What does the word stress means

1

0   0 In a medical or biological context stress is a physical, mental, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension. Stresses can be external (from the environment, psychological, or social situations) or internal (illness, or from a medical procedure). Stress can initiate the «fight or flight» response, a complex reaction of neurol [..]

2	0   0 stress In medicine, the body’s response to physical, mental, or emotional pressure. Stress causes chemical changes in the body that can raise blood pressure, heart rate, and blood sugar levels. It may also [..]

3	0   0 stress A syllable uttered in a higher pitch—or with greater emphasis—than others. The English language itself determines how English words are stressed, but sentence structure, semantics, and meter influ [..]

4	0   0 stress  The pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope.

5	0   0 stress The force applied to a body that can result in deformation, or strain, usually described in terms of magnitude per unit of area, or intensity.

6	0   0 stress Unusual or abnormal influence causing a change in an animal’s function, structure, or behavior.

7	0   0 stress The force per unit area acting on any surface within a solid; also, by extension, the external pressure which generates the internal force.

8	0   0 stress c. 1300, «to subject (someone) to force or compulsion,» from Middle French estrecier, from Vulgar Latin *strictiare, from Latin stringere «draw tight,» which also is the source of [..]

9	0   0 stress c. 1300, «hardship, adversity, force, pressure,» in part a shortening of Middle English distress (n.); in part from Old French estrece «narrowness, oppression,» from Vulgar Latin * [..]

10	0   0 stress The load per unit area that develops on a plane surface within a structure in response to externally applied loads.

11	0   0 stress In a medical or biological context stress is a physical, mental, or emotional fact…

12

0   0 stress Stress is the resultant internal forces within a material that resist change in the size or shape of the material when the material is acted on by external forces. For example, as you blow into a balloon this causes stress in the material of the balloon that resists your efforts. Stress in the wall of a pipe resists the internal pressure exerted by [..]

13	0   0 stress to strain or put pressure on.

14	0   0 stress Stress is the force per unit area acting on a plane within a body. Six values are required to characterize completely the stress at a point: three normal components and three shear components.

15	0   0 stress In linguistics, the emphasis, length and loudness that mark one syllable as more pronounced than another. In poetry, see discussion under meter and sonnets.

16	0   0 stress Poorly defined term referring to when a person is under significant psychological or physical pressure—real or perceived, acute or chronic.

17	0   0 stress A physical or chemical factor that causes extra exertion by plants; a stressed plant will not grow as well as a non stressed plant.

18	0   0 stress Just like people, plants can be stressed. A stressed plant may wilt, lose foliage color or brown at leaf edges. This condition may be caused by wind, too little or too much watering, extreme temperatu [..]

19	0   0 stress the relative prominence of a syllable or musical note (especially with regard to stress or pitch); "he put the stress on the wrong syllable" to stress, single out as importan [..]

20	0   0 stress See definition of stress.

21	0   0 stress The physical and psychological result of internal or external pressure.

22	0   0 stress Emphasis given to a syllable in pitch, volume or duration (or several of these). In normal spoken English some syllables are given greater stress than others. In metrical writing these natural variati [..]

23

0   0 stress Physical stress: A force that produces strain on a physical body. Stress in Physics: Stress is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area. It is a measure of the intensity of the total internal forces acting within a body across imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction to external applied forces and body forces.

24	0   0 stress (or accent): The loud ‘beats’ in a poem; a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poem often gives the poem its distinctive quality. In literary criticism, there is no bas [..]

25	0   0 stress  The emphasis, or accent, given a syllable in pronunciation. See also accent.

26	0   0 stress  – the emphasis on particular syllables

27	0   0 stress  greater amount of force used to pronounce one syllable over another

28	0   0 stress In a typeface, the axis around which the strokes are drawn: oblique (negative or positive) or vertical. Not to be confused with the angle of the strokes themselves (for instance, italics are made with [..]

29	0   0 stress a physical or chemical factor that causes extra exertion by plants: A stressed plant will not grow as well as a non-stressed plant.

30	0   0 stress Physical, chemical, or emotional factors that place a strain on an animal. Plants also experience physiological stress under adverse environmental conditions. stress-related disease

31	0   0 stress Stress is an increase in the activity of the vocal apparatus of a speaker.

32	0   0 stress Is the state which is seen in response to internal or external stressors. Every system of the body responds to stress in varying ways. Stress enlists changes affecting almost every system of the body, [..]

33	0   0 stress kvetsh

34	0   0 stress stress (pop)

35	0   0 stress A psychological and physical response of the body that occurs whenever we must adapt to changing conditions, whether those conditions be real or perceived, positive or negative. Although everyone has [..]

36	0   0 stress   The measure of the force acting on a body.

37	0   0 stress A heat treatment to reduce residual stresses, followed by sufficiently slow cooling to minimize development of new residual stresses.

38	0   0 stress Those stresses set up in a metal as a result of nonuniform plastic deformation, or the unequal cooling of a casting.

39	0   0 stress Intensity of applied load, usually at the site of a failure.

40	0   0 stress an environmental factor that has a negative effect on an organism, a species or a community.

41	0   0 stress Force exerted.

42	0   0 stress Any circumstance that upsets homeostatic balance. Examples include exposure to extreme cold or heat or an array of threatening psychological states.

43	0   0 stress A fracture produced by the stress created by a repetitive loading cycle on the bone, commonly found in athletic training. Usually seen in the front of the cannon bone as a severe form of bucked shins. [..]

44	0   0 stress any force or stimuli causing mental or physical response.

45	0   0 stress Any condition of tension or compression existing within the glass, particularly due to incomplete annealing, temperature gradient, or inhomogeneity.

46	0   0 stress The internal force or resistance developed in steel which was hardened, extensively machined, or cold worked.

47	0   0 stress force that pushes or pulls rocks. structure —

48	0   0 stress the force per unit area acting on any surface within a 3D object

49	0   0 stress Intensity of applied load, usually at the site of a failure.

50	0   0 stress The distorting force per unit area.

51	0   0 stress worry that causes muscles to tighten and blood pressure to rise

52	0   0 stress force per unit area of cross-section in a solid perpendicular to the cross-section

53	0   0 stress the degree of force used in producing a syllable. A stressed syllable may be longer, louder, or higher pitched than nearby unstressed syllables. A stressed syllable may sometimes be marked with an acc [..]

54	0   0 stress (n) the relative prominence of a syllable or musical note (especially with regard to stress or pitch)(n) (psychology) a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense(n) special emphasis attached [..]

55	0   0 stress The relative prominence of syllables. It is usual to distinguish lexical stress and sentence stress (also called rhythmic stress). The former may be thought of as a syllable’s potential to receive p [..]

56	0   0 stress 1. Pressure; strain. 2. Any condition that causes mental or physical strain or tension.

57	0   0 stress An innate survival response in which certain hormones are released, increasing blood flow to the brain or heart. The stress response leads to an energy surge, enabling a person to flee dangerous situa [..]

58	0   0 stress The neurophysiological and subjective response to stimuli. In contrast to the common interpretation of the term «stress» as a psychological phenomenon, it should be understood as any real or [..]

59	0   0 stress An external force applied to a component or assembly that tends to damage or destroy it.

60	0   0 stress An internal force that resists a load. It is the intensity of force per unit of area, i.e., psi (pounds per square inch).

61	0   0 stress Any event or circumstance that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope.

62	0   0 stress A fracture produced by the stress created by a repetitive loading cycle on the bone, commonly found in athletic training. Usually seen in the front of the cannon bone as a severe form of bucked shins. [..]

63	0   0 stress Stress is the feeling you get when you’re worrying about a big test or when your parents are arguing. Sometimes, you’ll feel butterflies in your stomach, sweaty hands, or have trouble sleepi [..]

64	0   0 stress The force per unit area on body that tends to cause it to deform. It is a measure of the internal forces in a body between particles of the material of which it consists as they resist separation, compression, or sliding.

65	0   0 stress A measure of the intensity of the load applied to a material. Stress is expressed as the load divided by the cross-sectional area over which it is applied.

66	0   0 stress Stress is a feeling a person experiences when they are under pressure. It causes their heart rate and blood pressure to rise and the body to produce stress hormones. People who experience a lot of str [..]

67	0   0 stress Deforming force to which a body is subjected or the resistance which the body offers to deformation by the force. (See also Strain and Hooke’s Law)

68	0   0 stress The forces exerted on, within, or by a body during either tension or compression.

69	0   0 stress Force per unit area, often thought of as a force acting through a small area within a plane. It can be divided into components, perpendicular and parallel to the plane, called normal stress and shear [..]

70	0   0 stress In a mechanical sample, the ratio of applied force to cross-sectional area which bears that force.

71	0   0 stress The average of the various internal forces in a plane of area within a body as a result of the application of external forces.

72	0   0 stress a response, which may have physical as well as psychological manifestations, to threatening or overly demanding situations. For learners, it can be a major barrier in learning; for teachers and other [..]

73	0   0 stress An imbalance between environmental demands and an organism’s response capabilities. Also the human body’s response to excessive change.

74	0   0 stress Various physiological or molecular disturbances that impair Endoplasmic Reticulum function. It triggers many responses, including Unfolded Protein Response, which may Lead to Apoptosis; and Autophagy.

75	0   0 stress DNA Damage in vivo.

76	0   0 stress A purely physical condition which exists within any material because of strain or deformation by external forces or by non-uniform thermal expansion; expressed quantitatively in units of force per uni [..]

77	0   0 stress A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and Lipid [..]

78	0   0 stress The unfavorable effect of environmental factors (stressors) on the physiological functions of an organism. Prolonged unresolved physiological stress can Affect Homeostasis of the organism, and may Lea [..]

79	0   0 stress Stress wherein emotional factors predominate.

80

0   0 stress In the science called rheology (the study of how materials flow and deform), stress is the force applied to a material and strain is the resulting movement of the material. A simple practical exercise is to measure the length of a rubber band ‘at rest’, then suspend an object of known weight from it (stress) and measure the change in its [..]

81	0   0 stress Stress wherein emotional factors predominate.

82	0   0 stress A pathological process resulting from the reaction of the body to external forces and abnormal conditions that tend to disturb the organism’s homeostasis.

83	0   0 stress A purely physical condition which exists within any material because of strain or deformation by external forces or by non-uniform thermal expansion; expressed quantitatively in units of force per uni [..]

84	0   0 stress When discussing dogs, stress is frequently used as a synonym for distress. Dogs can experience stress for a number of reasons, from lack of enough exercise or mental stimulation to unpredictable and p [..]

85	0   0 stress The acoustic prominence of a syllable in a word. The physical correlates of stress can vary. Typically it involves the raising of the basic frequency and/or of volume matched by a prolongation of the [..]

86	0   0 stress A harmful pressure to an organism or a. A drought or flood or a severe winter would cause stress to a plant population and, therefore, to animals.

87	0   0 stress Stress describes the internal changes that occur in a cat’s physiology when something changes in its environment. The stress response is a very adaptive change that enables the cat to be able to [..]

88	0   0 stress Any external stimulus that threatens homeostasis — the normal equilibrium of body function. Many kinds of stress have a negative effect on the body, but some kinds can be helpful.

89	0   0 stress The response of the body to physical, mental, or emotional pressure. This may make a person feel frustrated, angry, or anxious, and may cause unhealthy chemical changes in the body. Untreated, long-term stress may lead to many types of mental and physical health problems.

90	0   0 stress a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances.

91	0   0 stress In a solid, the force per unit area, acting on any surface within it, and variously expressed as pounds or tons per square inch, or dynes or kilograms per square centimeter.

92	0   0 stress A form of prosody in spoken language, stress is produced by constricting certain parts of the speech apparatus in order to produce more emphatic speech.

93	0   0 stress See dukkha.

94	0   0 stress the extra time given to certain syllables or spoken words of importance e.g. "We don’t want to worsen the problem." OR "The pho-to-grapher is late."

95	0   0 stress Stress is the brain and body’s response to a challenge or a call-to-action. Many therapists believe that stress occurs when the challenge or call-to-action placed upon a person exceeds the resources [..]

96	0   0 stress Stress is not believed to be the cause of Ménière’s disease, but it can exacerbate symptoms. Studies have shown that your body is less able to cope with dizziness when you are stressed. When you a [..]

97	0   0 stress The intensity of internal force acting at a point in an object. Stress is measured in units of force per area. See shear stress and normal stress.

98

0   0 stress Load on a specimen divided by the area through which it acts. As used with most mechanical tests, stress is based on original cross-sectional area without taking into account changes in area due to applied load. This sometimes is called conventional or engineering stress. True stress is equal to the load divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional [..]

99	0   0 stress Force divided by area, measured in (for example) Newtons per square millimetre, or pounds per square foot.

100	0   0 stress Is the measure of internal force within a body, defined as the amount of force per unit area. This is contrary to the psychological meaning, which describes the symptoms rather than the cause. For engineers, stress is not harmful – it’s the strain that’s the problem!

101	0   0 stress lang=en 1800s=1813 * »’1813»’ — . »». *: «What can be the meaning of that emphatic exclamation?» cried he. «Do you consider the forms of introduction, and the stress that is laid on them, as [..]

102	0   0 stress mental or physical tension that results from physical, emotional, or chemical causes.

103	0   0 stress Force per unit area caused by axial force, moment, shear or torsion.

104	0   0 stress Stress may refer to:

105	0   0 stress Physiological or biological stress is an organism’s response to a stressor such as an environmental condition. Stress is the body’s method of reacting to a condition such as a threat, challenge or phy [..]

106	0   0 stress In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word, or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. This emphasis is ty [..]

107	0   0 stress In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other, while strain is the measure of the def [..]

108	0   0 stress Stress was a pop rock band formed in San Diego in 1983.

109	0   0 stress Stress was a very short-lived Neo-Psychedelic rock band composed of Wayne Binitie, Ian Mussington and Mitch Amachi Ogugua. They released only one album in 1991 on Reprise/Warner Bros. Records. They ar [..]

110	0   0 stress Stress is a card game that uses a standard 52-card deck. It is usually only played with two people. (Although it is possible to play with more) The game requires each player to have a deck of numbered [..]

111	0   0 stress «Stress» was the Norwegian entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1968, performed in Norwegian by Odd Børre. The song is a moderately up-tempo number, with Børre seemingly conducting a conversation wi [..]

112	0   0 stress Stress is an album by Daddy Freddy.

113	0   0 stress Stress may refer to:

114	0   0 stress Stress is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on stress in terms of: the mechanisms of stressful stimulation, the physiological and behavioural responses to stress, and their r [..]

115	0   0 stress In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word, or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. This emphasis is ty [..]

116	0   0 stress Stress is a Brazil heavy metal band. They were among the earliest Brazilian metal bands, and recorded what is considered to be the first Brazilian heavy metal album, the self-titled Stress.

117	0   0 stress Stress is the debut full-length album by the Brazilian heavy, speed metal band Stress. It was released in 1982 and re-released on LP in 2002 and CD in 2005 by Dies Irae.

118	0   0 stress «Stress» is a song by French electronic music duo Justice. It is the tenth track on their debut studio album, † (also known as Cross). A music video for the song, directed by Romain Gavras, was rele [..]

119	0   1 stress physical or mental factor (or set of factors) that disturbs the body’s normal state of functioning or ability.

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Stress (roughly the opposite of relaxation) is a medical term for a wide range of strong external stimuli, both physiological and psychological, which can cause a physiological response called the general adaptation syndrome, first described in 1936 by Hans Selye in the journal Nature.

Detailed definitions

Stress may also be defined as «the sum of physical and mental responses to an unacceptable disparity between real or imagined personal experience and personal expectations.»^{[citation needed]} By this definition, stress is a response which includes both physical and mental components.

The physical responses include a host of physiological changes which largely fall into acute response, and chronic response.
Acute response is approximately that discussed by Hans Selye. Chronic response is more complex and subtle, and has not been fully delineated.
Selye presented his concepts in the General Adaption Syndrome, where the organism used diverse mechanisms to adapt to stressors, for example the flight or fight response, and return to a homeostatic state (Claude Bernard, Walter Cannon). Later in his career, he proposed two levels of stress resistance: a superficial which could be replenished, and a deep which could not.

Mental responses to stress include adaptive («good») stress, anxiety, and depression. Where stress enhances function (physical or mental) it may be considered «good» stress. However, if stress persists and is of «excessive» degree, it eventually leads to a need for resolution, which may lead either to anxiety (escape) or depressive (withdrawal) behaviors—these observation could add immensely to philosophy, religion, ethics, and law, but it would stress those systems to adapt to this knowledge, and the outcome is doubtful.

One may further appreciate from that definition that stress may derive from imagined experience such as stress felt during a frightening movie). Further, the fulcrum of stress response is the presence of disparity between experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations. A person living in a fashion consistent with personally-accepted expectations has no stress even if the conditions might be interpreted as adverse from some outside perspective—rural people may live in comparative poverty, and yet be unstressed if there is sufficiency according to their expectations. Finally, where there is chronic disparity between experience and expectations stress may be relieved by acceptance. However, since acceptance is rarely complete—except in children—stress resolution by this approach is also rarely complete. It has been said that stress is often a reaction to a crisis of predictability, further that mind is solely an instrument of prediction, and that the body may be divided into a vegetative process and an integrative process.

Types of stress

Any factor that causes stress is called a stressor. There are two kinds of stressors: processive stressors and systemic stressors.

Processive stressors are elements in the environment perceived by the organism as potential dangers. These do not cause damage directly, but are processed in the cerebral cortex. The processed information is then sent via the limbic system in the hypothalamus, where they activate the supreme centers of the autonomic nervous system. This results in the fight-or-flight (or sympathetico-adrenal) response.

Systemic stressors cause a disturbance in the organism’s homeostasis, as well as tissue necrosis, hypotension and/or hypoxia. Often both types of stressors occur simultaneously. They are usually accompanied by pain and/or intensive emotions.

Mental responses to stress include adaptive (good) stress, anxiety, and depression. Where stress enhances function (physical or mental) it may be considered good stress. However, if stress persists and is of excessive degree, it eventually leads to a need for resolution, which may lead either to anxious (escape) or depressive (withdrawal) behavior.

One may further appreciate from that definition that stress may derive from imagined experiences such as frightening movies. Further, the fulcrum of stress response is the presence of disparity between experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations. A person living in a fashion consistent with personally-accepted expectations has no stress even if the conditions might be interpreted as adverse from some outside perspective — rural people may live in comparative poverty, and yet be unstressed if there is a sufficiency according to their expectations. Finally, when there is chronic disparity between experience and expectations, stress may be relieved by acceptance. However, since acceptance is rarely complete except in children, stress resolution by this approach is also rarely complete. It has been said that stress is often a reaction to a crisis of predictability, that the mind is solely an instrument of prediction, and that the body may be divided into a vegetative process and an integrative process.

Effects of stress

• Stress and mental disorders
• Stress and physical disorders

Causes of stress

Both negative and postive stressors can lead to stress.

Below is a non-exhaustive list of common stressors in people’s lives:

• Environmental stress: Elevated sound levels, Bright light

• Economic stress: Deprivation, Unpaid bills, lack of money

• Occupational stress: Organizational crises
  • • Work/study: exams, rush hour traffic, project deadlines

• Physiological stress: (un-healthy eating, smoking, heavy drinking, not getting enough sleep, etc.),aging, Pain

• Psychological stress: Existential crisis
  • Personal relationships:bullying, caregiver burden, conflict, deception,
  • Exposure to stress early on in life can permanently enhance the stress response (ie: abused children)

• Social stress, Life events Family conflicts: births, deaths, rape, war, reunions, weddings, divorce, moving, chronic illness, crises, disasters, loss of role, identity crisis.

One evaluation of the different stresses in people’s lives is the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale.

Stress and its effects

Selye was able to separate the physical effects of stress from other physical symptoms suffered by patients through his research. He observed that patients suffered physical effects not caused directly by their disease or by their medical condition.

Selye described the general adaptation syndrome as having three stages:

• alarm reaction, where the body detects the external stimuli
• adaptation, where the body engages defensive countermeasures against the stressor
• exhaustion, where the body begins to run out of defenses

There are two types of stress: eustress («positive stress») and distress («negative stress»), roughly meaning challenge and overload. Both types may be the result of negative or positive events. If a person both wins the lottery and has a beloved relative die on the same day, one event does not cancel the other — both are stressful events. Eustress is essential to life, like exercise to a muscle, however distress can cause disease. (Note that what causes distress for one person may cause eustress for another, depending upon each individual’s life perception.) When the word stress is used alone, typically it is referring to distress.

Serenity is defined as a state in which an individual is disposition-free or largely free from the negative effects of stress, and in some cultures it is considered a state that can be cultivated by various practices, such as meditation, and other forms of training.

Stress can directly and indirectly contribute to general or specific disorders of body and mind. Stress can have a major impact on the physical functioning of the human body. Such stress raises the level of adrenaline and corticosterone in the body, which in turn increases the heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure and puts more physical stress on bodily organs. Long-term stress can be a contributing factor in heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke and other illnesses.

The Japanese phenomenon of karoshi, or death from overwork, is believed to be due to heart attack and stroke caused by high levels of stress.

The link between emotions and physical health is further supported by this paragraph from James A. Duke’s The Green Pharmacy Herbal Handbook about the research of Dean Ornish, M.D:

Dr. Ornish tells about a group of rabbits that added an unexpected tidbit to the research on heart disease. Kept in a laboratory under research conditions, the rabbits were genetically similar, and all received the same food and got the same amount of exercise; yet one group had 60 percent fewer heart attacks than the others. What was the difference? It turned out that the healthier rabbits were the ones kept in the lower cages, and the short person who fed the rabbits could reach the lower animals and pet them when feeding them. Love, it seems, is a life preserver. [1]

Coping with stress

Individuals can respond very differently to the same stressor; any given situation can cause eustress in one person and distress in another. This happens because of differences in physiology and life circumstances, as well as different methods of stress management. Methods of coping that work well in childhood situations often become ingrained and habitual, and often follow the child into adulthood. In the adult world, these skills can be quite inappropriate, and stress heightens as the person clings to obsolete behaviors. However, new skills can be learned, and poor coping methods replaced. There are currently many classes, books, and seminars available to help people develop better habits of managing stress.

Other approaches to dealing with stress include The Alexander Technique, Shiatsu, T’ai Chi Ch’uan, yoga and meditation. For example, when Selye reviewed the physiological changes measured in practitioners of transcendental meditation (TM), he concluded that such changes were the opposite of the body’s reaction to stress. The therapeutic effect of TM was most distinct in people whose coping skills were poorly adapted to the stress of daily life.

Finally, a number of psychological and sociological factors have been consistently demonstrated to act as a moderator against stress in the development of chronic psychological or physical disease (such as depression or hypertension). Among these many factors are chiefly: optimism or hope, social support, Socioeconomic status (SES), sense of community, and others.

Neurochemistry and physiology

The general neurochemistry of the general adaptation syndrome is now believed to be well understood, although much remains to be discovered about how this system interacts with others in the brain and elsewhere in the body.

The body reacts to stress first by releasing catecholamine hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine, and glucocorticoid hormones, cortisol and cortisone.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a major part of the neuroendocrine system, involving the interactions of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal glands. The HPA axis is believed to play a primary role in the body’s reactions to stress, by balancing hormone releases from the adrenaline-producing adrenal medulla and from the corticosteroid producing adrenal cortex.

Stress Management Techniques

The following activities, actions, and descriptions listed below, as well as any other means in relieving or reducing stress, can be coined stress management techniques. Stress management techniques allow for stress reduction through applications of exercise, medicine, personal analysis—this can effortlessly be achieved by attending therapy sessions with a psychologist, for example—or can even be as simple as devoting an increment of one’s day for personal time. Stress management techniques are broadly used today as the negative health effects of a stress overload can be detrimental to one’s daily functioning. As for chronic stress, the consistent application of stress over a period of time can seriously impair one’s mental, physical, and even social functionings. Studies show chronic stress is extremely unhealthy in numerous aspects: those who are stressed are more suspectible to a myriad of diseases ranging from high blood pressure to forms of skin cancer, as studies within the scientific realm have most recently shown. For optimal health and wellness it is vital to undertake a stress management technique in attempts to reduce, if not ideally completely eliminate, stress or the situation that is facilitating it. Below are some methods of stress management techniques:

Relaxation Response as a relief of stress

Herbert Benson, M.D. developed a technique called The Relaxation Response, which makes the basic steps of meditation easy to understand and apply. Dr. Benson’s website offers the following steps as a simple way to begin practicing meditation:

• Pick a focus word, short phrase, or prayer that is firmly rooted in your belief system, such as «one,» «peace,» «The Lord is my shepherd,» «Hail Mary full of grace,» or «shalom.»
• Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
• Close your eyes.
• Relax your muscles, progressing from your feet to your calves, thighs, abdomen, shoulders, head, and neck.
• Breathe slowly and naturally, and as you do, say your focus word, sound, phrase, or prayer silently to yourself as you exhale.
• Assume a passive attitude. Don’t worry about how well you’re doing. When other thoughts come to mind, simply say to yourself, «Oh well,» and gently return to your repetition.
• Continue for ten to 20 minutes.
• Do not stand immediately. Continue sitting quietly for a minute or so, allowing other thoughts to return. Then open your eyes and sit for another minute before rising.
• Practice the technique once or twice daily. Good times to do so are before breakfast and before dinner. (Mind-Body Medical Institute)

Walking meditations as a relief of stress

There are more active forms of meditation as well, such as the walking meditations taught by the Vietnamese Buddhist monk Thich Nhat Hanh and Jon Kabat-Zinn of the University of Massachusetts Medical Center. Walking meditations employ the practice of mindfulness, which involves being fully engaged in whatever is happening in the present moment, without becoming involved in thinking about it. Therefore, when you walk you focus on each step, the sensation of the feet touching the ground, the rhythm of the breath while moving, and the feel of wind against your face.

This type of meditation is «portable», and can be practiced in other activities, such as driving or engaging in work tasks. Mindfulness meditation relieves stress because it relieves preoccupation with the habitual thoughts about the past or the future that perpetuate stress. As mind-body medicine pioneer Joan Borysenko, Ph.D., says, «Meditation helps to keep us from identifying with the ‘movies of the mind.’»

Another meditation technique involves guided imagery or visualizations. In this method, the meditator imagines a scene wherein he or she feels very at peace and is able to let go of all concerns and tensions. In many cases, this form of meditation is practiced by listening to guided audio instructions. Visit the online guided meditations section of the references and resources for a sampling of some free guided meditations.

Tai Chi as a relief of stress

Tai Chi Chuan, or Tai Chi for short, is a self-paced, non-competitive series of slow, flowing body movements (“forms”) that emphasize acute concentration, relaxation, and the conscious circulation of vital energy throughout the body. Though Tai Chi evolved as a martial art sometime in the 13th century, it is primarily practiced today as a way of calming the mind, conditioning the body, and reducing stress. The basis of Tai Chi is the principle of “softness defeating hardness.” Proper stance, which involves lowering the center of gravity (“sinking”), is emphasized over muscular strength as a way to access one’s innate power. Depending on the style of Tai Chi taught, there are between 13 and 108 forms that make up a set when performed continuously. As in meditation, Tai Chi employs focusing on the breath and mindfulness, or maintenance of the mind’s attention in the present moment and merging it with daily motions. Tai Chi Practitioners say moving meditation is, 10, 100, 1000 times better than sitting meditation. In the Chinese system, one works in the the world through ones productive years, but as one passes into retirement one strives to attain a near continuos meditation in one’s life, cultivating one’s garden.

Tai Chi works with the concept of Qi (pronounced “chee”) —a “bio-energy” that moves throughout the body via invisible energy channels called meridians. Qi regulates and maintains health in the various systems of the body by supplying healing energy to the organs. When there are constrictions in the movement of Qi due to injury, a “slumping” posture, or other problems, “dis-ease” or stress results. The muscular movements of Tai Chi remove any blockages and stimulate the Qi to flow freely.

Tai Chi is especially suited for older adults because of its low impact movements.
Reported health benefits:

• Less stress and more peace of mind.
• Improved ability to deal with difficult situations.
• Improved balance and proprioception (internal body awareness).
• More strength, stamina, and suppleness.
• Improved functioning of the internal organs.
• Easier breathing and better sleep.
• Improve balance and minimize falls.
• It is self-paced and noncompetitive.
• You don’t need a large physical space, special clothing or equipment.
• It is easy to do in groups as well as by yourself.
• You can add new movements as you become more proficient.
• The International Taoist Tai Chi Society provides a World Directory of Tai Chi practitioners as a way to find qualified instruction near you.

Other activities as relief of stress

Sleep

While there are many things you can do to reduce stress, the first line of defense against stress is to make sure you are getting enough sleep. Sleep restores the body systems and provides rejuvenation. Sleep-deprived bodies will be too depleted to perform the important stress-reducing physical and mental activities we have described. See Helpguide’s Getting the Sleep You Need: Sleep Stages, Sleep Tips and Aids for more information.

Cardiovascular exercise

Exercise is good for the mind, not just the body. Exercise can help with stress relief because it provides a way for the body to release tension and pent-up frustration (stress). It can also help stave off the depression that can set in when stress levels become too high by raising the output of endorphins—one of the ‘feel good’ chemicals in the brain. Any form of exercise can combat stress, but it is important that the activity be enjoyable, vigorous enough to discharge energy, and have a relaxing effect when you are finished.

Yoga

Practicing Yoga can have similar effects on the body and mind as practicing meditation. Yoga can force awareness to shift out of the mind and into the body. This transition happens through focusing on alignment of body and on breathing. There are also many poses that act as restorative yoga poses which bring the body in a conscious, awake state of rest. This not only relaxes the body but also calms the mind, helping to reduce the psychological triggers of stress. Ultimately, yoga can help to calm the activating nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system and stimulate the calming nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system.

Mindfulness

Similarly practicing mindfulness has been shown to bring clinical improvement.

Spending time in nature

Psychologists today recognize the mental health benefits of spending time in the natural world. Activities done in nature tend to calm the mind and emotions, and to bring greater body awareness as a way to let go of mental stress. From taking walks in your neighborhood, to observing animals in the wild, to planting a garden, there are myriad ways to connect with the grounding and nurturing energy in nature. See the article Spending Time in Nature for suggestions on how to begin tapping the healing power of nature.

Massage Therapy

A professional massage from a trained therapist can provide soothing, deep relaxation and can improve important physiological processes such as circulation. A stress-relieving massage targets specific muscles that may be tense and painful. As the tense muscles relax, so does your overstressed mind. As massage has recently gained popularity as a stress reliever, the variety of different types of massage has changed. According to the American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA), the most common type of massage is a Swedish massage, which is specifically meant to relax and energize. Wilheim Riech proposed «body armor» as sets of muscles which rigidify in response to some stressor—he recommended sex as the release. Before visiting a massage therapist, you may want to visit the consumer section of AMTA’s website to learn more about what massage can do for you, what to expect from a massage, and how to find a qualified massage therapist.

Meditation as a relief of stress

The history of meditation goes back even further than that of Hatha Yoga, with its origins beginning around 3000 B.C. Meditation evolved as a way for the ancient spiritual seers—known in India as Rishis—to gain direct knowledge of the nature of the Ultimate Reality. Today, meditation is recognized for its myriad health benefits, and is widely practiced as a way to counteract stress. Meditation brings together all the energies of the mind and focuses them on a chosen point: a word, a sound, a symbol, an image that evokes comfort, or one’s own breathing. It is typically practiced in a quiet, clean environment in a seated posture with the eyes closed.

As with yoga, a regular practice of meditation conditions you to bring the meditative state into your daily life. Holistic-online [www.holistic-online.com] reports that «hormones and other biochemical compounds in the blood indicative of stress tend to decrease during (meditation) practice. These changes also stabilize over time, so that a person is actually less stressed biochemically during daily activity.»

In meditation, there is both effort and passive participation. One continually brings attention back to a chosen focus (effort), and simply become a witness of all that transpires (passive participation), incorporating thoughts, sensory input, bodily sensations, and external stimulus into the meditation experience. The result of centering the mind in this way is a corresponding calming and relaxing of the body, down to the cellular level, providing stress reduction, by blocking out cognitive stressors and reducing physical ones.

Stress and immunity

There is substantial evidence that these physiological changes underly the relationship found between stress and compromised immunity.

Folklore of stress

It was gradually realized that such concepts as anxiety, antagonism, exhaustion, frustration, distress, despair, overwork, pre-menstrual tension, over-focusing, confusion, mourning, and fear could all come together in a general broadening of the meaning of the term stress. The popular use of the term in modern folklore expanded rapidly and created an industry of popular psychology, self-help, psychotherapy, and sometimes quackery. There were a series of films in the 30s, 40s, & 50s that dealt with mad scientists playing with hormones that seem related to this folklore.

The use of the term stress in serious and recognized cases, such as those of post-traumatic stress disorder and psychosomatic illness, has scarcely helped clear analysis of the generalized «stress» phenomenon. Nonetheless, some varieties of stress from negative life events (distress) and from positive life events, (eustress) can clearly have a serious physical impact distinct from the troubles of what psychotherapists call the «worried well». Stress activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomous nervous system and the release of stress hormones including adrenaline/epinephrine, and cortisol.

Sympathetic nervous output tends to divert bloodflow to the large muscles—the body ‘thinks’ it has to run away from something or fight something: the so-called ‘fight or flight’ response of ancient evolutionary heritage—and blood flows correspondingly less to the digestive system and other organs that are not immediately needed for a response to the stimulus. We all recognise the effects: dry mouth, motor agitation, sweating, pallor, enlarged pupils, and insomnia. Our modern lifestyle tends to cause continual sympathetic nervous system activation with very little opportunity for the parasympathetic (also called ‘vegetative’) nervous system to activate. When the parasympathetic system is active, the bowel and other non-muscle organs receive good blood-flow, the pupils constrict, and the glands all function well and secrete their various compounds. Absence of the autonomic parasympathetic activation leads to poor digestion and probably also to poor healing and organ function. It is vital to take time out from our modern lifestyles to allow for rest and proper parasympathetic action in our bodies.

See also

• Anxiety
• Adjustment disorders
• Critical Incident Stress Management
• Distress
• Endurance
• Fight-or-flight response
• Prenatal stress
• Resilience
• Strange situation
• Stress management
• Stress reactions

References & Bibliography

Key texts

Books

• Lefcourt, H. M. (1989). Personal and social characteristics that alter the impact of stressors. New York, NY: AMS Press.
• Selye, H. (1956) The Stress of Life, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Papers

• Flinn, M.V. & England, B.G. (2003). Childhood stress: endocrine and immune responses to psychosocial events. In: Social & Cultural Lives of Immune Systems, J.M. Wilce (Ed.), pp. 107-147. London: Routledge press. Full text

• Nesse R.M. & Young, E. (2000). Evolutionary Origins and Functions of the Stress Response. In G. Fink (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Stress, Academic Press, NY, 79-84. Full text

Additional material

Books

Papers

• Google Scholar
• Ulrich, R., et al. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11 (3), 201-230.

• Brennan, Richard (1998) «Mind and Body Stress Relief with the Alexander Technique»

External links

• Work Organisation Assessment — an online tool for employers to benchmark stress in the workplace
• On-Line Stress Test
• Stress Reduction Techniques
• Stress News
• How the Alexander Technique can help with all types of stress
• Stress
• Stress and psychosomatic symptoms
• Stress in the Work Place
• Stress and Young Children.
• Stress Management for the Learning Disabled
• Stress Anxiety and Depression Articles
• Understanding and Managing Stress in the Academic World
• Student Stress: Effects and Solutions
• Promoting Stress Management: The Role of Comprehensive School Health Programs
• Stress: Signs and Symptoms, Causes and Effects
• Stress Management and Prevention at Work and at Home
• Stress Relief: Meditation, Yoga, and Other Relaxation Techniques
• Blood test can discover chronic stress — A web article
• Stress & Burnout
• APA interactive demo of physical/psychological effects of stress

For other kinds of stress, see Stress.

Stress, either physiological, biological or psychological, is an organism’s response to a stressor such as an environmental condition.^[1] Stress is the body’s method of reacting to a condition such as a threat, challenge or physical and psychological barrier. There are two hormones that an individual produces during a stressful situation, these are well known as adrenaline and cortisol.^[2] There are two kinds of stress hormone levels. Resting (basal) cortisol levels are normal everyday quantities that are essential for standard functioning. Reactive cortisol levels are increases in cortisol in response to stressors. Stimuli that alter an organism’s environment are responded to by multiple systems in the body.^[3] In humans and most mammals, the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are the two major systems that respond to stress.^[4]

The sympathoadrenal medullary (SAM) axis may activate the fight-or-flight response through the sympathetic nervous system, which dedicates energy to more relevant bodily systems to acute adaptation to stress, while the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to homeostasis.

The second major physiological stress-response center, the HPA axis, regulates the release of cortisol, which influences many bodily functions such as metabolic, psychological and immunological functions. The SAM and HPA axes are regulated by several brain regions, including the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, and stria terminalis.^[4] Through these mechanisms, stress can alter memory functions, reward, immune function, metabolism and susceptibility to diseases.^[5]

Disease risk is particularly pertinent to mental illnesses, whereby chronic or severe stress remains a common risk factor for several mental illnesses.^[6][7]

Psychology[edit]

Acute stressful situations where the stress experienced is severe is a cause of change psychologically to the detriment of the well-being of the individual, such that symptomatic derealization and depersonalization, and anxiety and hyperarousal, are experienced.^[8] The International Classification of Diseases includes a group of mental and behavioral disorders which have their aetiology in reaction to severe stress and the consequent adaptive response.^[9][10] Chronic stress, and a lack of coping resources available, or used by an individual, can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as delusions,^[11] depression and anxiety (see below for further information).^[12] Chronic stress also causes brain atrophy, which is the loss of neurons and the connections between them. It affects the part of the brain that is important for learning, responding to the stressors and cognitive flexibility.^[13]

Chronic stressors may not be as intense as acute stressors such as natural disaster or a major accident, but persist over longer periods of time, tend to have a more negative effect on health because they are sustained and thus require the body’s physiological response to occur daily.^[14] This depletes the body’s energy more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when these microstressors cannot be avoided (i.e. stress of living in a dangerous neighborhood). See allostatic load for further discussion of the biological process by which chronic stress may affect the body. For example, studies have found that caregivers, particularly those of dementia patients, have higher levels of depression and slightly worse physical health than non-caregivers.^[14]

When humans are under chronic stress, permanent changes in their physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses may occur.^[15] Chronic stress can include events such as caring for a spouse with dementia, or may result from brief focal events that have long term effects, such as experiencing a sexual assault. Studies have also shown that psychological stress may directly contribute to the disproportionately high rates of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality and its etiologic risk factors. Specifically, acute and chronic stress have been shown to raise serum lipids and are associated with clinical coronary events.^[16]

However, it is possible for individuals to exhibit hardiness—a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy.^[17] Even though psychological stress is often connected with illness or disease, most healthy individuals can still remain disease-free after being confronted with chronic stressful events. This suggests that there are individual differences in vulnerability to the potential pathogenic effects of stress; individual differences in vulnerability arise due to both genetic and psychological factors. In addition, the age at which the stress is experienced can dictate its effect on health. Research suggests chronic stress at a young age can have lifelong effects on the biological, psychological, and behavioral responses to stress later in life.^[18]

Etymology and historical usage[edit]

The term «stress» had none of its contemporary connotations before the 1920s. It is a form of the Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, «to draw tight».^[19] The word had long been in use in physics to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in strain. In the 1920s and ’30s, biological and psychological circles occasionally used the term to refer to a mental strain or to a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness.^[20][21]

Walter Cannon used it in 1926 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called homeostasis.^[22] But «…stress as an explanation of lived experience is absent from both lay and expert life narratives before the 1930s».^[23] Physiological stress represents a wide range of physical responses that occur as a direct effect of a stressor causing an upset in the homeostasis of the body. Upon immediate disruption of either psychological or physical equilibrium the body responds by stimulating the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. The reaction of these systems causes a number of physical changes that have both short- and long-term effects on the body.^[24]

The Holmes and Rahe stress scale was developed as a method of assessing the risk of disease from life changes.^[25] The scale lists both positive and negative changes that elicit stress. These include things such as a major holiday or marriage, or death of a spouse and firing from a job.^{[citation needed]}

Biological need for equilibrium[edit]

Homeostasis is a concept central to the idea of stress.^[26] In biology, most biochemical processes strive to maintain equilibrium (homeostasis), a steady state that exists more as an ideal and less as an achievable condition. Environmental factors, internal or external stimuli, continually disrupt homeostasis; an organism’s present condition is a state of constant flux moving about a homeostatic point that is that organism’s optimal condition for living.^[27] Factors causing an organism’s condition to diverge too far from homeostasis can be experienced as stress. A life-threatening situation such as a major physical trauma or prolonged starvation can greatly disrupt homeostasis. On the other hand, an organism’s attempt at restoring conditions back to or near homeostasis, often consuming energy and natural resources, can also be interpreted as stress.^[28] The brain cannot sustain a concentrated equilibrium under chronic stress, overtime if you constantly struggle in a simmering sea of stress, and you body budget accrued an ever-deepening deficit, that’s called chronic stress and it does more than just make you miserable in that moment, It can and will gradually eat away at your brain and cause illness in your body. ^[13]

The ambiguity in defining this phenomenon was first recognized by Hans Selye (1907–1982) in 1926. In 1951 a commentator loosely summarized Selye’s view of stress as something that «…in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself».^[29][30]

First to use the term in a biological context, Selye continued to define stress as «the non-specific response of the body to any demand placed upon it». Neuroscientists such as Bruce McEwen and Jaap Koolhaas believe that stress, based on years of empirical research, «should be restricted to conditions where an environmental demand exceeds the natural regulatory capacity of an organism».^[31] The brain cannot live in an harsh family environment, it needs some sort of stability between another brain. People who have reported being raised in harsh environments such as verbal and physical aggression have showed a more immune dysfunction and more metabolic dysfunction. ^[13] Indeed, in 1995 Toates already defined stress as a «chronic state that arises only when defense mechanisms are either being chronically stretched or are actually failing,»^[32] while according to Ursin (1988) stress results from an inconsistency between expected events («set value») and perceived events («actual value») that cannot be resolved satisfactorily,^[33] which also puts stress into the broader context of cognitive-consistency theory.^[34]

Biological background[edit]

Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems.^[35] Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a psychobiological sensory system operates. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body’s stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body’s response to a stressor or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is.

The central nervous system works closely with the body’s endocrine system to regulate these mechanisms. The sympathetic nervous system becomes primarily active during a stress response, regulating many of the body’s physiological functions in ways that ought to make an organism more adaptive to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of neuroanatomy and neurochemistry and how they relate to stress.^{[citation needed]}

Stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress may induce abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body: serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Aggressive behavior has also been associated with abnormalities in these systems.^[36]

Biology of stress[edit]

The brain endocrine interactions are relevant in the translation of stress into physiological and psychological changes. The autonomic nervous system (ANS), as mentioned above, plays an important role in translating stress into a response. The ANS responds reflexively to both physical stressors (for example baroreception), and to higher level inputs from the brain.^[37]

The ANS is composed of the parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system, two branches that are both tonically active with opposing activities. The ANS directly innervates tissue through the postganglionic nerves, which is controlled by preganglionic neurons originating in the intermediolateral cell column. The ANS receives inputs from the medulla, hypothalamus, limbic system, prefrontal cortex, midbrain and monoamine nuclei.^[38]

The activity of the sympathetic nervous system drives what is called the «fight or flight» response. The fight or flight response to emergency or stress involves mydriasis, increased heart rate and force contraction, vasoconstriction, bronchodilation, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, sweating, decreased motility of the digestive system, secretion of the epinephrine and cortisol from the adrenal medulla, and relaxation of the bladder wall. The parasympathetic nervous response, «rest and digest», involves return to maintaining homeostasis, and involves miosis, bronchoconstriction, increased activity of the digestive system, and contraction of the bladder walls.^[37] Complex relationships between protective and vulnerability factors on the effect of childhood home stress on psychological illness, cardiovascular illness and adaption have been observed.^[39] ANS related mechanisms are thought to contribute to increased risk of cardiovascular disease after major stressful events.^[40]

The HPA axis is a neuroendocrine system that mediates a stress response. Neurons in the hypothalamus, particularly the paraventricular nucleus, release vasopressin and corticotropin releasing hormone, which travel through the hypophysial portal vessel where they travel to and bind to the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor on the anterior pituitary gland. Multiple CRH peptides have been identified, and receptors have been identified on multiple areas of the brain, including the amygdala. CRH is the main regulatory molecule of the release of ACTH.^[41]

The secretion of ACTH into systemic circulation allows it to bind to and activate Melanocortin receptor, where it stimulates the release of steroid hormones. Steroid hormones bind to glucocorticoid receptors in the brain, providing negative feedback by reducing ACTH release. Some evidence supports a second long term feedback that is non-sensitive to cortisol secretion. The PVN of the hypothalamus receives inputs from the nucleus of the solitary tract, and lamina terminalis. Through these inputs, it receives and can respond to changes in blood.^[41]

The PVN innervation from the brain stem nuclei, particularly the noradrenergic nuclei stimulate CRH release. Other regions of the hypothalamus both directly and indirectly inhibit HPA axis activity. Hypothalamic neurons involved in regulating energy balance also influence HPA axis activity through the release of neurotransmitters such as neuropeptide Y, which stimulates HPA axis activity. Generally, the amygdala stimulates, and the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus attenuate, HPA axis activity; however, complex relationships do exist between the regions.^[41]

The immune system may be heavily influenced by stress. The sympathetic nervous system innervates various immunological structures, such as bone marrow and the spleen, allowing for it to regulate immune function. The adrenergic substances released by the sympathetic nervous system can also bind to and influence various immunological cells, further providing a connection between the systems. The HPA axis ultimately results in the release of cortisol, which generally has immunosuppressive effects. However, the effect of stress on the immune system is disputed, and various models have been proposed in an attempt to account for both the supposedly «immunodeficiency» linked diseases and diseases involving hyper activation of the immune system. One model proposed to account for this suggests a push towards an imbalance of cellular immunity(Th1) and humoral immunity(Th2). The proposed imbalance involved hyperactivity of the Th2 system leading to some forms of immune hypersensitivity, while also increasing risk of some illnesses associated with decreased immune system function, such as infection and cancer.^[7]

Effects of chronic stress[edit]

Chronic stress is a term sometimes used to differentiate it from acute stress. Definitions differ, and may be along the lines of continual activation of the stress response,^[42] stress that causes an allostatic shift in bodily functions,^[5] or just as «prolonged stress».^[43] For example, results of one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationship conflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk of developing illness and show slower wound healing. It can also reduce the benefits of receiving common vaccines.^[13] Similarly, the effects that acute stressors have on the immune system may be increased when there is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. For example, students who are taking exams show weaker immune responses if they also report stress due to daily hassles.^[44] While responses to acute stressors typically do not impose a health burden on young, healthy individuals, chronic stress in older or unhealthy individuals may have long-term effects that are detrimental to health.^[45]

Immunological[edit]

Acute time-limited stressors, or stressors that lasted less than two hours, results in an up regulation of natural immunity and down regulation of specific immunity. This type of stress saw in increase in granulocytes, natural killer cells, IgA, Interleukin 6, and an increase in cell cytotoxicity. Brief naturalistic stressors elicit a shift from Th1(cellular) to Th2(humoral) immunity, while decreased T-cell proliferation, and natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Stressful event sequences did not elicit a consistent immune response; however, some observations such as decreased T-Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity, increase or decrease in natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and an increase in mitogen PHA. Chronic stress elicited a shift toward Th2 immunity, as well as decreased interleukin 2, T cell proliferation, and antibody response to the influenza vaccine. Distant stressors did not consistently elicit a change in immune function.^[7] Another response to high impacts of chronic stress that lasts for a long period of time, is more immune dysfunction and more metabolic dysfunction. It is proven in studies that when continuously being in stressful situations, it is more likely to get sick. Also when being exposed to stress, your body metabolizes the food in a certain way that adds extra calories to your meal, regardless of the nutritional values of the food.^[13]

Infectious[edit]

Some studies have observed increased risk of upper respiratory tract infection during chronic life stress. In patients with HIV, increased life stress and cortisol was associated with poorer progression of HIV.^[42] Also with an increased level of stress, studies have proven evidence that it can reactivate latent herpes viruses.

Chronic disease[edit]

A link has been suggested between chronic stress and cardiovascular disease.^[42] Stress appears to play a role in hypertension, and may further predispose people to other conditions associated with hypertension.^[46] Stress may precipitate abuse of drugs and/or alcohol.^[5] Stress may also contribute to aging and chronic diseases in aging, such as depression and metabolic disorders.^[47]

The immune system also plays a role in stress and the early stages of wound healing. It is responsible for preparing the tissue for repair and promoting recruitment of certain cells to the wound area.^[44] Consistent with the fact that stress alters the production of cytokines, Graham et al. found that chronic stress associated with care giving for a person with Alzheimer’s disease leads to delayed wound healing. Results indicated that biopsy wounds healed 25% more slowly in the chronically stressed group, or those caring for a person with Alzheimer’s disease.^[48]

Development[edit]

Chronic stress has also been shown to impair developmental growth in children by lowering the pituitary gland’s production of growth hormone, as in children associated with a home environment involving serious marital discord, alcoholism, or child abuse.^[49] Chronic stress also has a lot of illnesses and health care problems other than mental that comes with it. Severe chronic stress for long periods of time can lead to an increased chance of catching illnesses such as diabetes, cancer, depression, heart disease and Alzheimer’s disease. ^[13] More generally, prenatal life, infancy, childhood, and adolescence are critical periods in which the vulnerability to stressors is particularly high.^[50][51] This can lead to psychiatric and physical diseases which have long term impacts on an individual. ^[13]

Psychopathology[edit]

Chronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain where memories are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is made up of glucocorticoids, including cortisol, which are steroid hormones that the adrenal gland releases, although this can increase storage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentiation (LTP).^[52][53] The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain kinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause trouble in storing new memories but old memories, memories stored before the damage, are not lost.^[54] Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age.^[53] These mechanisms and processes may therefore contribute to age-related disease, or originate risk for earlier-onset disorders. For instance, extreme stress (e.g. trauma) is a requisite factor to produce stress-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder.^[6]

Chronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic systems.^[38] Stress may also increase reward associated with food, leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits.^[55] Stress may contribute to various disorders, such as fibromyalgia,^[56] chronic fatigue syndrome,^[57] depression,^[58] as well as other mental illnesses^[13] and functional somatic syndromes.^[59]

Psychological concepts[edit]

Eustress[edit]

Selye published in year 1975 a model dividing stress into eustress and distress.^[60] Where stress enhances function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work), it may be considered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.

The difference between experiences that result in eustress and those that result in distress is determined by the disparity between an experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.^[61]

Coping[edit]

Responses to stress include adaptation, psychological coping such as stress management, anxiety, and depression. Over the long term, distress can lead to diminished health and/or increased propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be managed.

Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, with stress defined as a person’s physiological response to an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-or-flight response. Stress management is effective when a person uses strategies to cope with or alter stressful situations.

There are several ways of coping with stress,^[62] such as controlling the source of stress or learning to set limits and to say «no» to some of the demands that bosses or family members may make.

A person’s capacity to tolerate the source of stress may be increased by thinking about another topic such as a hobby, listening to music, or spending time in a wilderness.

A way to control stress is first dealing with what is causing the stress if it is something the individual has control over. Other methods to control stress and reduce it can be: to not procrastinate and leave tasks for the last minute, do things you like, exercise, do breathing routines, go out with friends, and take a break. Having support from a loved one also helps a lot in reducing stress.^[53]

One study showed that the power of having support from a loved one, or just having social support, lowered stress in individual subjects. Painful shocks were applied to married women’s ankles. In some trials women were able to hold their husband’s hand, in other trials they held a stranger’s hand, and then held no one’s hand. When the women were holding their husband’s hand, the response was reduced in many brain areas. When holding the stranger’s hand the response was reduced a little, but not as much as when they were holding their husband’s hand. Social support helps reduce stress and even more so if the support is from a loved one.^[53]

Cognitive appraisal[edit]

Lazarus^[63] argued that, in order for a psychosocial situation to be stressful, it must be appraised as such. He argued that cognitive processes of appraisal are central in determining whether a situation is potentially threatening, constitutes a harm/loss or a challenge, or is benign.

Both personal and environmental factors influence this primary appraisal, which then triggers the selection of coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at managing the problem, whereas emotion-focused coping processes are directed at managing the negative emotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation of the resources available to cope with the problem, and may alter the primary appraisal.

In other words, primary appraisal includes the perception of how stressful the problem is and the secondary appraisal of estimating whether one has more than or less than adequate resources to deal with the problem that affects the overall appraisal of stressfulness. Further, coping is flexible in that, in general, the individual examines the effectiveness of the coping on the situation; if it is not having the desired effect, s/he will, in general, try different strategies.^[64]

Assessment[edit]

Health risk factors[edit]

Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. The intensity and duration of stress changes depending on the circumstances and emotional condition of the person with it (Arnold. E and Boggs. K. 2007). Some common categories and examples of stressors include:

• Sensory input such as pain, bright light, noise, temperatures, or environmental issues such as a lack of control over environmental circumstances, such as food, air and/or water quality, housing, health, freedom, or mobility.
• Social issues can also cause stress, such as struggles with conspecific or difficult individuals and social defeat, or relationship conflict, deception, or break ups, and major events such as birth and deaths, marriage, and divorce.
• Life experiences such as poverty, unemployment, clinical depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, heavy drinking,^[65] or insufficient sleep can also cause stress. Students and workers may face performance pressure stress from exams and project deadlines.
• Adverse experiences during development (e.g. prenatal exposure to maternal stress,^[66][67] poor attachment histories,^[68] sexual abuse)^[69] are thought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual’s stress response systems. One evaluation of the different stresses in people’s lives is the Holmes and Rahe stress scale.

General adaptation syndrome[edit]

Physiologists define stress as how the body reacts to a stressor — a stimulus, real or imagined. Acute stressors affect an organism in the short term; chronic stressors over the longer term. The general adaptation syndrome (GAS), developed by Hans Selye, is a profile of how organisms respond to stress; GAS is characterized by three phases: a nonspecific mobilization phase, which promotes sympathetic nervous system activity; a resistance phase, during which the organism makes efforts to cope with the threat; and an exhaustion phase, which occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes its physiological resources.^[70]

Stage 1[edit]

Alarm is the first stage, which is divided into two phases: the shock phase and the antishock phase.^[71]

• Shock phase: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as hypovolemia, hypoosmolarity, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, hypoglycemia—the stressor effect. This phase resembles Addison’s disease. The organism’s resistance to the stressor drops temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g. circulatory shock) may be experienced.
• Antishock phase: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body starts to respond and is in a state of alarm. During this stage, the locus coeruleus and sympathetic nervous system activate the production of catecholamines including adrenaline, engaging the popularly-known fight-or-flight response. Adrenaline temporarily provides increased muscular tonus, increased blood pressure due to peripheral vasoconstriction and tachycardia, and increased glucose in blood. There is also some activation of the HPA axis, producing glucocorticoids (cortisol, aka the S-hormone or stress-hormone).

Stage 2[edit]

Resistance is the second stage. During this stage, increased secretion of glucocorticoids intensifies the body’s systemic response. Glucocorticoids can increase the concentration of glucose, fat, and amino acid in blood. In high doses, one glucocorticoid, cortisol, begins to act similarly to a mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and brings the body to a state similar to hyperaldosteronism. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. The body attempts to respond to stressful stimuli, but after prolonged activation, the body’s chemical resources will be gradually depleted, leading to the final stage.

Stage 3[edit]

The third stage could be either exhaustion or recovery:

• Recovery stage follows when the system’s compensation mechanisms have successfully overcome the stressor effect (or have completely eliminated the factor which caused the stress). The high glucose, fat and amino acid levels in blood prove useful for anabolic reactions, restoration of homeostasis and regeneration of cells.
• Exhaustion is the alternative third stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear (panic attacks, muscle aches, sore eyes, difficulty breathing, fatigue, heartburn, high blood pressure, and difficult time sleeping, etc.). If stage three is extended, long-term damage may result (prolonged vasoconstriction results in ischemia which in turn leads to cell necrosis), as the body’s immune system becomes exhausted, and bodily functions become impaired, resulting in decompensation.

The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses, such as general trouble with the digestive system (e.g. occult bleeding, melena, constipation/obstipation), diabetes, or even cardiovascular problems (angina pectoris), along with clinical depression and other mental illnesses.^{[citation needed]}

Stress relief[edit]

A person can stop stress from being overwhelming by exercising when symptoms of stress become apparent, reflecting on their day (thinking about what they accomplished, not what they have not), and speaking to a therapist about their concerns. The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for calming down the body’s arousal and helping a person relax.

History in research[edit]

The current usage of the word stress arose out of Hans Selye’s 1930s experiments. He started to use the term to refer not just to the agent but to the state of the organism as it responded and adapted to the environment. His theories of a universal non-specific stress response attracted great interest and contention in academic physiology and he undertook extensive research programs and publication efforts.^[72]

While the work attracted continued support from advocates of psychosomatic medicine, many in experimental physiology concluded that his concepts were too vague and unmeasurable. During the 1950s, Selye turned away from the laboratory to promote his concept through popular books and lecture tours. He wrote for both non-academic physicians and, in an international bestseller entitled Stress of Life, for the general public.

A broad biopsychosocial concept of stress and adaptation offered the promise of helping everyone achieve health and happiness by successfully responding to changing global challenges and the problems of modern civilization. Selye coined the term «eustress» for positive stress, by contrast to distress. He argued that all people have a natural urge and need to work for their own benefit, a message that found favor with industrialists and governments.^[72] He also coined the term stressor to refer to the causative event or stimulus, as opposed to the resulting state of stress.

Selye was in contact with the tobacco industry from 1958 and they were undeclared allies in litigation and the promotion of the concept of stress, clouding the link between smoking and cancer, and portraying smoking as a «diversion», or in Selye’s concept a «deviation», from environmental stress.^[73]

From the late 1960s, academic psychologists started to adopt Selye’s concept; they sought to quantify «life stress» by scoring «significant life events», and a large amount of research was undertaken to examine links between stress and disease of all kinds. By the late 1970s, stress had become the medical area of greatest concern to the general population, and more basic research was called for to better address the issue. There was also renewed laboratory research into the neuroendocrine, molecular, and immunological bases of stress, conceived as a useful heuristic not necessarily tied to Selye’s original hypotheses. The US military became a key center of stress research, attempting to understand and reduce combat neurosis and psychiatric casualties.^[72]

The psychiatric diagnosis post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was coined in the mid-1970s, in part through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, and Chaim F. Shatan. The condition was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as posttraumatic stress disorder in 1980.^[74] PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often associated with soldiers, police officers, and other emergency personnel. The stressor may involve threat to life (or viewing the actual death of someone else), serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity. In some cases, it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm or threat. Often, however, the two are combined.

By the 1990s, «stress» had become an integral part of modern scientific understanding in all areas of physiology and human functioning, and one of the great metaphors of Western life. Focus grew on stress in certain settings, such as workplace stress, and stress management techniques were developed. The term also became a euphemism, a way of referring to problems and eliciting sympathy without being explicitly confessional, just «stressed out». It came to cover a huge range of phenomena from mild irritation to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of health. In popular usage, almost any event or situation between these extremes could be described as stressful.^[19][72] During this time society spent less attention to the actual danger and severeness to mental health, this society might not have cared about those consequences of what we say or do. We might not agree that those consequences of being harsh to another individual verbally is to be considered abuse but they nonetheless have costs that we all pay. ^[13]

The American Psychological Association’s 2015 Stress In America Study^[75] found that nationwide stress is on the rise and that the three leading sources of stress were «money», «family responsibility», and «work».

See also[edit]

• Autonomic nervous system
• Defense physiology
• HPA axis
• Plant stress measurement
• Trier social stress test
• Xenohormesis
• Stress in early childhood
• Weathering hypothesis

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• The American Institute of Stress
• «Research on Work-Related Stress», European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA)
• Coping With Stress
• Stages of GAS & Evolving the Definition