What is a morphemic structure of the word

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  MORPHEMIC
  STRUCTURE
  OF THE WORD
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  1. Morphological system of the language.
  2. General characteristics of morphemes.
  3. Speech variants of the morpheme (morphs and allomorphs).
  4. Classification of morphemes.
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  1. The Morphological System of
  Language

  The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words.
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  What are the units of morphology?
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  The Morphological System of
  Language

  — the word (the main unit of morphology);
  — the morpheme

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  What do you know about the word?
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  The Morphological System of
  Language

  The WORD is:
  a basic nominative unit;
  an elementary indivisible constituent part of the lexicon;
  communication means.
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  The Morphological System of
  Language

  According to Prof. Blokh (Ch. II § 2),

  The WORD is:
  — a basic nominative unit of language formed by morphemes;

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  The Morphological System of
  Language

  — elementary component of the lexicon (i.e. a component indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function);

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  The Morphological System of
  Language

  — used for the formation of the sentence (= a unit of information in the communication process).

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  2. General Characteristics
  of Morphemes

  What is a morpheme?
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  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  Morphemes are significative components of words, their elementary meaningful parts.
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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  NB:
  in studying the morpheme we actually study the word in the necessary details of its composition and functions.
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  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  The meaning of words can be defined in terms of:
  — syllables
  E.g. par-ty, par-ting
  — morphemes
  E.g. party, part-ing (*par-ting)
  meet-ing
  pass-ing

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  So,
  the word is made up of morphemes (elements of meaning):
  part and -ing
  ↓ ↓
  independent dependent
  free bound

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  Is “par-”
  in «parcel», «parking», «particle», etc.
  a morpheme?

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  «par-» does not signal anything semantically in common,
  -cel, -king and -ticle do not seem to attach themselves as bound morphemes to any other words in English.

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  NB:
  in English the syllable as a unit of sound has no correspondence with the morpheme as a unit of meaning
  «party» (2 syllables, 1 morpheme);
  «parting» (2 syllables, 2 morphemes).

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  As the unit of morphological level the morpheme can be defined as an abstract element of meaning.

  In other words, it is a minimal meaningful unit.

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  As all other language units morphemes are twofold signs which have:
  the plane of content;
  the plane of expression.

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  In the hierarchy of meaningful language units (the word, the word-group, the sentence and the text) the morpheme can be described as the minimal and indivisible unit: it cannot be segmented further without losing its constitutive essence, that is, the meaning of a definite form.
  E.g.: -ed ≠ e and d

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Unlike a word, the morpheme is not an autonomous unit.
  ↓

  It occurs in speech only as a constituent of the word.

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Therefore,
  the morpheme is the minimal indivisible meaningful unit which participates in the formation of the word and regularly occurs in other words.

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  According to Prof. Blokh (Ch. II § 2)
  the MORPHEME is:
  meaningful segmental component of the word (expresses abstract, «significative» meanings, used as constituents for the formation of more concrete, «nominative» meanings of words);

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  formed by phonemes (the shortest morphemes include only one phoneme)
  E.g.: cos-y [-i]; a-blaze [ә-]; enter-s [-z]);

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  elementary component of the word (i.e. indivisible into smaller segments as regards its significative function).

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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Words vs Morphemes:
  The words, being autonomous units, name objects of reality or objects of our thought.
  The morphemes are not autonomous and the meaning of root morphemes is best described as associative.
  E.g.: friend evokes associations with many words that are built with the help of this morpheme (a friend, friendship, to befriend, friendly.
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  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Words vs Morphemes:

  Unlike the morpheme — friend, the word friend evokes in our minds the concept of a friend (which, by the way, may be different in different cultures).

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  3.Morphs and Allomorphs

  The morpheme is a language unit. It is realized in speech as the morph.
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  Morphs and Allomorphs

  Morphs are the smallest meaningful successions of phonemes into which words are broken up.

  E.g.: paint, paint — s, paint — ed, paint — ing, paint — er

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Different morphs if being the variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs of the morpheme.
  ↓
  In other words allomorphs manifest the same morpheme in speech.
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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Allomorphs can be:
  phonemically conditioned
  E.g.: /s/, /z/, /iz/ (allomorphs for the plural “-s”);
  /id/, /d/, /t/ (allomorphs for the past tense “-ed”).
  2) morphemically conditioned
  E.g.: “-en” in the words «oxen», «children”.

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Allomorphs are singled out on the basis of distributional analysis.

  3 main types of distribution:
  • Non-contrastive (meanings or functions are the same)
  E.g., learnt, learned

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  Morphs and Allomorphs

  • Contrastive (meanings or functions are different)
  E.g., look – ed, look – ing;

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  • Complementary (different environments of formally different morphs which are united by the same meaning or function)
  E.g.: 1) illiterate, irrelevant, innumerous, impossible;
  2) [z] / [s] / [iz] (a phonemic complementary distribution;
  3) [z] / [s] / [iz] – [әn] in oxen, children (a morphemic complementary distribution).

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Conclusion 1:

  morpheme is a kind of abstraction. It is the notion of the sphere of language (paradigmatics);

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Conclusion 2:
  Morphs are its speech realizations which regularly occur in different utterances and belong to the sphere of speech (syntagmatics);

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Conclusion 3:
  morpheme as a set of morphs may be represented by their variants — allomorphs.

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  4. Classification of Morphemes

  The morpheme may be characterized by a lot of criteria, i.e. its semantics, form and distribution.

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  4. Classification of Morphemes
  1. According to their semantics:
  lexical (roots)
  E.g.: teach — er, part-ing, un-like-able
  grammatical (inflections)
  E.g.: write-s, cross-ing, play-ed),
  lexical-grammatical (affixes)
  E.g.: sing-er, happi-ness, love-ly.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  The ROOT:
  expresses the concrete, «material» part of the word meaning;
  obligatory;
  the common lexical element of words within a word family
  E.g.: formate, formative, formatively, formation, formational, formalistic, formality.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  AFFIXES:
  are meaningful dependent elements;
  specify lexico-semantic and grammatico-semantic meaning of the word.
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  Classification of Morphemes

  According to their place:
  prefixes (affixes which precede the root);
  suffixes (affixes which follow it).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  Prefixes in English have a purely lexical role. They allow the construction of a large number of new words:
  E.g.: un-, de-, anti-, super-, etc.: unhelpful, defrost, antisocial, superstructure.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Suffixes in English are of two kinds:
  Most are purely lexical (derivational suffixes). Their primary function is to change the meaning of the root form (E.g.: -ness, -ship, -able: happiness, friendship, workable).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  2. Inflexions (purely grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories. Their role is to show how the word must be used in a sentence
  E.g.: plural -s,
  past tense -ed,
  comparative –er.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  NB:
  The abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word is
  ‘prefix + root + lexical suffix + grammatical suffix”.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  2. In accordance with the functions within a word:
  — lexical (the invariant component of all word forms);
  — grammatical (the variant component in the morphological paradigm of word forms);
  word-building (the variant component in the lexicological pattern of word forms).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  3. According to the degree of self dependence:
  — free,
  — bound
  — semi-bound.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  A free morpheme is a one-morpheme word that can function independently (e.g. box, dark). It can form words.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  A bound morpheme functions only as a constituent part of the word. It:
  cannot form the word by itself;
  has no meaning in itself (it acquires its meaning only in combination with the free morpheme).

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Bound morphemes can be productive.
  They are few and homonymous:
  -e(s) [z] / [s] / [iz]: the plural of the nouns, the possessive case of nouns, the third person singular present of verbs
  -(e)d [d] / [t] / [id]: the past indefinite and past participle of verbs;
  -ing: the gerund and present participle
  -er, — est: the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  Semi-bound morphemes can function in the analytical form both as a part of this form and as a free morpheme. They are auxiliary morphemes.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  E.g.: “will”
  — occurs as a free morpheme in the context that makes its identity clear (He will do it tomorrow — I know he will)

  — occurs as a bound morpheme being the immediate constituent of the semantic and functional unit (He will come).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  4. On the basis of formal presentation:
  — overt;
  covert.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  The overt morphemes are expressed explicitly. They build the words.

  The covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of the morpheme expressing a certain function, zero morpheme.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  E.g.:
  deer sg (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme) — deer pl (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme);
  boy sg (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme) — boys pl (2 overt morphemes).

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  Classification of Morphemes
  5. On the basis
  of grammatical alternation:
  additive (outer grammatical suffixes, opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical alteration)
  E.g.: look — ed, small – er
  replacive (the root phonemes of grammatical interchange)
  E.g.: men, feet, stood, forgot-forgotten

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  Classification of Morphemes

  6. On the basis of linear characteristics:
  — continuous (linear);
  discontinuous.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Continuous morphemes are expressed uninterruptedly.

  Discontinuous morphemes can be found in grammatical units which consist of an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix
  E.g.: be … ing — for the continuous forms
  have… en — for the perfect forms
  be … en — for the passive forms

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  Classification of Morphemes

  7. According to the function:
  notional,
  functional.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Notional morphemes serve as carriers of the material part of the lexical meaning of a word.
  Functional morphemes change either the lexical meaning of a word (derivational, or word-building morphemes) or the grammatical meaning (form-building, or inflectional morphemes).

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  Classification of Morphemes
  NB:
  The borderline between the notional and the functional morphemes is not rigid and they can change their status in the course of time:
  — dom, and hood developed from root morphemes;
  the present-day English: the morpheme man in such words as a seaman and a policeman.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  Usually morphemes evolutionize from notional to functional, but the opposite direction is also possible:
  — the derivational suffix – teen acquires the status of a notional morpheme in a teenager, teen problems, teen tunes, teen fashion, etc.

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WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH

  I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.

II.   Structural types of words.

III.   Principles of morphemic analysis.

  IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.

I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.

Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.

Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.

Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.

 Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes  pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.

It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.

The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.

Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.

Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.

Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.

Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.

II. Structural types of words.

The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.

According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.

These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.

But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.

III. Principles of morphemic analysis.

In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.

A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:

un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.

A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

1. un- / gentlemanly

2.   un- / gentleman / — ly

3.   un- / gentle / — man / — ly

4.   un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.

The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number  of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.

According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.

According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree-  in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.

As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or  receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes  re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.

It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.

IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.

The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.

Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.

In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.

Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.

Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.

Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.

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MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE WORD

1. Morphological system of the language. 2. General characteristics of morphemes. 3. Speech variants of the morpheme (morphs and allomorphs). 4. Classification of morphemes.

1. The Morphological System of Language The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words.

? What are the units of morphology?

The Morphological System of Language — the word (the main unit of morphology); — the morpheme

? What do you know about the word?

The Morphological System of Language The WORD is: a basic nominative unit; an elementary indivisible constituent part of the lexicon; communication means.

The Morphological System of Language According to Prof. Blokh (Ch. II § 2), The WORD is: — a basic nominative unit of language formed by morphemes;

The Morphological System of Language — elementary component of the lexicon (i.e. a component indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function);

The Morphological System of Language — used for the formation of the sentence (= a unit of information in the communication process).

2. General Characteristics of Morphemes What is a morpheme?

General Characteristics of Morphemes Morphemes are significative components of words, their elementary meaningful parts.

General Characteristics of Morphemes NB: in studying the morpheme we actually study the word in the necessary details of its composition and functions.

General Characteristics of Morphemes The meaning of words can be defined in terms of: — syllables E.g. par-ty, par-ting — morphemes E.g. party, part-ing (*par-ting) meet-ing pass-ing

General Characteristics of Morphemes So, the word is made up of morphemes (elements of meaning): part and -ing ↓ ↓ independent dependent free bound

? Is “par-” in «parcel», «parking», «particle», etc. a morpheme?

General Characteristics of Morphemes «par-» does not signal anything semantically in common, -cel, -king and -ticle do not seem to attach themselves as bound morphemes to any other words in English.

General Characteristics of Morphemes NB: in English the syllable as a unit of sound has no correspondence with the morpheme as a unit of meaning «party» (2 syllables, 1 morpheme); «parting» (2 syllables, 2 morphemes).

General Characteristics of Morphemes As the unit of morphological level the morpheme can be defined as an abstract element of meaning. In other words, it is a minimal meaningful unit.

General Characteristics of Morphemes As all other language units morphemes are twofold signs which have: the plane of content; the plane of expression.

General Characteristics of Morphemes In the hierarchy of meaningful language units (the word, the word-group, the sentence and the text) the morpheme can be described as the minimal and indivisible unit: it cannot be segmented further without losing its constitutive essence, that is, the meaning of a definite form. E.g.: -ed ≠ e and d

General Characteristics of Morphemes Unlike a word, the morpheme is not an autonomous unit. ↓ It occurs in speech only as a constituent of the word.

General Characteristics of Morphemes Therefore, the morpheme is the minimal indivisible meaningful unit which participates in the formation of the word and regularly occurs in other words.

General Characteristics of Morphemes According to Prof. Blokh (Ch. II § 2) the MORPHEME is: meaningful segmental component of the word (expresses abstract, «significative» meanings, used as constituents for the formation of more concrete, «nominative» meanings of words);

General Characteristics of Morphemes formed by phonemes (the shortest morphemes include only one phoneme) E.g.: cos-y [-i]; a-blaze [ә-]; enter-s [-z]);

General Characteristics of Morphemes elementary component of the word (i.e. indivisible into smaller segments as regards its significative function).

General Characteristics of Morphemes Words vs Morphemes: The words, being autonomous units, name objects of reality or objects of our thought. The morphemes are not autonomous and the meaning of root morphemes is best described as associative. E.g.: friend evokes associations with many words that are built with the help of this morpheme (a friend, friendship, to befriend, friendly.

General Characteristics of Morphemes Words vs Morphemes: Unlike the morpheme — friend, the word friend evokes in our minds the concept of a friend (which, by the way, may be different in different cultures).

3.Morphs and Allomorphs The morpheme is a language unit. It is realized in speech as the morph.

Morphs and Allomorphs Morphs are the smallest meaningful successions of phonemes into which words are broken up. E.g.: paint, paint — s, paint — ed, paint — ing, paint — er

Morphs and Allomorphs Different morphs if being the variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs of the morpheme. ↓ In other words allomorphs manifest the same morpheme in speech.

Morphs and Allomorphs Allomorphs can be: phonemically conditioned E.g.: /s/, /z/, /iz/ (allomorphs for the plural “-s”); /id/, /d/, /t/ (allomorphs for the past tense “-ed”). 2) morphemically conditioned E.g.: “-en” in the words «oxen», «children”.

Morphs and Allomorphs Allomorphs are singled out on the basis of distributional analysis. 3 main types of distribution: • Non-contrastive (meanings or functions are the same) E.g., learnt, learned

Morphs and Allomorphs • Contrastive (meanings or functions are different) E.g., look – ed, look – ing;

Morphs and Allomorphs • Complementary (different environments of formally different morphs which are united by the same meaning or function) E.g.: 1) illiterate, irrelevant, innumerous, impossible; 2) [z] / [s] / [iz] (a phonemic complementary distribution; 3) [z] / [s] / [iz] – [әn] in oxen, children (a morphemic complementary distribution).

Morphs and Allomorphs Conclusion 1: morpheme is a kind of abstraction. It is the notion of the sphere of language (paradigmatics);

Morphs and Allomorphs Conclusion 2: Morphs are its speech realizations which regularly occur in different utterances and belong to the sphere of speech (syntagmatics);

Morphs and Allomorphs Conclusion 3: morpheme as a set of morphs may be represented by their variants — allomorphs.

4. Classification of Morphemes The morpheme may be characterized by a lot of criteria, i.e. its semantics, form and distribution.

4. Classification of Morphemes 1. According to their semantics: lexical (roots) E.g.: teach — er, part-ing, un-like-able grammatical (inflections) E.g.: write-s, cross-ing, play-ed), lexical-grammatical (affixes) E.g.: sing-er, happi-ness, love-ly.

Classification of Morphemes The ROOT: expresses the concrete, «material» part of the word meaning; obligatory; the common lexical element of words within a word family E.g.: formate, formative, formatively, formation, formational, formalistic, formality.

Classification of Morphemes AFFIXES: are meaningful dependent elements; specify lexico-semantic and grammatico-semantic meaning of the word.

Classification of Morphemes According to their place: prefixes (affixes which precede the root); suffixes (affixes which follow it).

Classification of Morphemes Prefixes in English have a purely lexical role. They allow the construction of a large number of new words: E.g.: un-, de-, anti-, super-, etc.: unhelpful, defrost, antisocial, superstructure.

Classification of Morphemes Suffixes in English are of two kinds: Most are purely lexical (derivational suffixes). Their primary function is to change the meaning of the root form (E.g.: -ness, -ship, -able: happiness, friendship, workable).

Classification of Morphemes 2. Inflexions (purely grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories. Their role is to show how the word must be used in a sentence E.g.: plural -s, past tense -ed, comparative –er.

Classification of Morphemes NB: The abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word is ‘prefix + root + lexical suffix + grammatical suffix”.

Classification of Morphemes 2. In accordance with the functions within a word: — lexical (the invariant component of all word forms); — grammatical (the variant component in the morphological paradigm of word forms); word-building (the variant component in the lexicological pattern of word forms).

Classification of Morphemes 3. According to the degree of self dependence: — free, — bound — semi-bound.

Classification of Morphemes A free morpheme is a one-morpheme word that can function independently (e.g. box, dark). It can form words.

Classification of Morphemes A bound morpheme functions only as a constituent part of the word. It: cannot form the word by itself; has no meaning in itself (it acquires its meaning only in combination with the free morpheme).

Classification of Morphemes Bound morphemes can be productive. They are few and homonymous: -e(s) [z] / [s] / [iz]: the plural of the nouns, the possessive case of nouns, the third person singular present of verbs -(e)d [d] / [t] / [id]: the past indefinite and past participle of verbs; -ing: the gerund and present participle -er, — est: the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs.

Classification of Morphemes Semi-bound morphemes can function in the analytical form both as a part of this form and as a free morpheme. They are auxiliary morphemes.

Classification of Morphemes E.g.: “will” — occurs as a free morpheme in the context that makes its identity clear (He will do it tomorrow — I know he will) — occurs as a bound morpheme being the immediate constituent of the semantic and functional unit (He will come).

Classification of Morphemes 4. On the basis of formal presentation: — overt; covert.

Classification of Morphemes The overt morphemes are expressed explicitly. They build the words. The covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of the morpheme expressing a certain function, zero morpheme.

Classification of Morphemes E.g.: deer sg (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme) — deer pl (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme); boy sg (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme) — boys pl (2 overt morphemes).

Classification of Morphemes 5. On the basis of grammatical alternation: additive (outer grammatical suffixes, opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical alteration) E.g.: look — ed, small – er replacive (the root phonemes of grammatical interchange) E.g.: men, feet, stood, forgot-forgotten

Classification of Morphemes 6. On the basis of linear characteristics: — continuous (linear); discontinuous.

Classification of Morphemes Continuous morphemes are expressed uninterruptedly. Discontinuous morphemes can be found in grammatical units which consist of an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix E.g.: be … ing — for the continuous forms have… en — for the perfect forms be … en — for the passive forms

Classification of Morphemes 7. According to the function: notional, functional.

Classification of Morphemes Notional morphemes serve as carriers of the material part of the lexical meaning of a word. Functional morphemes change either the lexical meaning of a word (derivational, or word-building morphemes) or the grammatical meaning (form-building, or inflectional morphemes).

Classification of Morphemes NB: The borderline between the notional and the functional morphemes is not rigid and they can change their status in the course of time: — dom, and hood developed from root morphemes; the present-day English: the morpheme man in such words as a seaman and a policeman.

Classification of Morphemes Usually morphemes evolutionize from notional to functional, but the opposite direction is also possible: — the derivational suffix – teen acquires the status of a notional morpheme in a teenager, teen problems, teen tunes, teen fashion, etc.