What is a word that means cell

What is a word that means cell?

In this page you can discover 105 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for cell, like: microorganism, egg, compartment, corpuscle, receptacle, organism, cytoplasm, embryo, cellule, vacuole and protoplast.

What words are related to cell?

Explore the Words

• organelle. a specialized part of a cell; analogous to an organ.
• cytology. the branch of biology that studies the structure and function of cells.
• metabolism. the organic processes that are necessary for life.
• ultracentrifuge.
• cytosol.
• ribosome.
• eukaryotic.
• prokaryotic.

What are examples of cells?

Trees in a forest, fish in a river, horseflies on a farm, lemurs in the jungle, reeds in a pond, worms in the soil — all these plants and animals are made of the building blocks we call cells. Like these examples, many living things consist of vast numbers of cells working in concert with one another.

Which cell has no nucleus?

Prokaryotes

What cells have a nucleus?

Only the cells of advanced organisms, known as eukaryotes, have a nucleus. Generally there is only one nucleus per cell, but there are exceptions, such as the cells of slime molds and the Siphonales group of algae. Simpler one-celled organisms (prokaryotes), like the bacteria and cyanobacteria, don’t have a nucleus.

Why nucleus is called the heart of the cell?

Explanation: The nucleus is called the “brain” of the cell because it holds the information needed to conduct most of the cell’s functions. Other molecules make proteins from that information on a regular basis – each moment of our lives.

Who is the heart of cell?

Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes (also known as myocardiocytes or cardiac myocytes) are the muscle cells (myocytes) that make up the cardiac muscle (heart muscle).

What is called the heart of cell?

why nucleus is called the heart of cell?? heart is the main controller of the body. similarly nucleus also contains all the metabolic activities of the cell……..

What is the importance of nucleus in short?

The nucleus controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism) and carries the genes, structures that contain the hereditary information. Nucleoli are small bodies often seen within the nucleus. The gel-like matrix in which the nuclear components are suspended is the nucleoplasm.

What is the importance of nucleus class 9?

The nucleus is the most important organelle in the cell. It contains the genetic material, the DNA, which is responsible for controlling and directing all the activities of the cell. All the RNAs needed for the cell are synthesised in the nucleus.

What is nucleus made up of Class 9?

The nucleus contains some thread like structures called chromatin. It exists during the resting stage of cell. The chromatin contains DNA (Deoxy-ribo nucleic acid), RNA (Ribo Nucleic acid) and proteins. The nucleus contains some rod shaped structures in a cell that contains the hereditary information.

What is a gene Class 9?

Genes are functional units of heredity as they are made of DNA. The chromosome is made of DNA containing many genes. Every gene comprises of the particular set of instructions for a particular function or protein-coding. Speaking in usual terms, genes are responsible for heredity.

What is the function of Golgi apparatus 9th?

1)They are involved in synthesis of cell wall,plasma membrane and lysosomes. 2)It produces vacuoles which contain cellular secretions eg:enzymes,protein,cellulose etc. 3)They act as an area for storage,processing and packaging of various cellular secretions.

What is the main function of Golgi apparatus Class 9?

The main function of Golgi apparatus is secretory. It produces vacuoles or secretory vesicles which contain cellular secretions like enzymes, proteins, cellulose etc. Golgi apparatus is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.

What are cisterns Class 9?

Answer: A reservoir or a closed space filled with body fluid like chyle, lymph, or cerebrospinal fluid etc is called cistern.

What is endocytosis in biology class 9?

Endocytosis is defined as the process of trapping a particle or substance from the external environment by engulfing it. Endocytosis is of two types viz phagocytosis, also known as cellular eating and pinocytosis, also referred to as cellular drinking.

In this page you can discover 105 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for cell, like: microorganism, egg, compartment, corpuscle, receptacle, organism, cytoplasm, embryo, cellule, vacuole and protoplast.

Can a living thing have one cell?

A living thing can be composed of either one cell or many cells. There are two broad categories of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

What is the word for more than one cell?

Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to unicellular organisms.

What is another name for a cell?

What is another word for cells?

guardhouse	penitentiary
cell	solitary
bullpen	secure unit
detention camp	black hole
oubliette	rack

What’s a clique?

: a narrow exclusive circle or group of persons especially : one held together by common interests, views, or purposes high school cliques.

Are cliques good or bad?

a Clique. Being part of a group can help make your day easier to deal with — and you can learn some great life skills like being a good listener, sharing experiences, and respecting people. Groups can form around things people have in common.

What is another word for clique?

Clique Synonyms – WordHippo Thesaurus….What is another word for clique?

circle	crowd
bunch	cabal
cadre	clan
coterie	crew
fraternity	group

What do you call a group of friends?

A group of friends can be called a band, a gang, team, family, community, crew, order, circle, brother/sisterhood, clique, league, party, posse, crowd or tribe.

What is another name for Pack?

What is another word for pack?

packet	package
parcel	box
bundle	carton
container	crate
case	casket

Is Clique an English word?

Meaning of clique in English. a small group of people who spend their time together and do not welcome other people into that group: Our golf club is run by a very unfriendly clique (of people).

When did clique become a word?

1711

Is clique a real word?

noun. a small, exclusive group of people; coterie; set.

What do you call a small group of friends?

posse. noun. informal a group of friends.

What’s best group name?

Friends Group Chat Names

• The Meme Team.
• Best Fries Forever.
• The Friendship Ship.
• The Chamber of Secrets.
• F is For Friends Who Do Stuff Together.
• The Real Housewives of ______
• Taylor Swift’s Squad.
• Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants.

What is a word for a small gathering?

Soiree | Definition of Soiree at Dictionary.com.

What is a group of 4 friends called?

Fantastic Four. Four Amigos. Quatro Compadres. Friends 4 Ever.

What is a group of 5 called?

quintet

What is a good group name for 6 friends?

Don’t miss a thing

• You Can’t Six With Us.
• If It Ain’t Broke, Don’t Six It.
• Let’s Six And Mingle.
• The Essential Six.
• Little Six.
• Meow Six.
• The Six Chicks — 13 Going on 30.
• Sixth Sense.

What do you call your girl squad?

But, if you need a little inspiration, here are 77 girl squad names that you and your friends can sort through.

• We Slay All Day.
• The Not-So-Salty Friendchip.
• The Bae-Goals.
• The Taco Belles.
• Mermaid To Be Friends.
• Tequila Mockingbirds.
• Dumbledore’s Army.
• The Not-So-Shady Beaches.

What should I call my squad?

To help get you started, here are some universally-liked team names that could be your group’s name.

• A Team.
• All Stars.
• Amigos.
• Avengers.
• Bannermen.
• Best of the Best.
• Bosses.
• Champions.

What is a cute group name?

Cute Group Names

• Over Achievers.
• Forever Ties.
• The Jumping Jacks.
• Pot of Gold.
• Together Forever.
• Dil Dosti etc.
• Eve’s posse.
• WhatsApp Single Girls.

What are 3 best friends called?

Don’t miss a thing

• Charlie’s Angels.
• The Powerpuff Girls.
• Takes Three To Spill The Tea.
• Trio Chat’s Poppin’
• The Three Musketeers.
• Three’s Company.
• My Really Gouda Friends.
• Mermaid To Be Three.

What is a 7 person group called?

A group of 7 is called a septet. Another word for a group of 7 is a heptad.

What are some badass group names?

Badass Group Names

The Waiver Wire	Rockstar Lifestyle.
The Drifters.	Civil Disobedients.
Mad Cow Disease.	Chunky Monkees
Gangs of New Pork.	Netflix and Chill
We Talk A Lot.	Magnificent Maniacs.

What is a good gangster name?

Guy Gangster Names

8-Ball	Jigsaw
The Boss	Machine Gun
Bugsy	Mad Hatter
Butcher	Parole
Cain	The Prophet

Last Updated:
10 Apr 2023
— Updated example sentences

Need another word that means the same as “cell”? Find 32 synonyms and 30 related words for “cell” in this overview.

The synonyms of “Cell” are: jail cell, prison cell, cubicle, electric cell, cellphone, mobile phone, cadre, dungeon, oubliette, prison, compartment, cavity, hole, hollow, bay, chamber, slot, niche, section, caucus, unit, faction, arm, nucleus, clique, coterie, group, party, clan, wing, accumulator, power unit

Cell as a Noun

Definitions of «Cell» as a noun

According to the Oxford Dictionary of English, “cell” as a noun can have the following definitions:

• Any small compartment.
• A small unit serving as part of or as the nucleus of a larger political movement.
• A device that delivers an electric current as the result of a chemical reaction.
• A unit in a device for converting chemical or solar energy into electricity.
• The basic structural and functional unit of all organisms; they may exist as independent units of life (as in monads) or may form colonies or tissues as in higher plants and animals.
• A small room in which a prisoner is locked up or in which a monk or nun sleeps.
• The local area covered by one of the short-range transmitters in a cellular telephone system.
• (biology) the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms; they may exist as independent units of life (as in monads) or may form colonies or tissues as in higher plants and animals.
• An enclosed cavity in an organism.
• A hand-held mobile radiotelephone for use in an area divided into small sections, each with its own short-range transmitter/receiver.
• A small monastery or nunnery dependent on a larger one.
• A small group forming a nucleus of political activity, typically a secret, subversive one.
• A mobile phone.
• A room where a prisoner is kept.
• Small room in which a monk or nun lives.
• The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, which is typically microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.
• A small compartment in a larger structure such as a honeycomb.
• A device containing electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, used for generating current or for electrolysis.

Synonyms of «Cell» as a noun (32 Words)

accumulator	A register used to contain the results of an arithmetical or logical operation. An eight horse accumulator.
arm	A sleeve of a garment. As they walked he offered her his arm.
bay	A horse of a moderate reddish-brown color. They put him in the sick bay.
cadre	A group of activists in a communist or other revolutionary organization. Two young cadres were elected to the politburo.
caucus	An informal group composed of legislators who have shared concerns or interests. She is renowned for her ability to unite her caucus.
cavity	Space that is surrounded by something. The abdominal cavity.
cellphone	A hand-held mobile radiotelephone for use in an area divided into small sections, each with its own short-range transmitter/receiver.
chamber	An enclosed space or cavity. The upper chamber.
clan	Group of people related by blood or marriage. New York s garrulous clan of artists.
clique	An exclusive circle of people with a common purpose. His flat became a haven for a clique of young men of similar tastes.
compartment	A division of a ship’s hull. A first class compartment.
coterie	An exclusive circle of people with a common purpose. A coterie of friends and advisers.
cubicle	Small area set off by walls for special use. Each cubicle is equipped with a PC and printer and there are two fax machines in the east alcove.
dungeon	A strong underground prison cell, especially in a castle.
electric cell	A car that is powered by electricity.
faction	Dissension within an organization. A council increasingly split by faction.
group	A commercial organization consisting of several companies under common ownership. A methyl group.
hole	A hollow place in a solid body or surface. A fox s hole.
hollow	A depression hollowed out of solid matter. He held them in the hollow of his hand.
jail cell	A correctional institution used to detain persons who are in the lawful custody of the government (either accused persons awaiting trial or convicted persons serving a sentence.
mobile phone	A port in southwestern Alabama on Mobile Bay.
niche	A small concavity. The niche left vacant by the disappearance of wolves.
nucleus	The solid part of a comet’s head. The nucleus of a British film producing industry.
oubliette	A dungeon with the only entrance or exit being a trap door in the ceiling.
party	A group of people taking part in a particular activity or trip. She joined the party after dinner.
power unit	Possession of the qualities (especially mental qualities) required to do something or get something done.
prison	A prisonlike situation a place of seeming confinement. He died in prison.
prison cell	A correctional institution where persons are confined while on trial or for punishment.
section	(geometry) the area created by a plane cutting through a solid. He ate a section of the orange.
slot	A slot machine that is used for gambling. The PC had three slots for additional memory.
unit	The smallest measure of investment in a unit trust. Students take three compulsory core units.
wing	The wing of a fowl. A maternity wing.

Usage Examples of «Cell» as a noun

• A button cell for a quartz watch.
• The cells of a honeycomb.
• Terrorist cells.
• The authorities locked all remaining inmates in their cells.

Associations of «Cell» (30 Words)

antigen	A toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
biology	The physiology, behaviour, and other qualities of a particular organism or class of organisms. The biology of viruses.
cerebral	Of the cerebrum of the brain. The cerebral cortex.
cortex	The layer of unmyelinated neurons the grey matter forming the cortex of the cerebrum.
cortical	Relating to the outer layer of the cerebrum. A probe was inserted into cortical cells of cotton roots.
cystic	(of a parasite or other organism) enclosed in a cyst. The cystic artery.
erythrocyte	A mature blood cell that contains hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the bodily tissues; a biconcave disc that has no nucleus.
germ	An initial stage from which something may develop. The germ of a brilliant idea.
gland	A structure resembling a gland especially a lymph node. Symptoms include swollen glands.
hemoglobin	A hemoprotein composed of globin and heme that gives red blood cells their characteristic color; function primarily to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues. Fish have simpler hemoglobin than mammals.
hormone	A person s sex hormones as held to influence behaviour or mood. She told herself she was suffering from hormones that she would cheer up soon.
insulin	A hormone produced in the pancreas by the islets of Langerhans which regulates the amount of glucose in the blood The lack of insulin causes a form of diabetes.
intercellular	Located between cells. Intercellular spaces.
intracellular	Located or occurring within a cell or cells. Intracellular calcium.
lesion	Any localized abnormal structural change in a bodily part.
leukocyte	Blood cells that engulf and digest bacteria and fungi; an important part of the body’s defense system.
lipid	Any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include many natural oils, waxes, and steroids.
membrane	A thin sheet of tissue or layer of cells acting as a boundary, lining, or partition in an organism. The nucleus is a distinct region with a membrane around it.
multicellular	(of an organism or part) having or consisting of many cells. Multicellular organisms.
necrosis	The localized death of living cells (as from infection or the interruption of blood supply.
neuron	A cell that is specialized to conduct nerve impulses.
parietal	Of or relating to or associated with the parietal bones in the cranium. The parietal cortex.
phloem	Tissue that conducts synthesized food substances (e.g., from leaves) to parts where needed; consists primarily of sieve tubes.
plasma	A substance analogous to ionized gas plasma consisting of mobile charged particles such as a molten salt or the electrons within a metal. Particles in space exist in the form of a plasma.
protein	Proteins collectively especially as a dietary component. Animal proteins.
secretion	A substance discharged by secretion. Alcohol had a stimulatory effect on gastric acid secretion.
tumor	An abnormal new mass of tissue that serves no purpose.
unicellular	Having or consisting of a single cell. A group of unicellular glands.
vascular	Relating to or denoting the plant tissues (xylem and phloem) which conduct water, sap, and nutrients in flowering plants, ferns, and their relatives. Vascular disease.

This article is about the basic unit of lifeforms. For the branch of biology that studies them, see Cell biology.

Cell
Onion (Allium cepa) root cells in different phases of the cell cycle (drawn by E. B. Wilson, 1900)
A eukaryotic cell (left) and prokaryotic cell (right)
Identifiers
MeSH	D002477
TH	H1.00.01.0.00001
FMA	686465
Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata]

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life forms. Every cell consists of a cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many biomolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites.^[1] The term comes from the Latin word cellula meaning ‘small room’.^[2]

Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell. Most cells are measured in micrometers due to their small size.

Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.^[3] Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals).^[4] Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms. The number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species; it has been approximated that the human body contains an estimated 37 trillion (3.72×10¹³) cells.^[5] The brain accounts for around 80 billion of these cells.^[6]

The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology.

Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery.^[7][8] Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.^[9] Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago.^{[10][11][12][13]}

Cell types

Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, but a nucleoid region is still present. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes may be either single-celled or multicellular.^[14]

Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of life. Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital biological processes including cell signaling. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack a nucleus, and other membrane-bound organelles. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single circular chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 μm in diameter.^[15]

A prokaryotic cell has three regions:

• Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea) which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall.
• Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions.^[4] The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease.^[16] Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.
• On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell’s surface. These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells.

Eukaryotic cells

Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus,^[4] an organelle that houses the cell’s DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means «true kernel (nucleus)». Some of the other differences are:

• The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
• The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.^[4] Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
• Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Each cilium may thus be «viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation.»^[17]
• Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering plants.^[18] Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.^[19]

Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

	Prokaryotes	Eukaryotes
Typical organisms	bacteria, archaea	protists, fungi, plants, animals
Typical size	~ 1–5 μm[20]	~ 10–100 μm[20]
Type of nucleus	nucleoid region; no true nucleus	true nucleus with double membrane
DNA	circular (usually)	linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins
RNA/protein synthesis	coupled in the cytoplasm	RNA synthesis in the nucleus protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes	50S and 30S	60S and 40S
Cytoplasmic structure	very few structures	highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton
Cell movement	flagella made of flagellin	flagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin
Mitochondria	none	one to several thousand
Chloroplasts	none	in algae and plants
Organization	usually single cells	single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells
Cell division	binary fission (simple division)	mitosis (fission or budding) meiosis
Chromosomes	single chromosome	more than one chromosome
Membranes	cell membrane

Cell shapes

Cell shape, also called cell morphology, has been hypothesized to form from the arrangement and movement of the cytoskeleton.^[21] Many advancements in the study of cell morphology come from studying simple bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus,  E. coli,  and B. subtilis.^[22] Different cell shapes have been found and described, but how and why cells form different shapes is still widely unknown.^[22] Some cell shapes that have been identified include rods, cocci and spirochaetes. Cocci have a circular shape, bacilli have an elongated rod-like shape, and spirochaetes have a spiral shape. Many other shapes have also been determined.

Subcellular components

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell’s volume. Except red blood cells, which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin, all cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell’s primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article lists these primary cellular components, then briefly describes their function.

Cell membrane

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a selectively permeable^[23] biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a macromolecular structure called the porosome the universal secretory portal in cells and a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell.^[4] The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell’s shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments. In the cytoskeleton of a neuron the intermediate filaments are known as neurofilaments. There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell’s structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.^[4] The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.^[24] The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin. The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues. Some of the subunit proteins of intermediate filaments include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins), and neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M).

Genetic material

Main articles: DNA and RNA

Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence.^[4] RNA is used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation.

Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular bacterial chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different,^[4] linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).

A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans, the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes,^[4] it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.

Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell’s genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.

Organelles

Organelles are parts of the cell that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function).^[4] Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound.

There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and Golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.

Eukaryotic

• Cell nucleus: A cell’s information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell’s chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, space between these two membrane is called perinuclear space. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell’s DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.^[4]
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts: generate energy for the cell. Mitochondria are self-replicating double membrane-bound organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.^[4] Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell’s energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP (aerobic respiration). Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes. Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun’s energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.

• Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes.^[4] The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release and also helps in synthesis of lipid.
• Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
• Lysosomes and peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides, Lysosomes are optimally active at acidic pH. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.^[4]
• Centrosome: the cytoskeleton organizer: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles which lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organization like a cartwheel, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
• Vacuoles: Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store water. They are often described as liquid filled spaces and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are usually larger than those of animal cells. Vacuoles of plant cells are surrounded by tonoplast which helps in transport of ions and other substances against concentration gradients.

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic

• Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules.^[4] They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes).^[25]

• Plastids: Plastid are membrane-bound organelle generally found in plant cells and euglenoids and contain specific pigments, thus affecting the colour of the plant and organism. And these pigments also helps in food storage and tapping of light energy. There are three types of plastids based upon the specific pigments. Chloroplasts(contains chlorophyll and some carotenoid pigments which helps in the tapping of light energy during photosynthesis), Chromoplasts(contains fat-soluble carotenoid pigments like orange carotene and yellow xanthophylls which helps in synthesis and storage), Leucoplasts(are non-pigmented plastids and helps in storage of nutrients).

Structures outside the cell membrane

Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.

Cell wall

Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.

Prokaryotic

Capsule

A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.
Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.^[26]: 87

Flagella

Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes.

Fimbriae

A fimbria (plural fimbriae also known as a pilus, plural pili) is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface of bacteria. Fimbriae are formed of a protein called pilin (antigenic) and are responsible for the attachment of bacteria to specific receptors on human cells (cell adhesion). There are special types of pili involved in bacterial conjugation.

Cellular processes

Replication

Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.

DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell’s genome,^[4] always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.

In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II.^[27] Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.^[4]

DNA repair

In general, cells of all organisms contain enzyme systems that scan their DNA for DNA damage and carry out repair processes when damage is detected.^[28] Diverse repair processes have evolved in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. The widespread prevalence of these repair processes indicates the importance of maintaining cellular DNA in an undamaged state in order to avoid cell death or errors of replication due to damage that could lead to mutation. E. coli bacteria are a well-studied example of a cellular organism with diverse well-defined DNA repair processes. These include: (1) nucleotide excision repair, (2) DNA mismatch repair, (3) non-homologous end joining of double-strand breaks, (4) recombinational repair and (5) light-dependent repair (photoreactivation).

Growth and metabolism

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions.
Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP),^[4] a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways.

Protein synthesis

Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.

Motility

Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia.

In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins.^[29] The process is divided into three steps – protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.^[30][31]

Navigation, control and communication

In August 2020, scientists described one way cells – in particular cells of a slime mold and mouse pancreatic cancer–derived cells – are able to navigate efficiently through a body and identify the best routes through complex mazes: generating gradients after breaking down diffused chemoattractants which enable them to sense upcoming maze junctions before reaching them, including around corners.^[32][33][34]

Multicellularity

Cell specialization/differentiation

Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms.^[35]

In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others. Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype but of different cell type due to the differential expression of the genes they contain.

Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell, called a zygote, that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division).

Origin of multicellularity

Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times,^[36] including in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, Magnetoglobus multicellularis, or Methanosarcina. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants.^[37] It evolved repeatedly for plants (Chloroplastida), once or twice for animals, once for brown algae, and perhaps several times for fungi, slime molds, and red algae.^[38] Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships.

The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria-like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago.^[36] Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon.^[39]

The evolution of multicellularity from unicellular ancestors has been replicated in the laboratory, in evolution experiments using predation as the selective pressure.^[36]

Origins

The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.

Origin of the first cell

There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on the early Earth. They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites (see Murchison meteorite), created at deep-sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment). There is little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were. RNA is thought to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis), but some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, such as clay or peptide nucleic acid.^[40]

Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago.^[41][42][43] The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.^[44]

Origin of eukaryotic cells

The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are descended from ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing Alphaproteobacteria and «Cyanobacteria», respectively, which were endosymbiosed by an ancestral archaean prokaryote.

There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or vice versa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.

History of research

• 1632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek taught himself to make lenses, constructed basic optical microscopes and drew protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.
• 1665: Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope. He coined the term cell (from Latin cellula, meaning «small room»^[2]) in his book Micrographia (1665).^[45]
• 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidated the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.
• 1855: Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division (omnis cellula ex cellula).
• 1859: The belief that life forms can occur spontaneously (generatio spontanea) was contradicted by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion).
• 1931: Ernst Ruska built the first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin. By 1935, he had built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.
• 1953: Based on Rosalind Franklin’s work, Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double helix structure of DNA.
• 1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the endosymbiotic theory.

See also

References

Further reading

External links

• MBInfo – Descriptions on Cellular Functions and Processes
• Inside the Cell Archived 2017-07-20 at the Wayback Machine – a science education booklet by National Institutes of Health, in PDF and ePub.
• Cell Biology in «The Biology Project» of University of Arizona.
• Centre of the Cell online
• The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine, a collection of peer-reviewed still images, video clips and digital books that illustrate the structure, function and biology of the cell.
• WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree of the nematode C. elegans

Princeton’s WordNetRate this definition:4.2 / 15 votes

1. cellnoun

   any small compartment

   «the cells of a honeycomb»

2. cellnoun

   (biology) the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms; they may exist as independent units of life (as in monads) or may form colonies or tissues as in higher plants and animals

3. cell, electric cellnoun

   a device that delivers an electric current as the result of a chemical reaction

4. cell, cadrenoun

   a small unit serving as part of or as the nucleus of a larger political movement

5. cellular telephone, cellular phone, cellphone, cell, mobile phonenoun

   a hand-held mobile radiotelephone for use in an area divided into small sections, each with its own short-range transmitter/receiver

6. cell, cubiclenoun

   small room in which a monk or nun lives

7. cell, jail cell, prison cellnoun

   a room where a prisoner is kept

Samuel Johnson’s DictionaryRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. CELLnoun

   Etymology: cella, Lat.

   1. A small cavity or hollow place.

   The brain contains ten thousand cells,
   In each some active fancy dwells.
   Matthew Prior.

   How these for ever, though a monarch reign,
   Their sep’rate cells and properties maintain.
   Alexander Pope.

   2. The cave or little habitation of a religious person.

   Besides, she did intend confession
   At Patrick’s cell this even; and there she was not.
   William Shakespeare.

   Then did religion in a lazy cell,
   In empty, airy contemplations dwell.
   John Denham.

   3. A small and close apartment in a prison.4. Any small place of residence.

   Mine eyes he clos’d, but open left the cell
   Of fancy, my internal sight.
   Par. Lost, b. viii. l. 460.

   5.Little bags or bladders, where fluids, or matter of different sorts are lodged; common both to animals and plants. John Quincy

WikipediaRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. cell

   Cell is a multi-core microprocessor microarchitecture that combines a general-purpose PowerPC core of modest performance with streamlined coprocessing elements which greatly accelerate multimedia and vector processing applications, as well as many other forms of dedicated computation.It was developed by Sony, Toshiba, and IBM, an alliance known as «STI». The architectural design and first implementation were carried out at the STI Design Center in Austin, Texas over a four-year period beginning March 2001 on a budget reported by Sony as approaching US$400 million. Cell is shorthand for Cell Broadband Engine Architecture, commonly abbreviated CBEA in full or Cell BE in part.
   The first major commercial application of Cell was in Sony’s PlayStation 3 game console, released in 2006. In May 2008, the Cell-based IBM Roadrunner supercomputer became the first TOP500 LINPACK sustained 1.0 petaflops system. Mercury Computer Systems also developed designs based on the Cell.
   The Cell architecture includes a memory coherence architecture that emphasizes power efficiency, prioritizes bandwidth over low latency, and favors peak computational throughput over simplicity of program code. For these reasons, Cell is widely regarded as a challenging environment for software development. IBM provides a Linux-based development platform to help developers program for Cell chips.

Webster DictionaryRate this definition:5.0 / 1 vote

1. Cellnoun

   a very small and close apartment, as in a prison or in a monastery or convent; the hut of a hermit

2. Cellnoun

   a small religious house attached to a monastery or convent

3. Cellnoun

   any small cavity, or hollow place

4. Cellnoun

   the space between the ribs of a vaulted roof

5. Cellnoun

   same as Cella

6. Cellnoun

   a jar of vessel, or a division of a compound vessel, for holding the exciting fluid of a battery

7. Cellnoun

   one of the minute elementary structures, of which the greater part of the various tissues and organs of animals and plants are composed

8. Cellverb

   to place or inclose in a cell

9. Etymology: [OF. celle, fr. L. cella; akin to celare to hide, and E. hell, helm, conceal. Cf. Hall.]

FreebaseRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. Cell

   The cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the «building block of life».
   It consists of a protoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular.
   While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, Humans contain about 100 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are between 1 and 100 micrometres and therefore are visible only under the microscope.
   The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. Cells emerged on planet Earth at least 4.0–4.3 billion years ago.

Chambers 20th Century DictionaryRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. Cell

   sel, n. a small room in a prison, monastery, &c.: a cave: a small shut cavity: the grave: a unit-mass of living matter, whether rounded off by itself, as in the simplest plants or animals, and in the youngest stage of all organisms, or associated with other cells to form a higher unity.—adjs. Celled, having cells, cellular; Cellif′erous, having or producing cells; Cell′ular, Cell′ulated, consisting of or containing cells.—n. Cell′ule, a little cell.—adj. Cellulif′erous, having or producing little cells.—n. Cell′uloid, a hard elastic compound used for ivory, obtained by hydraulic pressure from pyroxylin, mixed with camphor, &c.—adj. Cell′ulose, containing cells.—n. the substance of which the permanent cell-membranes of plants are composed. [O. Fr. celle—L. cella, conn. with celāre, to cover.]

Dictionary of Military and Associated TermsRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. cell

   A subordinate organization formed around a specific process, capability, or activity within a designated larger organization of a joint force commander

EntomologyRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. Cell

   any space between or bounded by veins: in the Comstock system the cells derive their names from the vein forming the Tupper margin: e.g. all just below the radius are radial cells; and they are numbered from the base outward, as radial 1, 2, etc.: the living unit; protoplasm differentiated into cytoplasm and nucleus, from which units all but the lowest plants and animals are developed by division and consequent increase into a multicellular condition: a compartment or division of a nest or honey-comb.

Surnames Frequency by Census RecordsRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

1. CELL

   According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Cell is ranked #82908 in terms of the most common surnames in America.

   The Cell surname appeared 227 times in the 2010 census and if you were to sample 100,000 people in the United States, approximately 0 would have the surname Cell.

   91.6% or 208 total occurrences were White.
   5.2% or 12 total occurrences were of Hispanic origin.

Matched Categories

1. • Compartment
   • Radiotelephone

British National Corpus

1. Spoken Corpus Frequency

   Rank popularity for the word ‘cell’ in Spoken Corpus Frequency: #1857

2. Written Corpus Frequency

   Rank popularity for the word ‘cell’ in Written Corpus Frequency: #2984

3. Nouns Frequency

   Rank popularity for the word ‘cell’ in Nouns Frequency: #324

How to pronounce cell?

How to say cell in sign language?

Numerology

1. Chaldean Numerology

   The numerical value of cell in Chaldean Numerology is: 5

2. Pythagorean Numerology

   The numerical value of cell in Pythagorean Numerology is: 5

Examples of cell in a Sentence

1. Cesar Castillo:

   I had to go through a rigorous chemo and radiation therapy and a stem cell transplant, i couldn’t concentrate. I couldn’t relax. I was really anxious and depressed. All I kept thinking was: ‘Here I am, not even 30, being poisoned and fighting for my life.’.

2. Kinneret Savitsky:

   The results exceeded our expectations, and validate BL-8040 as a highly differentiated stand-alone treatment for stem-cell collection.

3. Rob Hayes:

   My wife always says the best way for me to get into a deal is to schedule a vacation. I ended up negotiating the term sheet over fourth of July weekend, i remember finding a spot outside of a lumberyard in Brookings, Oregon, that had decent enough cell coverage.

4. Rakyan Adibrata:

   They can run the organization from the inside, couriers bring cell phones and they record every word Abdurrahman says.

5. John Flannery:

   People are still learning, obviously. But this doesn’t change our view that cell therapy is going to be fundamentally transformative in healthcare.

Popularity rank by frequency of use

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Translations for cell

From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary

• خلية, خَلِيَّة, خَلِيّة, زنزانة, خِليَويArabic
• hüceyrəAzerbaijani
• клетка, килия, килийкаBulgarian
• cel·la, calabós, pila, cèl·lulaCatalan, Valencian
• buňka, článek, celaCzech
• celleDanish
• Zelle, HandyGerman
• στοιχείο, πυρήνας, κελί, κύτταρο, οπή, κινητό τηλέφωνο, κινητόGreek
• célula, celda, bartolina, teléfono celular, teléfono móvil, celular, móvilSpanish
• سلولPersian
• tyrmä, paristo, solu, kenno, kammio, selli, kännykkäFinnish
• kyknaFaroese
• cellule, pile, portable, mobileFrench
• cillIrish
• ceallaScottish Gaelic
• killeen, killag, keeillManx
• תא, סלולריHebrew
• բջիջArmenian
• fangaklefi, klefi, frumaIcelandic
• cellula, cella, cellulareItalian
• 個室, 電池, セル, 細胞, 巣穴, 班, 独房, 携帯電話, ケータイJapanese
• កោសិកាKhmer
• 細胞, 세포Korean
• cellulaLatin
• ląstelė, kamera, akis, celė, elementasLithuanian
• šūna, kameraLatvian
• pūtauMāori
• ќелија, батерија, клетка, мобилен телефонMacedonian
• ċellula, ċella, ċellola, xehdaMaltese
• ကလာပ်စည်း, အချုပ်ခန်းBurmese
• cel, batterij, mobieltjeDutch
• hinááh bijéíNavajo, Navaho
• cela, ogniwo, komórkaPolish
• cela, célula, celular, telefonePortuguese
• celulă, chilie, celular, mobilRomanian
• ячейка, камера, клетка, келья, батарейка, сотовый, мобильный телефон, мобильник, мобилаRussian
• ćelija, stanica, станица, ћелијаSerbo-Croatian
• bunkaSlovak
• birucëAlbanian
• cell, element, mobilSwedish
• seliSwahili
• కణము, సెల్Telugu
• sihay, selulaTagalog
• hücre, cep, cep telefonuTurkish
• ھۈجەيرەUyghur, Uighur
• клітина, камераUkrainian
• tế bào, 細胞Vietnamese
• ziöb, leziöb, siülVolapük
• קאַמערYiddish
• 细胞Chinese

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cell, in biology, the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental molecules of life and of which all living things are composed. A single cell is often a complete organism in itself, such as a bacterium or yeast. Other cells acquire specialized functions as they mature. These cells cooperate with other specialized cells and become the building blocks of large multicellular organisms, such as humans and other animals. Although cells are much larger than atoms, they are still very small. The smallest known cells are a group of tiny bacteria called mycoplasmas; some of these single-celled organisms are spheres as small as 0.2 μm in diameter (1μm = about 0.000039 inch), with a total mass of 10⁻¹⁴ gram—equal to that of 8,000,000,000 hydrogen atoms. Cells of humans typically have a mass 400,000 times larger than the mass of a single mycoplasma bacterium, but even human cells are only about 20 μm across. It would require a sheet of about 10,000 human cells to cover the head of a pin, and each human organism is composed of more than 30,000,000,000,000 cells.

This article discusses the cell both as an individual unit and as a contributing part of a larger organism. As an individual unit, the cell is capable of metabolizing its own nutrients, synthesizing many types of molecules, providing its own energy, and replicating itself in order to produce succeeding generations. It can be viewed as an enclosed vessel, within which innumerable chemical reactions take place simultaneously. These reactions are under very precise control so that they contribute to the life and procreation of the cell. In a multicellular organism, cells become specialized to perform different functions through the process of differentiation. In order to do this, each cell keeps in constant communication with its neighbours. As it receives nutrients from and expels wastes into its surroundings, it adheres to and cooperates with other cells. Cooperative assemblies of similar cells form tissues, and a cooperation between tissues in turn forms organs, which carry out the functions necessary to sustain the life of an organism.

Special emphasis is given in this article to animal cells, with some discussion of the energy-synthesizing processes and extracellular components peculiar to plants. (For detailed discussion of the biochemistry of plant cells, see photosynthesis. For a full treatment of the genetic events in the cell nucleus, see heredity.)

Bruce M. Alberts

The nature and function of cells

A cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier that allows nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. The interior of the cell is organized into many specialized compartments, or organelles, each surrounded by a separate membrane. One major organelle, the nucleus, contains the genetic information necessary for cell growth and reproduction. Each cell contains only one nucleus, whereas other types of organelles are present in multiple copies in the cellular contents, or cytoplasm. Organelles include mitochondria, which are responsible for the energy transactions necessary for cell survival; lysosomes, which digest unwanted materials within the cell; and the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, which play important roles in the internal organization of the cell by synthesizing selected molecules and then processing, sorting, and directing them to their proper locations. In addition, plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis, whereby the energy of sunlight is used to convert molecules of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O) into carbohydrates. Between all these organelles is the space in the cytoplasm called the cytosol. The cytosol contains an organized framework of fibrous molecules that constitute the cytoskeleton, which gives a cell its shape, enables organelles to move within the cell, and provides a mechanism by which the cell itself can move. The cytosol also contains more than 10,000 different kinds of molecules that are involved in cellular biosynthesis, the process of making large biological molecules from small ones.

Britannica Quiz

Parts of a Cell Quiz

Specialized organelles are a characteristic of cells of organisms known as eukaryotes. In contrast, cells of organisms known as prokaryotes do not contain organelles and are generally smaller than eukaryotic cells. However, all cells share strong similarities in biochemical function.

The molecules of cells

Cells contain a special collection of molecules that are enclosed by a membrane. These molecules give cells the ability to grow and reproduce. The overall process of cellular reproduction occurs in two steps: cell growth and cell division. During cell growth, the cell ingests certain molecules from its surroundings by selectively carrying them through its cell membrane. Once inside the cell, these molecules are subjected to the action of highly specialized, large, elaborately folded molecules called enzymes. Enzymes act as catalysts by binding to ingested molecules and regulating the rate at which they are chemically altered. These chemical alterations make the molecules more useful to the cell. Unlike the ingested molecules, catalysts are not chemically altered themselves during the reaction, allowing one catalyst to regulate a specific chemical reaction in many molecules.

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Biological catalysts create chains of reactions. In other words, a molecule chemically transformed by one catalyst serves as the starting material, or substrate, of a second catalyst and so on. In this way, catalysts use the small molecules brought into the cell from the outside environment to create increasingly complex reaction products. These products are used for cell growth and the replication of genetic material. Once the genetic material has been copied and there are sufficient molecules to support cell division, the cell divides to create two daughter cells. Through many such cycles of cell growth and division, each parent cell can give rise to millions of daughter cells, in the process converting large amounts of inanimate matter into biologically active molecules.