It’s possible to combine two words into one when you want to convey a specific meaning relating to both. You can turn something like “list” and “article” into “listicle.” This article will explore the best terms you can use to combine two words into one.
The best terms for combining two words into one are “blend word,” “blending,” and “portmanteau word.” These are the best ways to refer to a word that’s been made out of two completely different words. It’s a great way to show that both words impact the new word’s meaning.
1. Blend Word
“Blend word” is a great phrase to use when words are combined into one. It’s an informal construct, allowing you to create new words based on the fundamental sounds and letters that come from two completely different words.
For example, a “blend word” would be “brunch.” It takes “breakfast” and “lunch” and combines the two words into one. This is an efficient way of using both words more recognisably.
“Blending” is the official term for combining words in this way.
It works best informally because you need to overlook specific grammatical rules to accept certain blend words. For example, “frenemy” means “friend” and “enemy.” It’s not an official word, but it’s widely regarded and understood because of how common the blend is.
The definition of “blend word,” according to The Cambridge Dictionary, is “a word formed by combining two other words.”
- I think they called it “chillaxation.” It’s a blend word combining “chill” and “relaxation.” I think it has a ring to it.
- What is it with all these blend words becoming more popular? I’m not sure I can keep up with the youth of today and their lingo.
- I thought of a few new blend words that could work quite well in these contexts. Let me know which ones you like the best.
2. Blending
“Blending” is the term used when combining two words into a shorter form. You can use it to refer to the action of grouping two words as “blending” is the verb gerund form.
“Blend word” is the noun form, and “blending” is the verb. They both mean the same thing. They allow you to group words to create smaller, informal words and phrases that help you get your point across more efficiently.
- Blending words is super easy. You can say something like “sitcom” or “cosplay.” They take little bits and create big words.
- I love blending words to create new ideas. It’s always exciting to come up with words that nobody has thought of before.
- Blending words is a lot of fun when you know what you’re doing. You should try it sometime to see if it works for you.
3. Portmanteau Word
“Portmanteau word” is a great way to refer to two combined words. It has a French origin relating to a suitcase that opens in two equal parts.
“Portmanteau” is French for “carry case” or “suitcase.” It refers to a suitcase that can be opened into two equal parts. It evolved to mean that two words could combine to create a new word and hold a new meaning that takes equal parts from the original word.
It’s a very common way to refer to a blended word. You could combine something like “jeans” and “leggings” into the popular portmanteau word “jeggings.” It takes an equal meaning from both original words to create a new one.
Nowadays, “portmanteau” is much more common to refer to combined words rather than a suitcase. Most native speakers know it as the phrase used when words like “brunch” or “jeggings” are created.
The definition of “portmanteau word,” according to The Cambridge Dictionary, is “a word formed by combining two other words.”
- What portmanteau words do you know? I’ve heard “biopic” lately, and I’ve been pronouncing it wrong for the longest time!
- I think you should come up with a portmanteau word for that. It’s too wordy, and people will remember it easier if it is shortened.
- This portmanteau word comes from “drama” and “comedy.” A “dramedy” is a great form of theatre that you must watch!
4. Coining
“Coining” is a great phrase to use when new words are developed. It doesn’t refer to combining two words, but it allows you to “coin” a new word if you’ve made one yourself.
For example, if you combine “breakfast” and “lunch” into “brunch,” you could “coin” that word. However, it only applies when you are the first person to do it. Since “brunch” is already accepted as a portmanteau word, you can’t “coin” it yourself.
That doesn’t mean you can’t try to find other words that you can “coin.” There’s no limit to what words you can combine.
- I’m coining a new word from these two. It’s stupid to have to say them individually after all this time.
- You should try coining your own blend of the words. I think it’ll be really interesting to come up with something new.
- He’s managed to coin that word on his own. I was quite surprised that he was able to be that creative with it.
5. Compounding
“Compounding” refers to combining two words into one. However, it works very differently from the other words in this article. You need to know the difference before using “compounding” correctly.
“Compounding” takes two full words and combines them without removing any letters. For example, “back” and “drop” can compound to become “backdrop.”
You cannot call it “compounding” when combining two words into a more informal word (i.e. “chill” and “relax” becoming “chillax” is not compounding).
“Compounding” is the official grammatical term used when two words combine to become a compound noun or adjective. You might also find a hyphen comes between the words (mainly when using adjectives).
- Compounding words only work when you need them to be in the same breath. Something like “football” or “cupcake” works here.
- You should try compounding those words. They’re used together enough times that people expect them to be written like that.
- I’m not sure what compounding those words is going to do for the sentence. You should try something else.
Martin holds a Master’s degree in Finance and International Business. He has six years of experience in professional communication with clients, executives, and colleagues. Furthermore, he has teaching experience from Aarhus University. Martin has been featured as an expert in communication and teaching on Forbes and Shopify. Read more about Martin here.
Within
the domain of syntax two levels should be distinguished: that of
phrases and that of sentences.
The
phrase can generally be defined as a combination of two or more words
which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some
word. The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of
speech. A word-combination can also be defined as a compound
nominative unit of speech which is semantically global and
articulated.
The
difference between a phrase and a sentence is a fundamental one. A
phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a
word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes
while a sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form.
A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new
sentence.
Grammar
has to study the
aspects of phrases which spring from the grammatical peculiarities of
the words making up the phrase, and of the syntactical functions
of the phrase as a whole, while lexicology has to deal with the
lexical meaning of the words and their semantic groupings. For
example from
the grammatical point of view the two phrases
read
letters and
invite
friends are
identical (the
same pattern verb +
noun
indicating the object of the
action).
Phrases
can be divided according
to their function in the sentence into:
(1)
those
which
perform the function of one or more parts of the sentence (predicate,
or predicate and object, or predicate and adverbial
modifier, etc.)
(2)
those
which do not perform any such function
but whose function is equivalent to that of a preposition, or
conjunction, and which are equivalents
of those parts of speech.
1.3. Syntagmatic Connections of Words.
Words
in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one
another:
-
syntagmatic
groupings of notional words alone,
Such
groups (notional phrases) have self-dependent nominative destination,
they denote complex phenomena and their properties (semi-predicative
combinations): a
sudden trembling; a soul in pain; hurrying along the stream;
strangely familiar; so sure of their aims.
-
syntagmatic
groupings of notional words with functional words,
Such
combinations (formative phrases) are equivalent to separate words by
their nominative function: with
difficulty; must finish; but a moment; and Jimmy; too cold; so
unexpectedly.
They are contextually dependent (synsemantism).
-
syntagmatic
groupings of functional words alone.
They
are analogous to separate functional words and are used as connectors
and specifiers of notional elements:
from out of; up to; so that; such as; must be able; don’t let’s.
Combinations
of notional
words
fall into two mutually opposite types:
1)
combinations of words related to one another on an equal rank
(equipotent
combinations)
2)
combinations of words which are syntactically unequal (dominational
combinations)
Equipotent
connection
is realised with the help of conjunctions (syndetically), or without
the help of conjunctions (asyndetically):
prose and poetry; came and went; on the beach or in the water; quick
but not careless; —
no
sun, no moon; playing, chatting, laughing; silent, immovable, gloomy;
Mary’s, not John’s.
The
constituents of such combinations form coordinative consecutive
connections.
Alongside
of these, there exist equipotent connections of a non-consecutive
type. In such combinations a sequential element is unequal to the
foregoing element in its character of nomination connections is
classed as (cumulative connections): agreed,
but reluctantly; satisfied, or nearly so.
Dominational
connection
is effected in such a way that one of the constituents of the
combination is principal (dominating/headword) and the other is
subordinate (dominated/adjunct, adjunct-word, expansion).
Dominational
connection can be both consecutive
and cumulative:
a
careful observer; an observer, seemingly careful; definitely out of
the point;
out
of the point, definitely; will be helpful in any case will be
helpful;
at
least, in some cases.
The
two basic types of dominational connection are:
-
bilateral
(reciprocal, two-way) domination (in predicative connection of
words); -
monolateral
(one-way) domination (in completive connection of words).
The
predicative connection
of words, uniting the subject and the predicate, builds up the basis
of the sentence. The nature of this connections is reciprocal (the
subject dominates the predicate and vice versa).
Such
word combinations are divided into:
-
complete
predicative combinations (the subject + the finite verb-predicate); -
incomplete
predicative/semi-predicative/potentially-predicative combinations (a
non-finite verbal form + a substantive element): for
the pupil to understand his mistake; the pupil’s understanding his
mistake;
the
pupil understanding his mistake.
Monolateral
domination is considered as subordinative since the syntactic status
of the whole combination is determined by the head-word:
a nervous wreck. astonishingly beautiful.
The
completive connections fall into two main divisions:
-
objective
connections -
qualifying
connections.
Objective
connections
reflect the relation of the object to the process. By their form
these connections are subdivided into:
-
non-prepositional;
-
prepositional.
From
the semantico-syntactic point of view they are classed as:
-
direct
(the immediate transition of the action to the object); -
indirect
or oblique (the indirect relation of the object to the process).
Direct
objective connections are non-prepositional, the preposition serving
as an intermediary of combining words by its functional nature.
Indirect objective connections may be both prepositional and
non-prepositional.
Further
subdivision of objective connections is realised on the basis of
subcategorising the elements of objective combinations, and first of
all the verbs; thus, we recognise objects of immediate action, of
perception, of speaking, etc.
Qualifying
completive connections
are divided into
-
attributive
(an
enormous appetite; an emerald ring; a woman of strong character, the
case for the prosecution);
They
unite a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective or a
noun.
-
adverbial:
-
primary
(the verb + its adverbial modifiers):
to talk glibly, to come nowhere; to receive (a letter) with
surprise; to throw (one’s arms) round a person’s neck; etc -
secondary
(the non-verbal headword expressing a quality + its adverbial
modifiers):
marvellously becoming; very much at ease; strikingly alike; no
longer oppressive; unpleasantly querulous; etc.
-
Completive
noun combinations are directly related to whole sentences
(predicative combinations of words): The
arrival of the train → The train arrived. The baked potatoes →
The potatoes are baked. The gifted pupil → The pupil has a gift.
Completive
combinations of adjectives and adverbs (adjective-phrases and
adverb-phrases) are indirectly related to predicative constructions:
utterly
neglected — utter neglect — The neglect is utter; very carefully
— great carefulness — The carefulness is great; speechlessly
reproachful — speechless reproach
— The reproach is speechless.
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Learn More With These Definitions and Examples
Updated on February 05, 2020
A word blend is formed by combining two separate words with different meanings to form a new one. These words are often created to describe a new invention or phenomenon that combines the definitions or traits of two existing things.
Word Blends and Their Parts
Word blends are also known as portmanteau (pronunciation port-MAN-toe), a French word meaning «trunk» or «suitcase.» Author Lewis Carroll is credited with coining this term in «Through the Looking-Glass,» published in 1871. In that book, Humpty Dumpty tells Alice about making up new words from parts of existing ones:
«You see it’s like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word.»
There are different ways of creating word blends. One way is to combine portions of two other words to make a new one. These word fragments are called morphemes, the smallest units of meaning in a language. The word «camcorder,» for example,» combines parts of «camera» and «recorder.» Word blends can also be created by joining a full word with a portion of another word (called a splinter). For example, the word «motorcade» combines «motor» plus a portion of «cavalcade.»
Word blends can also be formed by overlapping or combining phonemes, which are parts of two words that sound alike. One example of an overlapping word blend is «Spanglish,» which is an informal mix of spoken English and Spanish. Blends can also be formed through the omission of phonemes. Geographers sometimes refer to «Eurasia,» the landmass that combines Europe and Asia. This blend is formed by taking the first syllable of «Europe» and adding it to the word «Asia.»
The Blend Trend
English is a dynamic language that is constantly evolving. Many of the words in the English language are derived from ancient Latin and Greek or from other European languages such as German or French. But starting in the 20th century, blended words began to emerge to describe new technologies or cultural phenomena. For instance, as dining out became more popular, many restaurants began serving a new weekend meal in the late morning. It was too late for breakfast and too early for lunch, so someone decided to make a new word that described a meal that was a little bit of both. Thus, «brunch» was born.
As new inventions changed the way people lived and worked, the practice of combining parts of words to make new ones became popular. In the 1920s, as traveling by car became more common, a new kind of hotel that catered to drivers emerged. These «motor hotels» quickly proliferated and became known as «motels.» In 1994, when a rail tunnel beneath the English Channel opened, connecting France and Great Britain, it quickly became known as the «Chunnel,» a word blend of «Channel» and «tunnel.»
New word blends are being created all the time as cultural and technological trends emerge. In 2018, Merriam-Webster added the word «mansplaining» to their dictionary. This blended word, which combines «man» and «explaining,» was coined to describe the habit that some men have of explaining things in a condescending manner.
Examples
Here are some examples of word blends and their roots:
| Blended word | Root word 1 | Root word 2 |
| agitprop | agitation | propaganda |
| bash | bat | mash |
| biopic | biography | picture |
| Breathalyzer | breath | analyzer |
| clash | clap | crash |
| docudrama | documentary | drama |
| electrocute | electricity | execute |
| emoticon | emotion | icon |
| fanzine | fan | magazine |
| frenemy | friend | enemy |
| Globish | global | English |
| infotainment | information | entertainment |
| moped | motor | pedal |
| pulsar | pulse | quasar |
| sitcom | situation | comedy |
| sportscast | sports | broadcast |
| staycation | stay | vacation |
| telegenic | television | photogenic |
| workaholic | work | alcoholic |
Anybody Can Learn About Compound Words. Here’s Everything You Need To Know
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LanguageTool
Compounds words are when two or more words are joined together, creating a new word. Read on to learn about the many types of compound words.
Correct Use
- Compound words are when two or more words are joined, creating a different word with another distinct meaning.
- There are different types of compound words: open (high school), closed (grandmother), or hyphenated (two-fold).
- Compound words include compound nouns (stereotype), compound adjectives (everlasting), and compound verbs (greenwash).
What do a honeybee, butterfly, earthworm, and jitterbug have in common? That they’re all insects? Nope! That they’re compound words. We’ll teach you everything you need to know about compound words, from what they are to the different types.
Think of the word fire. You might be picturing something similar to flames of bright light, heat, and smoke. Now, think of the word fighter. You’re most likely thinking of something or someone that fights, like a boxer or soldier. Now, put these two words together: firefighter. What do you imagine? A person whose career is to put out and extinguish fires. This is an example of a compound word—two words with separate meanings combined to create an entirely new word.
Types of Compound Words
There are a few types of compound words, including:
- Compound nouns
- Compound adjectives
- Compound verbs
These can be written as either open, closed, or hyphenated compounds. Open compounds are compounds that have a space between each word (e.g., full moon). Closed compounds don’t have a space (e.g., daybed), and hyphenated compounds have a hyphen separating each word (e.g., up-to-date).
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is made up of a noun plus another noun. Take moonlight as an example. However, compound nouns are also made using other parts of speech, like verbs and adjectives.
Think of the word haircut. Hair on its own is a noun. Cut is often used as a verb, but when you put those two words together, it becomes a noun again. Please note that the order of a compound noun is not limited to noun + noun, or noun + other parts of speech. Many combinations can produce a compound noun. For example, a verb + a noun can also create a compound noun (e.g., swimsuit).
There are opened, closed, and hyphenated compound nouns. Below are a few examples of each.
| Open | Closed | Hyphenated |
|---|---|---|
| Black eye (adjective + noun) |
Payday (verb + noun) |
Check-in (verb + preposition) |
| Slam dunk (verb + noun) |
Lookout (verb + adverb) |
Well-being (noun + verb) |
| Quick fix (adjective + noun) |
Breakfast (verb + noun) |
Two-fold (noun + noun) |
| Washing machine (verb + noun) |
Skateboard (verb + noun) |
Take-out (verb + preposition) |
| Close call (adjective + noun) |
Turntable (verb + noun) |
Merry-go-round (adjective + verb + adverb) |
Often, many words start as open compound words, and eventually turn into closed compound words (e.g., notebook). There are a few standards that can be remembered to know whether a compound word should be opened, closed, or hyphenated. For example, a noun + noun compound word is usually closed (e.g., boyfriend). A compound word that uses a verb + “ing” is often written as an open compound (e.g., dry cleaning).
Compound Adjectives
Compound adjectives are two words joined into one to describe a noun (or compound noun). Like compound nouns, they can contain different parts of speech. Compound adjectives are mostly written with hyphens, but there are also opened and closed forms of these words.
Here are a few examples of compound adjectives:
- Noun + noun + adjective:
Last time she walked by the lake, she saw a seven-foot-long alligator.
- Adjective + noun:
They were in a long-distance relationship for seven years.
- Adverb + past participle:
A new school had to be built because the old one was overpopulated.
Quick Tip
As with most English language rules, the rules for compound nouns and compound adjectives are not set in stone. Knowing when to use what type of compound word takes practice and familiarization. Your best bet would be writing with an easy-to-use spell and grammar checker like LanguageTool. Not only will this writing assistant make sure you consistently use the correct form of a compound word, but it will also conveniently provide synonyms and offer stylistic improvements.
Compound Verbs
There are several types of compound verbs, like phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and helping verbs. Here, we are only going to focus on single-word compound verbs. Like in compound nouns and adjectives, these verbs are made by joining two words. Below are a few examples of compound verbs:
I was looking for someone who could babysit my kids for the weekend.
He was notorious for overcooking steaks.
For her birthday, she wanted to test-drive a new Ferrari.
I didn’t want to overstay my visit.
He had to sound-proof his apartment.
Keep in mind that compound verbs are usually written with a hyphen or as a closed compound.
When it comes to compound words, here’s what you should remember: There are many types, like compound nouns, adjectives, and verbs. These can come as open compound words (which have a space between the words), closed compound words (don’t have a space), and hyphenated compounds (the words are separated by a hyphen).
Many compound words have multiple acceptable ways of being written. Sometimes, they start with a space and through years of use, the space is eventually removed. The ambiguity of compound words is what makes them difficult to master. That’s why it’s worth reiterating that you should always have a user-friendly text editor like LanguageTool to help you get the correct spelling (and spacing) of compound words.
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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups
KEY TERMS
Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.
Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur
Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words
Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).
Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.
The syntagmatic relation explains:
• The word position and order.
• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.
The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)
Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words
The adjective yellow:
1. color: a yellow dress;
2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;
3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS
Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.
Some examples of collocations:
- Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
- Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
- Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
- Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
- Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
- Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.
Idioms
Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.
Idioms are distinct from collocations:
- The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
- The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom
It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.
Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:
- Break a leg.
- Miss the boat.
- Call it a day.
- It’s raining cats and dogs.
- Kill two birds with one stone.
Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.
Compare,
a) read books
b) read many books
c) read very many books.
In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).
The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.
The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.
The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.
Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.
It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.
With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.
It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero
(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.
Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.
Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:
• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;
• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:
• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);
• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.
• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Types of word combinations:
- Semantically:
- free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
- set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
- Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
- noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
- verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
- adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
- adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
- pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
- According to the number of the components:
- simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
- Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.
Classifications of word-groups:
- through the order and arrangement of the components:
• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);
• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);
- by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:
• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);
• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);
- according to the headword:
• nominal (beautiful garden);
• verbal (to fly high);
• adjectival (lucky from birth);
- according to the syntactic pattern:
• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);
• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:
(a) subordinative (modern technology);
(b) coordinative (husband and wife).
4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.
The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements
Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;
To fall into a rage – to get angry.
Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.
A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.
Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.
Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:
- My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
- The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
- If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)
Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:
- Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
- i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
- I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
- Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)
Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:
- It was a dark and stormy night
- Once upon a time
- There I was
- All’s well that ends well
- They lived happily ever after
6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word
Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.
The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:
- trains run — поезда ходят;
- a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
- It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
- Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.
Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».
«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».
«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».
The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:
«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.
| Worth & Worthy | |
| Worth is used to say that something has a value:
• Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency:
|
Worthy:
• If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency:
|
| Ensure, insure, assure | ||
| Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’.
Valency:
|
Insure — make sure
Valency:
|
Assure:
• to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency:
|
| Observance & Observation | |
| Observance:
• the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day. |
Observation:
• the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency:
|
| Go & Walk | |
|
Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’:
• A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency:
|
| Influence & Влияние | |
| Influence:
• A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency:
|
Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо.
Сочетаемость:
|
| Hold & Держать | |
| Hold:
• to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency:
|
Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть
Сочетаемость:
|
- Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:
| Chance | Шанс |
|
|
| Situation | Ситуация |
|
|
| Partner | Партнёр |
|
|
| Surprise | Сюрприз |
|
|
| Risk | Риск |
|
|
| Instruction | Инструкция |
|
|
| Satisfaction | Сатисфакция |
|
|
| Business | Бизнес |
|
|
| Manager | Менеджер |
|
|
| Challenge | Челлендж |
|
|
10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:
- acute, keen, sharp (knife, mind, sight):
• acute mind;
• keen sight;
• sharp knife;
- abysmal, deep, profound (ignorance, river, sleep);
• abysmal ignorance;
• deep river;
• profound sleep;
- unconditional, unqualified (success, surrender):
• unconditional surrender;
• unqualified success;
- diminutive, miniature, petite, petty, small, tiny (camera, house, speck, spite, suffix, woman):
• diminutive suffix;
• miniature camera/house;
• petite woman;
• petty spite;
• small speck/camera/house;
• tiny house/camera/speck;
- brisk, nimble, quick, swift (mind, revenge, train, walk):
• brisk walk;
• nimble mind;
• quick train;
• swift revenge.
11. Collocate deletion: One word in each group does not make a strong word partnership with the word on Capitals. Which one is Odd One Out?
1) BRIGHT idea green
smell
child day room
2) CLEAR
attitude
need instruction alternative day conscience
3) LIGHT traffic
work
day entertainment suitcase rain green lunch
4) NEW experience job
food
potatoes baby situation year
5) HIGH season price opinion spirits
house
time priority
6) MAIN point reason effect entrance
speed
road meal course
7) STRONG possibility doubt smell influence
views
coffee language
SERIOUS
advantage
situation relationship illness crime matter
- Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.
| Sentence | Meaning |
| The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon. | The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon |
| Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores. | Animals whose main diet is meat |
| A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods. | deliberately avoid |
| After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country. | full of incessant or frantic activity. |
| Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say. | grasp mentally; understand.to perceive |
| The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him. | to calm down someone |
| It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry. | necessary |
| The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors. | The dream about some achievements |
| In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.” | The person who have a lot of power |
| After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request. | to Agree with some request |
| He is devoid of human feelings. | Someone have the lack of something |
| This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes. | produce or provide |
| It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students. | good relationship |