 761-766.
*Hitchings, Henry (2008): «The Secret Life of Words». London: John Murray.
*Koch, Peter (2002): “Lexical Typology from a Cognitive and Linguistic Point of View”. In: Cruse, D. Alan et al. (eds.): «Lexicology: An International on the Nature and Structure of Words and Vocabularies/Lexikologie: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen». Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1142-1178.
*Oksaar, Els (1996): “The history of contact linguistics as a discipline”. In: Goebl, Hans et al. (eds.): «Kontaktlinguistik/contact linguistics/linguistique de contact: ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung/an international handbook of contemporary research/manuel international des recherches contemporaines». Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1-12.
*Stanforth, Anthony W. (2002): “Effects of language contact on the vocabulary: an overview”. In: Cruse, D. Alan et al. (eds.) (2002): Lexikologie: ein internationales Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen/Lexicology: an international handbook on the nature and structure of words and vocabularies. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, p. 805-813.
* Weinreich, Uriel (1953): «Languages in contact: findings and problems». The Hague: Mouton.
*Zuckermann, Ghil’ad (2003), [http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.aspx?is=140391723X ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’] , Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.

See also

* Hybrid word
* Lists of English words of international origin
* List of replaced loanwords in Turkish
* Semantic loan
* Sino-Japanese vocabulary
* Sino-Korean vocabulary
* Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary

References

External links

* [http://www.transpacificradio.com/2006/11/07/words-on-words-big-debut-how-loan-words-exacerbate-future-shock-in-japan/ Discussion on how loan words exacerbate Future Shock] (Streaming audio & mp3)