What does the word television mean

Television, (TV), is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. The term can refer to a television set, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.

Television became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but only after several years of further development was the new technology marketed to consumers. After World War II, an improved form of black-and-white television broadcasting became popular in the United Kingdom and the United States, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion.^[1] In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the U.S. and most other developed countries.

The availability of various types of archival storage media such as Betamax and VHS tapes, LaserDiscs, high-capacity hard disk drives, CDs, DVDs, flash drives, high-definition HD DVDs and Blu-ray Discs, and cloud digital video recorders has enabled viewers to watch pre-recorded material—such as movies—at home on their own time schedule. For many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the storage of television and video programming now also occurs on the cloud (such as the video-on-demand service by Netflix). At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in different formats: 1080p, 1080i and 720p. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through streaming video services such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, iPlayer and Hulu.

In 2013, 79% of the world’s households owned a television set.^[2] The replacement of earlier cathode-ray tube (CRT) screen displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such as LCDs (both fluorescent-backlit and LED), OLED displays, and plasma displays was a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most television sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, Digital Light Processing (DLP), plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s.^[3][4] In the near future, LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs.^[5] Also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s.^[6][7][8] Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s.^[9]

Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency television transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and, since the 2000s via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, but a transition to digital television was expected to be completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A standard television set consists of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device that lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television.

Etymology

The word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε (tele) ‘far’, and Latin visio ‘sight’. The first documented usage of the term dates back to 1900, when the Russian scientist Constantin Perskyi used it in a paper that he presented in French at the first International Congress of Electricity, which ran from 18 to 25 August 1900 during the International World Fair in Paris.

The anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907, when it was still «…a theoretical system to transmit moving images over telegraph or telephone wires».^[10] It was «…formed in English or borrowed from French télévision.»^[10] In the 19th century and early 20th century, other «…proposals for the name of a then-hypothetical technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote (1880) and televista (1904).»^[10]

The abbreviation TV is from 1948. The use of the term to mean «a television set» dates from 1941.^[10] The use of the term to mean «television as a medium» dates from 1927.^[10]

The slang term telly is more common in the UK. The slang term «the tube» or the «boob tube» derives from the bulky cathode-ray tube used on most TVs until the advent of flat-screen TVs. Another slang term for the TV is «idiot box».^[11]

Also, in the 1940s and throughout the 1950s, during the early rapid growth of television programming and television set ownership in the United States, another slang term became widely used in that period and continues to be used today to distinguish productions originally created for broadcast on television from films developed for presentation in movie theaters.^[12] The «small screen», as both a compound adjective and noun, became specific references to television, while the «big screen» was used to identify productions made for theatrical release.^[12]

History

Mechanical

Facsimile transmission systems for still photographs pioneered methods of mechanical scanning of images in the early 19th century. Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851.^{[citation needed]} Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium in 1873. As a 23-year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in 1884 in Berlin.^[13] This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow’s spinning-disk «image rasterizer» became exceedingly common.^[14] Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International World Fair in Paris on 24 August 1900. Perskyi’s paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others.^[15] However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn, among others, made the design practical.^[16]

The first demonstration of the live transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of differently angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8×8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted «several times» each second.^[17]

In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin’s words, «very crude images» over wires to the «Braun tube» (cathode-ray tube or «CRT») in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner: «the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy».^[18]

In 1921, Edouard Belin sent the first image via radio waves with his belinograph.^[19]

By the 1920s, when amplification made television practical, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird employed the Nipkow disk in his prototype video systems. On 25 March 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion, at Selfridges’s department store in London.^[20] Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his primitive system, he televised a ventriloquist’s dummy named «Stooky Bill», whose painted face had higher contrast, talking and moving. By 26 January 1926, he had demonstrated before members of the Royal Institution the transmission of an image of a face in motion by radio. This is widely regarded as the world’s first true public television demonstration, exhibiting light, shade and detail.^[21] Baird’s system used the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses which swept images across a static photocell. The thallium sulphide (Thalofide) cell, developed by Theodore Case in the U.S., detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird’s disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only 30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face.^[22] In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between London and Glasgow.^[23] Baird’s original ‘televisor’ now resides in the Science Museum, South Kensington.

In 1928, Baird’s company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé established France’s first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of The Derby.^[24] In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird’s mechanical system reached a peak of 240-lines of resolution on BBC telecasts in 1936, though the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead a 17.5 mm film was shot, rapidly developed and then scanned while the film was still wet.^{[citation needed]}

A U.S. inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins, also pioneered the television. He published an article on «Motion Pictures by Wireless» in 1913; transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses in December 1923; and on 13 June 1925 publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925 Jenkins used the Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of 5 miles (8 km), from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C., using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution.^[25][26] He was granted U.S. Patent No. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on 30 June 1925 (filed 13 March 1922).^[27]

Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on 7 April 1927. Their reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a 2-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen (5 by 6 cm). The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high (60 by 75 cm). Both sets could reproduce reasonably accurate, monochromatic, moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a copper wire link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New Jersey. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. A flying-spot scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 milliseconds. (Today’s systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: «It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality.»^[28]

In 1928, WRGB, then W2XB, was started as the world’s first television station. It broadcast from the General Electric facility in Schenectady, NY. It was popularly known as «WGY Television». Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16 lines resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis, on 7 May 1926, he electrically transmitted, and then projected, near-simultaneous moving images on a 5-square-foot (0.46 m²) screen.^[26]

By 1927 Theremin had achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until May 1932 by RCA, with 120 lines.^[29]

On 25 December 1926 Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a television system with 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum in Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu Campus. His research in creating a production model was halted by the SCAP after World War II.^[30]

Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution on mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to 120 or so. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear.^[31] A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935, and the 180-line system that Peck Television Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in Montreal.^[32][33] The advancement of all-electronic television (including image dissectors and other camera tubes and cathode-ray tubes for the reproducer) marked the start of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical television, despite its inferior image quality and generally smaller picture, would remain the primary television technology until the 1930s. The last mechanical telecasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a lot of public universities in the United States.

Electronic

In 1897, English physicist J. J. Thomson was able, in his three well-known experiments, to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern cathode-ray tube (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also known as the «Braun» tube.^[34] It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube, with a phosphor-coated screen. Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.^[35] The Braun tube became the foundation of 20th century television.^[36] In 1906 the Germans Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage produced raster images for the first time in a CRT.^[37] In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the receiving end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen.^[38]

In 1908, Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal Nature in which he described how «distant electric vision» could be achieved by using a cathode-ray tube, or Braun tube, as both a transmitting and receiving device,^[39][40] he expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in The Times^[41] and the Journal of the Röntgen Society.^[42][43] In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some «not very successful experiments» he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam.^[44][45] These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died,^[46] but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI,^[47] and by H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA.^[48] Both teams succeeded in transmitting «very faint» images with the original Campbell-Swinton’s selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode-ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel.^[49] The first cathode-ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922.^{[citation needed]}

In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi designed a television system using fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of «charge storage» within the scanning (or «camera») tube.^{[50][51][52][53]} The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or «camera» tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924.^[54] His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges («photoelectrons») within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he called «Radioskop».^[55] After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application,^[54] Tihanyi’s patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930,^[56] so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of RCA’s «iconoscope» in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi’s transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval.^[57][58] Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.^[55] On 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese inventor Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display.^[30] This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.^[59]

In the 1930s, Allen B. DuMont made the first CRTs to last 1,000 hours of use, which was one of the factors that led to the widespread adoption of television.^[60]

On 7 September 1927, U.S. inventor Philo Farnsworth’s image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco.^[61][62] By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration.^[62] In 1929, the system was improved further by the elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts.^[63] That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma («Pem») with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).^[64]

Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode-ray tube to create and show images. While working for Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast, and poor definition, and was stationary.^[65] Zworykin’s imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth’s 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin’s 1923 patent application, filed a patent interference suit against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin’s 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application;^[66] he also divided his original application in 1931.^[67] Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts, and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use his patents.^[68][69]

In 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi’s charge storage principle.^[70] Called the «Iconoscope» by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth’s image dissector.^{[citation needed]} However, Farnsworth had overcome his power issues with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique «multipactor» device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931.^[71][72] This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better^[73] and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. Unfortunately, an issue with the multipactor was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.^[74]

At the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931 in Berlin, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission.^[75] However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot scanner to scan slides and film.^[76] Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world’s first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, the Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow, culminating in the live broadcast of the 1936 Summer Olympic Games from Berlin to public places all over Germany.^[77][78]

Philo Farnsworth gave the world’s first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia on 25 August 1934, and for ten days afterwards.^[79][80] Mexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also played an important role in early television. His experiments with television (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the «trichromatic field sequential system» color television in 1940.^[81] In Britain, the EMI engineering team led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they called «the Emitron»,^[82][83] which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2 November 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace, and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building’s towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird’s mechanical system in adjoining studios, but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world’s first regular «high-definition» television service.^[84]

The original U.S. iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available.^[85][86] The EMI team, under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg, analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum.^[87][88] They solved this problem by developing, and patenting in 1934, two new camera tubes dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron.^[89][90][91] The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater.^[87] It was used for outside broadcasting by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set as the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.^[92] This was the first time that anyone had broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA would do the same until the 1939 New York World’s Fair.

On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken.^[93] The «image iconoscope» («Superikonoskop» in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron.^{[citation needed]} The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925,^[94] two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.^[95] The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon.^[96][97] The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games,^[98][99] later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955;^[100] finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.^[97][101]

U.S. television broadcasting, at the time, consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941.^[102] RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco.^[103] In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth’s patents.^[104] With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems.^[103] In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.^[105][106] Electrical engineer Benjamin Adler played a prominent role in the development of television.^[107][108]

The world’s first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and became a national standard in 1946.^[109] The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in Moscow in 1948.^[110] The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European CCIR standard.^[111] In 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system.^[112][113]

Early electronic television sets were large and bulky, with analog circuits made of vacuum tubes. Following the invention of the first working transistor at Bell Labs, Sony founder Masaru Ibuka predicted in 1952 that the transition to electronic circuits made of transistors would lead to smaller and more portable television sets.^[114] The first fully transistorized, portable solid-state television set was the 8-inch Sony TV8-301, developed in 1959 and released in 1960.^[115][116] This began the transformation of television viewership from a communal viewing experience to a solitary viewing experience.^[117] By 1960, Sony had sold over 4 million portable television sets worldwide.^[118]

Color

The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Although he gave no practical details, among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc, in 1880, for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning.^[119] Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it.^[120] Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him,^[121] and was patented in Germany on 31 March 1908, patent No. 197183, then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent No. 7219,^[122] in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).^[123]

Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world’s first color transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination.^[124] Baird also made the world’s first color broadcast on 4 February 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird’s Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London’s Dominion Theatre.^[125] Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full color image.

The first practical hybrid system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very «deep», but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console.^[126] However, Baird was unhappy with the design, and, as early as 1944, had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.

In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode-ray tube inside the receiver set.^[127] The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on 29 August 1940, and shown to the press on 4 September.^{[128][129][130][131]}

CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as 28 August 1940, and live cameras by 12 November.^[129][132] NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on 20 February 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on 1 June 1941.^[133] These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and, as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 22 April 1942, to 20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.^[134][135]

As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called Telechrome. Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called «stereoscopic» at the time). A demonstration on 16 August 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird’s untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.^[136][137]
Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird’s concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird’s 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.

One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and-white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee^[138] approved an all-electronic system developed by RCA, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information to conserve bandwidth. As black-and-white televisions could receive the same transmission and display it in black-and-white, the color system adopted is [backwards] «compatible». («Compatible Color», featured in RCA advertisements of the period, is mentioned in the song «America», of West Side Story, 1957.) The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement.

The first color broadcast (the first episode of the live program The Marriage) occurred on 8 July 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.

Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. GE’s relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set was introduced in the spring of 1966. It used a transistor-based UHF tuner.^[139] The first fully transistorized color television in the United States was the Quasar television introduced in 1967.^[140] These developments made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition.

In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Color broadcasting in Europe was not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s, and broadcasts did not start until 1967. By this point many of the technical issues in the early sets had been worked out, and the spread of color sets in Europe was fairly rapid. By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and, by the early 1980s, B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or for use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s even these areas switched to color sets.

Digital

Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signals, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Due to data compression, digital television can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth.^[141] It is an innovative service that represents the most significant evolution in television broadcast technology since color television emerged in the 1950s.^[142] Digital television’s roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital television became possible.^[143] Digital television was previously not practically possible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed digital video,^[144][145] requiring around 200 Mbit/s for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal,^[144] and over 1 Gbit/s for high-definition television (HDTV).^[145]

A digital television service was proposed in 1986 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an «Integrated Network System» service. However, it was not possible to practically implement such a digital television service until the adoption of DCT video compression technology made it possible in the early 1990s.^[144]

In the mid-1980s, as Japanese consumer electronics firms forged ahead with the development of HDTV technology, the MUSE analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese company, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies’ technologies. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog system, was the front-runner among the more than 23 other technical concepts under consideration. Then, a U.S. company, General Instrument, demonstrated the possibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally-based standard could be developed.

In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was possible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.(7) Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being «simulcast» on different channels.(8)The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.

The last standards adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This compromise resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—would be best suited for the newer digital HDTV compatible display devices.^[146] Interlaced scanning, which had been specifically designed for older analogue CRT display technologies, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. In fact, interlaced scanning can be looked at as the first video compression model as it was partly designed in the 1940s to double the image resolution to exceed the limitations of the television broadcast bandwidth. Another reason for its adoption was to limit the flickering on early CRT screens whose phosphor coated screens could only retain the image from the electron scanning gun for a relatively short duration.^[147] However interlaced scanning does not work as efficiently on newer display devices such as Liquid-crystal (LCD), for example, which are better suited to a more frequent progressive refresh rate.^[146]

Progressive scanning, the format that the computer industry had long adopted for computer display monitors, scans every line in sequence, from top to bottom. Progressive scanning in effect doubles the amount of data generated for every full screen displayed in comparison to interlaced scanning by painting the screen in one pass in 1/60-second, instead of two passes in 1/30-second. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not «flicker» on the new standard of display devices in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offered a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format. William F. Schreiber, who was director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.^[148]

Digital television transition started in late 2000s. All governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by 2010s. Initially, the adoption rate was low, as the first digital tuner-equipped television sets were costly. But soon, as the price of digital-capable television sets dropped, more and more households were converting to digital television sets. The transition is expected to be completed worldwide by mid to late 2010s.

Smart television

The advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart television sets. A smart television, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid TV, is a television set or set-top box with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is an example of technological convergence between computers, television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional Broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system.^{[9][149][150][151]}

Smart TV should not to be confused with Internet TV, Internet Protocol television (IPTV) or with Web TV. Internet television refers to the receiving of television content over the Internet instead of by traditional systems—terrestrial, cable and satellite (although Internet itself is received by these methods). IPTV is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television networks. Web television (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed in 1994^[152] (and extended the following year)^[153] for an «intelligent» television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user’s demand, and process their needs. Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.^[6][7][8] Smart TVs have gotten more affordable compared to when they were first introduced, with 46 million of U.S. households having at least one as of 2019.^[154]

3D

3D television conveys depth perception to the viewer by employing techniques such as stereoscopic display, multi-view display, 2D-plus-depth, or any other form of 3D display. Most modern 3D television sets use an active shutter 3D system or a polarized 3D system, and some are autostereoscopic without the need of glasses. Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on 10 August 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company’s premises at 133 Long Acre, London.^[155] Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electromechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D television was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D television sets. Although 3D television sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads with the public. Many 3D television channels which started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s. According to DisplaySearch 3D televisions shipments totaled 41.45 million units in 2012, compared with 24.14 in 2011 and 2.26 in 2010.^[156] As of late 2013, the number of 3D TV viewers started to decline.^{[157][158][159][160][161]}

Broadcast systems

Terrestrial television

Programming is broadcast by television stations, sometimes called «channels», as stations are licensed by their governments to broadcast only over assigned channels in the television band. At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of channels available, government regulation was the norm. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television license fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had public service as part of its Royal Charter.

WRGB claims to be the world’s oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on 13 January 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB.^[162] It was popularly known as «WGY Television» after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers. On 2 November 1936, the BBC began transmitting the world’s first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London.^[163] It therefore claims to be the birthplace of television broadcasting as we know it from now on.

With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 1980s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.^[164][165] A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offered pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternative to cable television (CATV) for cord cutters. All other countries around the world are also in the process of either shutting down analog terrestrial television or switching over to digital terrestrial television.

Cable television

Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. In the 2000s, FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. The abbreviation CATV is sometimes used for cable television in the United States. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television’s origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large «community antennas» were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.^[166]

Satellite television

Satellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television.

The most common method of reception is direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV), also known as «direct to home» (DTH).^[167] In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a direct broadcast satellite on the K_u wavelength and are completely digital.^[168] Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as television receive-only. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed «big dish» systems, and were more expensive and less popular.^[169]

The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high-definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription.^[170]
In 1945, British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit.^[171][172] This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute’s Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.^[173][174]

The first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic Ocean on 23 July 1962.^[175] The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million.^[175] Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan.^[176] The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on 26 July 1963.^[177]

The world’s first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed «Early Bird», was launched into geosynchronous orbit on 6 April 1965.^[178] The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations.^[179] The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada’s geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972.^[180] ATS-6, the world’s first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974.^[181] It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.^[182]

The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran 1, was launched on 26 October 1976.^[183] It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave technology.^[184]

Internet television

Internet television (Internet TV) (or online television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable, and satellite, although the Internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable, or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television series, and other video content, over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters. Internet television should not be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the television set which has a built-in operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television networks. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet television.

Sets

A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or «telly», is a device that combines a tuner, display, an amplifier, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television and hearing its audio components. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode-ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for recorded media in the 1970s, such as Betamax and VHS, which enabled viewers to record TV shows and watch prerecorded movies. In the subsequent decades, Television sets were used to watch DVDs and Blu-ray Discs of movies and other content. Major TV manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma and fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. Televisions since 2010s mostly use LEDs.^{[3][4][185][186]} LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs in the near future.^[5]

Display technologies

Disk

The earliest systems employed a spinning disk to create and reproduce images.^[187] These usually had a low resolution and screen size and never became popular with the public.

CRT

The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images.^[38] It has a means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), radar targets or others. The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep (i.e. long from front screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product.

In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference.^[188] In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic instrument.^[188]

DLP

Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of video projector technology that uses a digital micromirror device. Some DLPs have a TV tuner, which makes them a type of TV display. It was originally developed in 1987 by Dr. Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for invention of the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses. DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), but also in private homes; in these cases, the image is projected onto a projection screen. DLP is also used in DLP rear projection television sets and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection.^[189]

Plasma

A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large television displays 30 inches (76 cm) or larger. They are called «plasma» displays because the technology uses small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers more commonly known as fluorescent lamps.

LCD

Liquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TV) are television sets that use LCD display technology to produce images. LCD televisions are much thinner and lighter than cathode-ray tube (CRTs) of similar display size, and are available in much larger sizes (e.g., 90-inch diagonal). When manufacturing costs fell, this combination of features made LCDs practical for television receivers. LCDs come in two types: those using cold cathode fluorescent lamps, simply called LCDs and those using LED as backlight called as LEDs.

In 2007, LCD television sets surpassed sales of CRT-based television sets worldwide for the first time, and their sales figures relative to other technologies accelerated. LCD television sets have quickly displaced the only major competitors in the large-screen market, the Plasma display panel and rear-projection television.^[190] In mid 2010s LCDs especially LEDs became, by far, the most widely produced and sold television display type.^[185][186] LCDs also have disadvantages. Other technologies address these weaknesses, including OLEDs, FED and SED, but as of 2014 none of these have entered widespread production.

OLED

An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs.

There are two main groups of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or LEC, which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch each individual pixel on or off, but allow for higher resolution and larger display sizes.

An OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or LED backlight. OLEDs are expected to replace other forms of display in near future.^[5]

Display resolution

LD

Low-definition television or LDTV refers to television systems that have a lower screen resolution than standard-definition television systems such 240p (320*240). It is used in handheld television. The most common source of LDTV programming is the Internet, where mass distribution of higher-resolution video files could overwhelm computer servers and take too long to download. Many mobile phones and portable devices such as Apple’s iPod Nano, or Sony’s PlayStation Portable use LDTV video, as higher-resolution files would be excessive to the needs of their small screens (320×240 and 480×272 pixels respectively). The current generation of iPod Nanos have LDTV screens, as do the first three generations of iPod Touch and iPhone (480×320). For the first years of its existence, YouTube offered only one, low-definition resolution of 320x240p at 30fps or less. A standard, consumer grade videotape can be considered SDTV due to its resolution (approximately 360 × 480i/576i).

SD

Standard-definition television or SDTV refers to two different resolutions: 576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the European-developed PAL and SECAM systems; and 480i based on the American National Television System Committee NTSC system. SDTV is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be either high-definition television (720p, 1080i, 1080p, 1440p, 4K UHDTV, and 8K UHD) or enhanced-definition television (EDTV 480p). In North America, digital SDTV is broadcast in the same 4:3 aspect ratio as NTSC signals with widescreen content being center cut.^[191] However, in other parts of the world that used the PAL or SECAM color systems, standard-definition television is now usually shown with a 16:9 aspect ratio, with the transition occurring between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Older programs with a 4:3 aspect ratio are shown in the United States as 4:3 with non-ATSC countries preferring to reduce the horizontal resolution by anamorphically scaling a pillarboxed image.

HD

High-definition television (HDTV) provides a resolution that is substantially higher than that of standard-definition television.

HDTV may be transmitted in various formats:

• 1080p: 1920×1080p: 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 megapixels) per frame
• 1080i: 1920×1080i: 1,036,800 pixels (~1.04 MP) per field or 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 MP) per frame
  • A non-standard CEA resolution exists in some countries such as 1440×1080i: 777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or 1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame
• 720p: 1280×720p: 921,600 pixels (~0.92 MP) per frame

UHD

Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and 8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Consumer Electronics Association announced on 17 October 2012, that «Ultra High Definition», or «Ultra HD», would be used for displays that have an aspect ratio of at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting natural video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels.^[192][193]

North American consumers purchase a new television set on average every seven years, and the average household owns 2.8 televisions. As of 2011, 48 million are sold each year at an average price of $460 and size of 38 in (97 cm).^[194]

Worldwide LCD TV manufacturers market share, 2018
Manufacturer	Statista
Samsung Electronics	16.6%
TCL	11.6%
LG Electronics	11.3%
Hisense	7%
Skyworth	6%
Sony	4.8%
Sharp	3.7%
Others	39%

Content

Programming

Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many other ways. After production, the next step is to market and deliver the product to whichever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:

1. Original run or First run: a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the television producers to do the same.
2. Broadcast syndication: this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases, other companies, television stations, or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.

First-run programming is increasing on subscription services outside of the United States, but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic free-to-air (FTA) elsewhere. This practice is increasing, however, generally on digital-only FTA channels or with subscriber-only, first-run material appearing on FTA. Unlike United States, repeat FTA screenings of an FTA network program usually only occur on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not focused on local programming.

Genres

Television genres include a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually dramas and dramatic miniseries. However, other genres, such as historical Western genres, may also have high production costs.

Pop culture entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such as medical dramas and daytime soap operas. Sci-fi series can fall into either the drama or action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or high adventure. Comedy is a popular genre which includes situation comedy (sitcom) and animated series for the adult demographic such as Comedy Central’s South Park.

The least expensive forms of entertainment programming genres are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, and reality television. Game shows feature contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows contain interviews with film, television, music and sports celebrities and public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers, such as comedians and magicians, introduced by a host or Master of Ceremonies. There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments. Reality television series «regular» people (i.e., not actors) facing unusual challenges or experiences ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to significant weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A derived version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes, Snoop Dogg’s Father Hood) or doing regular jobs (The Simple Life).

Fictional television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are «quality television», include series such as Twin Peaks and The Sopranos. Kristin Thompson argues that some of these television series exhibit traits also found in art films, such as psychological realism, narrative complexity, and ambiguous plotlines. Nonfiction television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are «quality television», include a range of serious, noncommercial, programming aimed at a niche audience, such as documentaries and public affairs shows.

Funding

Around the world, broadcast television is financed by government, advertising, licensing (a form of tax), subscription, or any combination of these. To protect revenues, subscription television channels are usually encrypted to ensure that only subscribers receive the decryption codes to see the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as free to air or FTA. In 2009, the global TV market represented 1,217.2 million TV households with at least one TV and total revenues of 268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to 2008).^[196] North America had the biggest TV revenue market share with 39% followed by Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America (8%), and Africa and the Middle East (2%).^[197] Globally, the different TV revenue sources divide into 45–50% TV advertising revenues, 40–45% subscription fees and 10% public funding.^[198][199]

Advertising

Television’s broad reach makes it a powerful and attractive medium for advertisers. Many television networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast time to advertisers («sponsors») to fund their programming.^[200] Television advertisements (variously called a television commercial, commercial or ad in American English, and known in British English as an advert) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials). Advertisements of this sort have been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services and ideas since the beginning of television.

The effects of television advertising upon the viewing public (and the effects of mass media in general) have been the subject of discourse by philosophers including Marshall McLuhan. The viewership of television programming, as measured by companies such as Nielsen Media Research, is often used as a metric for television advertisement placement, and consequently, for the rates charged to advertisers to air within a given network, television program, or time of day (called a «daypart»). In many countries, including the United States, television campaign advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted,^[201] while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements.

The first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on 1 July 1941, over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase «Bulova Watch Time», was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute.^[202][203] The first TV ad broadcast in the U.K. was on ITV on 22 September 1955, advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. The first TV ad broadcast in Asia was on Nippon Television in Tokyo on 28 August 1953, advertising Seikosha (now Seiko), which also displayed a clock with the current time.^[204]

United States

Since inception in the US in 1941,^[205] television commercials have become one of the most effective, persuasive, and popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the 1950s, programs were hosted by single advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative control to the advertisers over the content of the show. Perhaps due to the quiz show scandals in the 1950s,^[206] networks shifted to the magazine concept, introducing advertising breaks with other advertisers.

U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen ratings. The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a TV commercial can cost. For example, it can cost approximately $750,000 for a 30-second block of commercial time during the highly popular singing competition American Idol, while the same amount of time for the Super Bowl can cost several million dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewed time slots, such as early mornings and weekday afternoons, are often sold in bulk to producers of infomercials at far lower rates. In recent years, the paid program or infomercial has become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Some drug companies and other businesses have even created «news» items for broadcast, known in the industry as video news releases, paying program directors to use them.^[207]

Some television programs also deliberately place products into their shows as advertisements, a practice started in feature films^[208] and known as product placement. For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particular chain restaurant, or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, with shows having vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost in exchange as a product placement). Sometimes, a specific brand or trade mark, or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists who perform on the show.)

United Kingdom

The TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied since the early days of commercially funded TV. Despite this, an early TV mogul, Roy Thomson, likened the broadcasting licence as being a «licence to print money».^[209] Restrictions mean that the big three national commercial TV channels: ITV, Channel 4, and Channel 5 can show an average of only seven minutes of advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak period). Other broadcasters must average no more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak). This means that many imported TV shows from the U.S. have unnatural pauses where the British company does not use the narrative breaks intended for more frequent U.S. advertising. Advertisements must not be inserted in the course of certain specific proscribed types of programs which last less than half an hour in scheduled duration; this list includes any news or current affairs programs, documentaries, and programs for children; additionally, advertisements may not be carried in a program designed and broadcast for reception in schools or in any religious broadcasting service or other devotional program or during a formal Royal ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear demarcations in time between the programs and the advertisements. The BBC, being strictly non-commercial, is not allowed to show advertisements on television in the U.K., although it has many advertising-funded channels abroad. The majority of its budget comes from television license fees (see below) and broadcast syndication, the sale of content to other broadcasters.

Ireland

Broadcast advertising is regulated by the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland.^[210]

Subscription

Some TV channels are partly funded from subscriptions; therefore, the signals are encrypted during broadcast to ensure that only the paying subscribers have access to the decryption codes to watch pay television or specialty channels. Most subscription services are also funded by advertising.

Taxation or license

Television services in some countries may be funded by a television licence or a form of taxation, which means that advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:

• Australia (ABC Television)
• Belgium (VRT for Flanders and RTBF for Wallonia)
• Denmark (DR)
• Ireland (RTÉ)
• Japan (NHK)
• Norway (NRK)
• Sweden (SVT)
• Switzerland (SRG SSR)
• Republic of China (Taiwan) (PTS)
• United Kingdom (BBC Television)
• United States (PBS)

The British Broadcasting Corporation’s TV service carries no television advertising on its UK channels and is funded by an annual television licence paid by the occupiers of premises receiving live telecasts. As of 2012 it was estimated that approximately 26.8 million UK private domestic households owned televisions, with approximately 25 million TV licences in all premises in force as of 2010.^[211] This television license fee is set by the government, but the BBC is not answerable to or controlled by the government.^{[citation needed]} As of 2009 two main BBC TV channels were watched by almost 90% of the population each week and overall had 27% share of total viewing,^[212] despite the fact that 85% of homes were multi-channel, with 42% of these having access to 200 free-to-air channels via satellite and another 43% having access to 30 or more channels via Freeview.^[213] As of June 2021 the licence that funds the advertising-free BBC TV channels cost £159 for a colour TV Licence and £53.50 for a black and white TV Licence (free or reduced for some groups).^[214]

The Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s television services in Australia carry no advertising by external sources; it is banned under the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983, which also ensures its the editorial independence. The ABC receives most of its funding from the Australian Government (some revenue is received from its Commercial division), but it has suffered progressive funding cuts under Liberal governments since the 1996 Howard government,^[215] with particularly deep cuts in 2014 under the Turnbull government,^[216] and an ongoing indexation freeze as of 2021.^[217][218] The funds provide for the ABC’s television, radio, online, and international outputs, although ABC Australia, which broadcasts throughout the Asia-Pacific region, receives additional funds through DFAT and some advertising on the channel.^[219][220]

In France, government-funded channels carry advertisements, yet those who own television sets have to pay an annual tax («la redevance audiovisuelle»).^[221]

In Japan, NHK is paid for by license fees (known in Japanese as reception fee (受信料, Jushinryō)). The broadcast law that governs NHK’s funding stipulates that any television equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The fee is standardized, with discounts for office workers and students who commute, as well a general discount for residents of Okinawa prefecture.

Broadcast programming

Broadcast programming, or TV listings in the United Kingdom, is the practice of organizing television programs in a schedule, with broadcast automation used to regularly change the scheduling of TV programs to build an audience for a new show, retain that audience, or compete with other broadcasters’ programs.

Television has played a pivotal role in the socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are many aspects of television that can be addressed, including negative issues such as media violence. Current research is discovering that individuals suffering from social isolation can employ television to create what is termed a parasocial or faux relationship with characters from their favorite television shows and movies as a way of deflecting feelings of loneliness and social deprivation.^[222] Several studies have found that educational television has many advantages. The article «The Good Things about Television»^[223] argues that television can be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely. With respect to faith, many Christian denominations use television for religious broadcasting.

Religious opposition

Methodist denominations in the conservative holiness movement, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and the Evangelical Wesleyan Church, eschew the use of the television.^[224] Some Baptists, such as those affiliated with Pensacola Christian College,^[225] also eschew television. Many Traditional Catholic congregations such as the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), as with Laestadian Lutherans, and Conservative Anabaptists such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, oppose the presence of television in the household, teaching that it is an occasion of sin.^{[226][227][228][229]}

Negative impacts

Children, especially those aged 5 or younger, are at risk of injury from falling televisions.^[230] A CRT-style television that falls on a child will, because of its weight, hit with the equivalent force of falling multiple stories from a building.^[231] Newer flat-screen televisions are «top-heavy and have narrow bases», which means that a small child can easily pull one over.^[232] As of 2015, TV tip-overs were responsible for more than 10,000 injuries per year to children in the U.S., at a cost of more than $8 million per year in emergency care.^[230][232]

A 2017 study in The Journal of Human Resources, found that exposure to cable television reduced cognitive ability and high school graduation rates for boys. This effect was stronger for boys from more educated families. The article suggests a mechanism where light television entertainment crowds out more cognitively stimulating activities.^[233]

With high lead content in CRTs and the rapid diffusion of new flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps which contain mercury, there is growing concern about electronic waste from discarded televisions. Related occupational health concerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices’ increasing electrical energy requirements.^[234]

See also

References

Further reading

• Abramson, Albert (2003). The History of Television, 1942 to 2000. Jefferson, NC / London: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-1220-4.
• Pierre Bourdieu, On Television, The New Press, 2001.
• Tim Brooks and Earle March, The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 8th ed., Ballantine, 2002.
• Jacques Derrida and Bernard Stiegler, Echographies of Television, Polity Press, 2002.
• David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, Tube: the Invention of Television, Counterpoint, Washington, D.C., 1996, ISBN 1-887178-17-1.
• Steven Johnson, Everything Bad is Good for You: How Today’s Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter, New York, Riverhead (Penguin), 2005, 2006, ISBN 1-59448-194-6.
• Leggett, Julian (April 1941). «Television in Color». Popular Mechanics. Chicago. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
• Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television, Perennial, 1978.
• Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, Sierra Club Books, 1992, ISBN 0-87156-509-9.
• Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business, New York, Penguin US, 1985, ISBN 0-670-80454-1.
• Evan I. Schwartz, The Last Lone Inventor: A Tale of Genius, Deceit, and the Birth of Television, New York, Harper Paperbacks, 2003, ISBN 0-06-093559-6.
• Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television, Rutgers University Press, 2002.
• Alan Taylor, We, the Media: Pedagogic Intrusions into US Mainstream Film and Television News Broadcasting Rhetoric, Peter Lang, 2005, ISBN 3-631-51852-8.
• Amanda D. Lotz, The Television Will Be Revolutionized, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-5220-3

External links

• Television at Curlie

What is Television?

Television is an electrical device that transmits a remote signal with image and sound. The word television is a conjugation of the Greek word tele that refers to something that is far away and the Latin word visio that means sight.

It has evolved since its inception as a mechanical device in 1800 to an electronic device since the early 1900s. The first electronic televisions marketed were in black and white until 1940. The Mexican engineer Guillermo González Camarena the first system for the transmission of color images.

From the traditional electronic device, television has undergone significant technological variations such as plasma television that has improved image quality.

Also Read: What is iOS? – Definition, Uses and All the Versions of iOS

What are the features of a television?

Television has not only changed in its physical form but also in the way we watch TV. The first cable televisions have allowed us to access large selection of TV channels that are not restricted only to national TV.

Thanks to technological advancement, TV has also become digital where the viewer can interact with applications through TV by customizing tastes and choosing. For example, programs, movies, and series on demand, such as Smart TV.

Internet TV, also called TV online allows us to do without a television set using only a computer or a cell phone to see what offers in a specific television programming. For example, Youtube channels.

Types of TV

Broadly speaking, we can talk about four types of TV:

Mechanics: It was the first television model, which used a series of photographs in facsimile transmission from an invention called the “Nipkow Disc.” Which allowed one image to be scanned one line at a time.

Electronics: From the cathode rays and the iconoscope, there was a development of electronic television, that worked. And became massive for 50 years, since its launch in 1937.

Digital: The advent of computerized technologies allowed the development of digital television. Capable of processing better quality audio and video signals, which made the analog television model obsolete. The implementation of this new technology began in the 90s.

SmartTV: It is the contemporary TV model, which takes advantage of 2.0 technologies and the Internet push for a much more advanced connection model.

Genres of television programs

There are several genres of TV programs. Some of them are:

The entertainment [television]: its purpose is to entertain the audience. And among them are programs about celebrities, fashion, soap operas, and series.

The educational [television]: its purpose is to teach and among them are documentary and children ‘s education programs.

The informative [television]: It aims to inform about events as they are newsreels.

The live [television]: Despite not being formally considered as a TV genre. It brings features that make it unique as it is a direct transmission of what happens when allowing a more realistic view without issues that may come to be applied censorship.

Also Read: Everything You Need to Know About Successfully Migrating to Office 365

Author:
Florence Bailey

Date Of Creation:
27 March 2021

Update Date:
11 April 2023

Content

• What is Television:

What is Television:

Television is a electrical device that transmits a signal at a distance with image and sound.

The word television is a conjugation of the Greek word TV which refers to something that is far and the word in latin visio What does it mean sight.

Television has evolved from its beginnings as a mechanical device in 1800 to an electronic device since the early 1900s. The first commercialized electronic televisions were in black and white until 1940, the Mexican engineer Guillermo gonzalez camarena the first system for the transmission of color images.

From the traditional electronic device, television has undergone important technological variations such as the Plasma TV which has improved the image quality.

Television has changed not only in its physical form but also in the way we watch television. The first cable televisions It has allowed us to access a much larger number of channels that is not restricted only to national television.

Thanks to technological advancement, television has also become digital where the viewer can interact with applications through television, personalizing tastes and choosing, for example, programs, movies and series on demand, such as Smart TV.

The internet television or also call TV on-line It also allows us to dispense with a television set by using only a computer or a cell phone to see what it offers in a specific television program, such as YouTube channels.

See also Youtube.

There are several genres of television shows. Some of them are:

• The entertainment television: its purpose is to entertain the public and among them are programs about celebrities, fashion, soap operas and series.
• The educational television: its purpose is to teach and among them are documentaries and children’s education programs.
• The informational television: Its purpose is to inform about events such as the news.
• The on live Tv: Despite not being formally considered a television genre, it has characteristics that make it unique since it is a direct transmission of what is happening at the moment, allowing a more real vision and without editions, censorship may be applied.

See also Telenovela.

Etymology. The word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε (tele) ‘far’, and Latin visio ‘sight’. … The abbreviation TV is from 1948. The use of the term to mean « a television set » dates from 1941.

Voire Where does the word television came from and what does it mean?

Television is a telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over a distance. … The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning « far sight »: Greek τῆλε « tele », far, and Latin visio-n, sight (from video, vis- to see).

When did television become a word? The modern word was first used in 1900 in a paper by Russian scientist Constantin Perskyi that he presented at the First International Congress of Electricity. At the time, television was just a theoretical concept as a means for transmitting still photographic images over telegraph lines.

What was the first name for the television?

Ninety years since the very first demonstration of television has been celebrated by today’s Google Doodle. However, the device in question was not known as the television in 1926, rather it was the « the televisor » or mechanical television, in which a rotating mechanism generated an image.

What does television literally mean?

Television is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochrome or colored, with or without accompanying sound. … The etymology of the word has a mixed Latin and Greek origin, meaning « far sight« : Greek tele, far, and Latin visio, sight.

What is the full meaning of television?

1 : an electronic system of sending images and sound over a wire or through space by devices that change light and sound into electrical signals and then change these back into light and sound. 2 : a piece of equipment with a screen and speakers that reproduces images and sound.

What does TV actually mean?

noun. the transmission of programming, in the form of still or moving images, via radio waves, cable wires, satellite, or wireless network to a receiver or other screen. the process or product involved: to watch television. an electronic device or set for receiving television broadcasts or similar programming.

Where was the term television first used?

In 1922 Jenkins sent a still picture by radio waves, but the first true television success, the transmission of a live human face, was achieved by Baird in 1925. (The word television itself had been coined by a Frenchman, Constantin Perskyi, at the 1900 Paris Exhibition.)

What is the root word of television?

Explain that the word television is made up of the root tele and the word vision.

What is the root word of televised?

The word television combines tele, « far off » in Greek, and vision, « something seen in the imagination, » from a Latin root.

Who first invented television?

Electronic television was first successfully demonstrated in San Francisco on Sept. 7, 1927. The system was designed by Philo Taylor Farnsworth, a 21-year-old inventor who had lived in a house without electricity until he was 14.

When was the television first invented?

Philo Farnsworth successfully demonstrated electronic television in San Francisco, in 1927. Farnsworth, at the age of fifteen, began imagining ways that electronic television could work.

When did the first television come out?

The first « television » system broadcast was a straight-line by Philo Farnsworth on September 7th, 1927. The press was presented with this scientific breakthrough on January 13, 1928 and it even headlined a few major nationwide papers.

What does the root word television mean?

The word television combines tele, « far off » in Greek, and vision, « something seen in the imagination, » from a Latin root.

Is TV a word?

TV is an abbreviation for `television‘. …

What is the translation of television?

Television is the system of sending pictures and sounds by electrical signals over a distance so that people can receive them on a television in their home. … Television refers to all the programmes that you can watch. I don’t have time to watch very much television.

What is TV short for?

(Entry 1 of 2) : television. TV. abbreviation.

What do TV codes mean?

Depending on the manufacturer, TV SKUs have three to five parts, including: Screen Size: A number indicating how big the TV is. Product Line: A set of letters or numbers indicating what product series the model is in. Generation: A set of letters or numbers indicating what year the TV was made.

What does the series mean on a TV?

A group of episodes of a television program broadcast in regular intervals with a long break between each group, usually with one year between the beginning of each. noun.

What do Samsung TV model numbers actually mean why are they so long?

The codes used in the model number identify the series with the manufactured year, type of backlighting (LED, QLED, Lamps, etc.), resolution of the screen (HD, UHD, 8K, etc.), design changes of the same item, and much more. …

What does the term television mean today?

1 : an electronic system of transmitting transient images of fixed or moving objects together with sound over a wire or through space by apparatus that converts light and sound into electrical waves and reconverts them into visible light rays and audible sound. 2 : a television receiving set.

Who invented first TV in the world?

Electronic television was first successfully demonstrated in San Francisco on Sept. 7, 1927. The system was designed by Philo Taylor Farnsworth, a 21-year-old inventor who had lived in a house without electricity until he was 14.

Who is the real inventor of television?

Philo Farnsworth, in full Philo Taylor Farnsworth II, (born August 19, 1906, Beaver, Utah, U.S.—died March 11, 1971, Salt Lake City, Utah), American inventor who developed the first all-electronic television system.

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Television 

Television, also called TV, is one of our most important
means of communication. It brings moving pictures and sounds from around the
world into millions of homes.

The name «Television» comes from Greek word meaning
«far», and a Latin word meaning «to see», so the word «television» means «to
see far».

About three-fourths of the 1500 TV stations in the US
are commercial stations. They sell advertising time to pay for their operating
costs and to make profit. The rest are public stations, which are nonprofit
organizations.

Commercial TV stations broadcast mostly entertainment
programs because they must attract larger number of viewers in order to sell
advertising time at high prices. These programs include light dramas called
situation comedies; action-packed dramas about life of detectives, police
officers, lawyers and doctors; shows featuring comedians, dancers and singers;
movies; quiz shows; soap operas; cartoons. Commercial TV broadcasts also
documentaries and talk shows. Documentary is dramatic, but nonfictional
presentation of information. It can be programs about people, animals in
faraway places or programs on such issues as alcoholism, drug abuse, racial
prejudice. On talk shows a host interviews politicians, TV and movie stars,
athlets, authors. There are also sport programs and brief summaries of local,
national and international news. Advertising is an important part of commercial
TV. Commercials appear between and during most programs. They urge viewers to
buy different kinds of products — from dog food to hair spray, and from cars to
insurance policies.

Public television focuses mainly on education and
culture. There are programs on wide range of subjects — from physics and
literature to cooking and yoga. Public TV also broadcasts plays, ballets,
symphonies as well as programs about art and history. Public
TV
attracts
less
viewers
than
commercial
TV.

Телевидение 

Телевидение является
одним из наших самых важных средств коммуникации. Оно приносит движущееся
изображение и звук со всего мира в миллионы домов.

Название «телевидение»
происходит от греческого слова, означающего «далеко» и латинского слова,
означающего «видеть», таким образом, слово «телевидение» означает «далеко
видеть».

Около трех четвертей из
1500 телестанций в США являются коммерческими станциями. Они продают рекламное
эфирное время, чтобы покрыть издержки и получить прибыль. Остальные —
общественные станции, которые являются некоммерческими организациями.

Коммерческие
телестанции передают в основном развлекательные передачи, так как они должны
привлекать большее количество зрителей, чтобы продавать эфирное время по
большим ценам. Эти программы включают легкие сериалы, называемые комедиями
ситуаций, полные событий сериалы о жизни детективов, полицейских, адвокатов и
врачей, программы с участием актеров-комиков, танцоров и певцов, художественные
фильмы, викторины, мыльные оперы, мультфильмы. Коммерческие телестанции
транслируют также документальные передачи и ток-шоу. Документальная передача —
это драматическое, однако реальное представление событий. Это могут быть
передачи о людях и животных из отдаленных уголков мира или передачи на такие
темы, как наркомания, алкоголизм, расовые предрассудки. На ток-шоу ведущий
берет интервью у политиков, теле- и кинозвезд, спортсменов, писателей. Также
существуют спортивные программы и краткие обзоры местных, национальных и
международных новостей. Реклама является важной частью коммерческого
телевидения. Рекламные ролики появляются между и во время передач. Они убеждают
зрителей покупать разные виды товаров: от собачьего корма до лака для волос и
от машин до страховых полисов.

Общественное
телевидение концентрируется, главным образом, на образовании и культуре.
Существуют передачи по широкому спектру вопросов: от физики до литературы и от
приготовления пищи до йоги. Общественное телевидение транслирует спектакли,
балеты, симфоническую музыку, а также программы об искусстве и истории.
Общественное телевидение привлекает меньше зрителей, чем коммерческое.

Questions:

1. What does the word television mean?

2. What kind of stations are there in the US?

3. Why do commercial stations broadcast mostly
entertainment programs?

4. What programs are broadcasted on commercial TV? ^

5. What programs does public TV broadcast?

6. Which kind of TV — commercial or public — attracts
more viewers?

Vocabulary:

moving pictures — движущееся изображение

Greek — греческий

Latin — латинский

commercial station — коммерческая станция

advertising time — рекламное эфирное время

operating costs — издержки

profit — прибыль

public station — общественные станции

to broadcast — передавать

entertainment — развлечение

to attract — привлекать

viewer — зритель

drama — телеспектакль

situation comedy — комедия ситуаций

action-packed — полный событий

lawyer — адвокат

comedian — актер-комик

quiz show — викторина

cartoon — мультипликационный фильм

documentary — документальная
передача

talk show — ток-шоу

issue — проблема, вопрос

drug abuse — наркомания

racial prejudice — расовые предрассудки

host — ведущий

to interview — брать интервью

athlet — спортсмен

summary — обзор

advertising — реклама

commercial — рекламный ролик

to urge — убеждать

to focus— сосредоточиваться

play — пьеса

art — искусство

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A lot of cable television is shot on a single camera. Our eyes are more trained to that. It takes the camera off the crane, away from observing the action, to becoming a character in the story along with everyone else. People are getting used to that.

A. J. Bowen

ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORD TELEVISION

From tele- + vision.

PRONUNCIATION OF TELEVISION

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TELEVISION

Television is a noun.

WHAT DOES TELEVISION MEAN IN ENGLISH?

Definition of television in the English dictionary

The first definition of television in the dictionary is the system or process of producing on a distant screen a series of transient visible images, usually with an accompanying sound signal. Electrical signals, converted from optical images by a camera tube, are transmitted by UHF or VHF radio waves or by cable and reconverted into optical images by means of a television tube inside a television set. Other definition of television is Also called: television set. a device designed to receive and convert incoming electrical signals into a series of visible images on a screen together with accompanying sound. Television is also the content, etc, of television programmes.

WORDS THAT RHYME WITH TELEVISION

SYNONYMS OF «TELEVISION»

The following words have a similar or identical meaning as «television» and belong to the same grammatical category.

TRANSLATION OF TELEVISION

Find out the translation of television to 25 languages with our English multilingual translator.

TENDENCIES OF USE OF THE TERM «TELEVISION»

The term «television» is very widely used and occupies the 2.165 position in our list of most widely used terms in the English dictionary.

Principal search tendencies and common uses of television

FREQUENCY OF USE OF THE TERM «TELEVISION» OVER TIME

10 QUOTES WITH «TELEVISION»

Famous quotes and sentences with the word television.

10 ENGLISH BOOKS RELATING TO «TELEVISION»

Discover the use of television in the following bibliographical selection. Books relating to television and brief extracts from same to provide context of its use in English literature.

10 NEWS ITEMS WHICH INCLUDE THE TERM «TELEVISION»

Find out what the national and international press are talking about and how the term television is used in the context of the following news items.

REFERENCE

« EDUCALINGO. Television [online]. Available <https://educalingo.com/en/dic-en/television>. Apr 2023 ».

Television (or TV) (from the Greek tele, meaning «far,» and the Latin visio, meaning «sight») is a telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over long distances. The term has come to refer to all aspects of the system, from the receiver set to the programming and transmission.

With the growth and influence of the television industry, it is not surprising that TV sets rank among consumer goods purchased most often, and the number of sets sold per year is used as an economic indicator. Almost every household in the United States has at least one television set. The average household might have two or three, with a set even in the bathroom.

History

The television was not invented by a single person, but by a number of scientists’ advancements contributing to the ultimate all-electronic version of the invention. The origins of what would become today’s television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith in 1873 followed by the work on the telectroscope and the invention of the scanning disk by Paul Nipkow in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television (or T.V. set), relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image.

Electromechanical techniques were developed from the 1900s into the 1920s, progressing from the transmission of still photographs to live still duotone images to moving duotone or silhouette images, with each step increasing the sensitivity and speed of the scanning photoelectric cell. John Logie Baird gave the world’s first public demonstration of a working television system that transmitted live moving images with tone graduation (grayscale) on January 26, 1926, at his laboratory in London, and built a complete experimental broadcast system around his technology. Baird further demonstrated the world’s first color television transmission on July 3, 1928. Other prominent developers of mechanical television included Charles Francis Jenkins, who demonstrated a primitive television system in 1923, Frank Conrad who demonstrated a movie-film-to-television converter at Westinghouse in 1928, and Frank Gray and Herbert E. Ives at Bell Labs who demonstrated wired long-distance television in 1927 and two-way television in 1930.

Color television systems were invented and patented even before black-and-white television was working.

Completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of Philo Taylor Farnsworth, Vladimir Zworykin and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Farnsworth gave the world’s first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia on August 25, 1934.

Regular broadcast programming occurred in the United States,^[1][2] the United Kingdom,^[3] Germany,^[4][5] France and the Soviet Union^[6][7] before World War II. The first regular television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (240 or more lines) were made in England in 1936, soon upgraded to the so-called «System A» with 405 lines.

Regular network broadcasting began in the United States in 1946, and television became common in American homes by the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, France, and most of the rest of Europe, on the other hand, operators of television equipment must pay an annual license fee, which is usually used to fund (wholly or partly) the appropriate national public service broadcasters (British Broadcasting Corporation, France Télévisions, and so forth).

Technology

Elements of a television system

The elements of a simple television system are:

• An image source—this may be a camera for live pick-up of images or a flying spot scanner for transmission of films
• A sound source
• A transmitter, which modulates one or more television signals with both picture and sound information for transmission
• A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast
• A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light
• A sound device, which turns electrical signals into sound waves to go along with the picture

Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous satellites. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission bandwidth, special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers.

Display technology

Thanks to advances in display technology, there are now several kinds of video displays used in modern TV sets:

• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): The most common screens are direct-view CRTs for up to 40 inches (100 centimeters) (in 4:3) and 46 inches (115 centimeters) (in 16:9) diagonally. These are the least expensive and are a refined technology that can still provide the best value for overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed native resolution, they are capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The frame rate or refresh rate of a typical NTSC format CRT TV is 60 Hz, and for the PAL format, is 50 Hz. A typical NTSC broadcast signal’s visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640 by 480 pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the Vertical Blanking Interval, or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast.

• Rear projection: Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100 inches (254 cm)) use projection technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, LCD-based, and DLP (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display.
  • A variation is a video projector, using similar technology, which projects onto a screen.
• Flat panel (LCD or plasma): Modern advances have brought flat panels to TV that use active matrix LCD or plasma display technology. Flat panel LCDs and plasma displays are as little as one inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a pedestal. Some models can also be used as computer monitors.
• LED technology has become one of the choices for outdoor video and stadium uses, since the advent of ultra high brightness LEDs and driver circuits. LEDs enable scalable ultra-large flat panel video displays that other existing technologies may never be able to match in performance.

Each has its pros and cons. Flat panel LCD displays can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural daylight or well-lit rooms and thus are best suited to dark viewing areas.

Terminology for televisions

Pixel resolution is the amount of individual points known as pixels on a given screen. A typical resolution of 720 by 480 means that the television display has 720 pixels across and 480 pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image.
Contrast ratio is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and shadow detail.

The brightness of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colors are. Measured in equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the image.

Transmission band

There are various bands on which televisions operate depending upon the country. The VHF and UHF signals in bands III to V are generally used. Lower frequencies do not have enough bandwidth available for television. Although the BBC initially used Band I VHF at 45 MHz, this frequency is no longer in use for this purpose. Band II is used for FM radio transmissions. Higher frequencies behave more like light and do not penetrate buildings or travel around obstructions well enough to be used in a conventional broadcast TV system, so they are generally only used for satellite broadcasting, which uses frequencies around 10 GHz. TV systems in most countries relay the video as an AM (amplitude-modulation) signal and the sound as a FM (frequency-modulation) signal. An exception is France, where the sound is AM.

Aspect ratios

Aspect ratio refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television’s picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by John Logie Baird in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up.

Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same aspect ratio of 4:3, which was chosen to match the Academy Ratio used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the manufacturing technology of the time (today’s CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all). The BBC’s television service used a more squarish 5:4 ratio from 1936 to April 3, 1950, when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed.

In the 1950s, movie studios moved towards widescreen aspect ratios such as CinemaScope in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a gimmick, widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of panoramic, others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye.

The switch to digital television systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen movies, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called anamorphic widescreen format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35 millimeter film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European PALPlus television broadcasts and then later on «widescreen» DVDs; the ATSC HDTV system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used.

Widescreen spread from television to computing where both desktop and laptop computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios, but this may subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers’ uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls, subtitles or their taskbar, as opposed to viewing content full-screen.

Aspect ratio incompatibility

The television industry’s changing of aspect ratios is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem.

Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square or 4:3) display can be shown:

• in «letterbox» format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom
• with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in «pan and scan,» parts selected by an operator)
• with the image horizontally compressed

A conventional aspect (square or 4:3) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular with longer horizon) display can be shown:

• in “pillar box» format, with black vertical bars to the left and right
• with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in «tilt and scan,» parts selected by an operator)
• with the image horizontally distorted

A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as Super 35 (championed by James Cameron) has been used to film a number of major movies such as Titanic, Legally Blonde, Austin Powers, and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard full screen releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either «letterboxing» or the severe loss of information caused by conventional «pan-and-scan» cropping.

Sound

The sound provided by television was originally was similar to monophonic radio. Original televisions that were sold to the public were a small box that showed the image and was attached to a radio. One technique for sound is called a simulcast (simultaneous broadcast) where the sound is broadcast on radio while the video is broadcast on television. Some television stations use FM band to broadcast their sound. With televisions becoming more advanced, it is now quite common to have them with built in stereo. Many televisions today have stereo jacks so people can attach amplifiers to the television for better sound.

Television add-ons

Today there are many television add-ons including video game consoles, VCRs, set-top boxes for cable television, satellite and DVB-T compliant digital television reception, DVD players, or digital video recorders (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed.

Exterior designs

In the early days of television, the cabinet was made of wood grain; however, the wood grain began to disappear in the 1980s, being replaced by streamlined plastic exteriors.

Content

Advertising

Since their inception in the U.S. in 1940, TV commercials have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. Advertising rates in the U.S. are determined primarily by Nielsen Ratings.

Programming

Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:

1. Original Run or First Run—a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same.
2. Syndication—this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, TV stations or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.

In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on free-to-air (FTA) television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution.

First-run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA.

Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn’t centered around local events.

Almost since the medium’s inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, offensive, or indecent. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators, such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchase of products. George Gerbner has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the Mean World Syndrome, the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and being pitched at a low intellectual level. Paralleling television’s growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, scientists, and parents is raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium.

Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children’s emotional and social development demonstrated that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence.^[8] In a study published in February 2006,^[9] the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala, the «fight or flight» sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the posterior cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events.

An article in Scientific American suggested that compulsive television watching, television addiction, was no different from any other addiction, a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching.^[10]

A longitudinal study in New Zealand involving one thousand people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that «television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age.» In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a university.

In Iceland, television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Also, the Swedish government imposed a total ban on advertising to children under 12 in 1991.

Despite this research, some media scholars have dismissed the studies as flawed.^[11]

Technology trends

In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their schedules so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term “appointment television” was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment.

The viewership’s dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the videocassette recorder and the digital video recorder. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer video on demand, a set of programs which could be watched at any time.

Both mobile phone networks and the Internet are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of Internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs.

See also

• Broadcasting
• Electronics

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1942 to 2000. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2003. ISBN 0786412208
• Barnouw, Erik. Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. ISBN 0195064844
• Bourdieu, Pierre. On Television. New York: The New Press, 1999. ISBN 1565845129
• Brooks, Tim, and Earle March. The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows. Ballantine, 2002. ISBN 0345455428
• Burns, R.W. Television: An International History of the Formative Years. IET, 1998. ISBN 0852969147
• Debord, Guy. The Society of the Spectacle. Zone Books, 1995. ISBN 0942299795
• Derrida, Jacques, and Bernard Stiegler. Echographies of Television. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, Inc., 2002. ISBN 074562037X
• Fisher David E., and Marshall J. Fisher. Tube: the Invention of Television. Washington DC: Counterpoint, 1996. ISBN 1887178171
• Mander, Jerry. Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television. Reprint edition, 2002. New York: HarperPerennial, 1977. ISBN 0688082742
• Pecora, Norma, John P. Murray, and Ellen A. Wartella. Children and Television: 50 Years of Research. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006. ISBN 0805841393
• Postman, Neil. Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541
• Sigman, Aric. Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives. Random House UK, 2007. ISBN 0091906903
• Smith-Shomade, Beretta E. Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002. ISBN 0813531055
• Taylor, Alan. We, the Media: Pedagogic Intrusion into U.S. Mainstream Film and Television News Broadcasting Rhetorics. Peter Lang Academic Book Publishers, 2005. ISBN 3631518528

External links

All links retrieved February 26, 2023.

• GOOYA (UK) – A directory of world television channels
• The History of Television

Britannica Dictionary definition of TELEVISION