What does the word slang means

One of the developments which must certainly be credited to the nineteenth century is the growth of an objective and scientific attitude towards slang which has become one of the most prominent features of the English language.

Slang is very informal language that consists of words and phrases basically used in speech rather than writing and restricted in a specific region or a particular group of people.

Slang Definition

Slang has been defined by Greenough and Kittredge as

“a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech, but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.”

The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as the

“language of a highly colloquial type, below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting cither of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”

The following definition given by H. W. Fowler in his Modern English Usage, though inadequate by itself, is complementary to that of the Oxford Dictionary:

“the diction that results from the favourite game among the young and lively of playing with words and renaming things and actions.”

Origin of Slang

Slang has its root in topicality, convenience and elementary human nature. It originates and flourishes best in unconventionality. “Among the impulses which lead to the invention of slang”, Dr. H. Bradley says. “the two most important seem to be the desire to secure increased vivacity and the desire to secure increased sense of intimacy in the use of language.”

The conditions favouring the origin of slang is crowding and excitement As Camden Hotten has said, “Any sudden excitement or peculiar circumstance is quite sufficient to originate and set going a score of slang words.” Slang is as characteristic of the individual as of the clique, the profession, the trade and the class. In the opinion of Greenough and Kittredge the coinage and circulation of slang come from the desire of the individual to distinguish himself by oddity and grotesque humour. Another potent force that makes for slang is the impatience with existing words and phrases- the desire to escape from the restraints imposed by a formal standard. The man in the street considers the expression to dismiss tame and colourless, and so he substitutes “to give one the air”. For the same reason a young woman who fails to keep an engagement with a youngman stands him up. The desire to be novel and striking thus has much to do with the origin of slang. Again the desire to be secret and not to be understood by others around the slang-user has given birth to many slang. Students, very close friends, lovers, members of secret political societies, persons in prisons use slang with this end in view.

Slang is personal in its origin. It is the user who determines the matter and meaning of slang. And slang is devised by persons belonging to the different walks of life by persons of wit and ingenuity, stockbroker, scholar, labourer, lawyer, soldier, sailor, the man in the street, and the man in the car. Whatever the origin of slang, personality and environment are the two most powerful determinants of the nature of slang.

Uses of Slang

Slang, has some good uses. It enriches the language. It invests the abstract with solidity and concreteness, and the remote with nearness and immediacy It terrestrializes the ethereal, and brings down the idealistic to the materialistic level. But the greatest use of slang is in its euphemistic effect. There are many slangy expressions which mitigate the tragedy lightens the inevitability of death and prettifies folly or drunkenness. Among the euphemistic slang may be mentioned “make esay” (to kill), “step into a last bus” (to die), “hop the bags” (to attack the enemy across no man’s land), “in Adam and Eve’s togs” (naked), “excuse my French” (forgive me my strong language) etc.

Slang is sometimes used to amuse a superior and place self on an emotional and mental level with one’s audience. On many occasions a man has recourse to it to make known and even to assert that he belongs or has belonged to a certain school or collages or university, a certain trade or profession, an artistic or intellectual group of social class. In other words, he uses it in order to be in the swim” and establish contact. Slang is also employed to disperse or lessen the solemnity or excessive of gravity of conversation or the pomposity of a piece of writing.

Characteristics of Slang

The most important characteristic of slang is its tendency to rise in the verbal world, and thus to become ennobled. H.T. Buckle has very humorously said, “Many of these (slang) words and phrases are but serving their apprenticeship, and will eventually become the active strength of our language.” The slang of one generation has often become the literary language of the next. Many of the English idioms have come from slang, for “idiom is”, as John Brophy says, “fed by the tested inventions of slang”.

Among the slang phrases that have risen in status are “at fault” (from a dog’s losing the scent), “to start in” (to begin), “on the stocks” (in preparation), to peter out, down to bed rock, it is up to you to be in at the death, below the belt, mass play, knock-out blow etc.

Another distinctive characteristic of slang is its ephemerality. Since novelty is a quality which soon wears off, slang which derives its life from novelty has to be constantly renewed. Like man, its creator, slang comes and goes.

“Vamoose, skiddoo, twenty three and beat it give place to scram! which will certainly be forgotten when a newer expression catches the popular fancy.” (A.C. Baugh).

Also Read:

• Theories of the Origin of Language

The third characteristic of slang is its synonymous abundance, and the ideas and facts which are most fertile in synonyms are money, drinking, drunkenness, the sexual organs and the sexual act. In The Slang Dictionary Hotten lists 130 synonyms for money. He gives drink the next place and intoxication the third place. “But the tabooed words of standard English”, says E. Patridge, “are hardly less productive of slang synonyms: because of the need for euphemism, or of a desire to give them a different appearance and complexion, these taboos result in synonyms more ingenious, and many of them, more picturesque than those for money and drink.”

Slang in relation to legitimate speech

Slang hangs on the outskirts of the legitimate speech and some slang words manage, now and then, to find their way into legitimate speech. Thus we use now naturally, and with entire propriety, many slang words which were regarded as linguistically untouchable by writers of a generation or few generations ago. The expression “what on earth” seems to us an idiomatic expression and certainly will not be objected to in the speech of anyone today. But De Quincey condemned its use and was horrified at hearing it used by a government official. The word “row” in the sense of disturbance or commotion was considered slang in the eighteenth century and Todd (1818) described it as a very low expression, but to-day the word is used in this sense in the works of many reputed authors. So “to parry a thrust”, “o fence” (in an argument)”. “to cross swords with the opposing counsel”. “to bandy words”, “to wrestle with a problem”. “to trip one up” (in a discussion), “lo lose track of a subject”, “to run counter”, “to hit or miss the mark” are now all good English expressions, though most of them were formerly slang, and had passed through the intermediate stage of colloquialism before they gained admission to the legitimate vocabulary.

The once slangy words and expressions like bias (from bowling), fair play, foul play, hazard are all now firmly seated on the shelf of legitimate speech. Can any one now imagine that such indispensable words as “desire” and “salary” were once soldiers’ slang?

Some clipped words which were once slang now occupy a whole niche of legitimate vocabulary – exam for examination, auto for automobile, varsity for university, cab for cabriolet, van for wangward, fence for defence, miss for mistress, mob for mobile vulgus, per for apert, bus for omnibus (which was itself originally a slang term), pad for footpad, piano for pianoforte, kilo for kilogram, zoo for zoological garden, percent for per centum, pros and cons for pros and contras, sweets for sweetmeats, sport for disport etc.

To speak the truth, “there is no real difference in kind”, as Greenough and Kittredge say, “between the processes of slang and those of legitimate speech. Slang is only the rude luxuriance of the uncared for soil, knowing not the hand of the gardener.” The same desire for novelty as is constantly at work in slang is also constantly working in the figurative expressions and new coinages of legitimate speech.

Again like slang artistic literature, apart from the more conveyance of thought, seeks to stimulate the attention of the reader by clever novelty, and even sometimes to shock him into thought by grotesque or startling language. In this way, there come into existence a number of new words, most of which soon die, but some of which are sure to find their place in the general vocabulary. Phrase-composition is as active in slang as in legitimate speech. Thus carouse (shortened from the German gar aus ! ‘quite out‘), hoax (a shortening of hocus pocus), jeopardy (from French jeu parti) were all slang phrases, but are now included in the legitimate vocabulary.

Despite all these similarities between slang and legitimate speech, we cannot adopt all the products of slang without question. All human speech is intended for the cars of others, and as such, must possess a certain dignity and courtesy. Now most slang words have a taint of impropriety about it which makes it offensive. Again the very currency of slang hinges on its allusions to things which are not universally familiar or respectable with the result that slang comes to be regarded as vulgar and vague.

Furthermore, the accepted means of communication in any widespread Language like English has a certain constant and enduring nature. Though the language is ever in flux, yet the endurable and permanent elements far outbalance the changing elements so that in spite of all the changes that affect it, it remains always intelligible through a long period of time. Slang words, on the contrary, are evanescent, living through days, and not through Sears, and falling out of use even while one is speaking them. Hence slang sill-adapted to serve as a medium of intercourse and therefore is unsuitable for adoption into legitimate speech.” (Greenough and Kittredge).

Not only is slang characterized by ephemerality, but also it has no fixed meaning. Slang words are vague and ill defined, and their meanings grow more and more uncertain from day to day. The result is that the use of slang tends to level down all those nice differentiations in meaning, all those distinctions between word and word, which make for linguistic development. In slang everything is “fine” or “immense” or “stunning”, from an appetizing meal to a drama, from a mountain scenery to the cut of a friend’s trouser. Slang has been branded as the idle man’s dialect, and if the sign of cultivation is an enriched vocabulary, the constant employment of vague and uncertain slang for every shade of meaning reduces one’s thought to the ignorant level. When slang becomes definite and clear-cut in signification, it ceases to be slang, and finds it place in the legitimate vocabulary. “In fact, anything that is good in slang is almost sure to be picked up and adopted in legitimate speech.” (Greenough and Kittredge).

Slang Examples

In all languages slang is widely used by the native speaker. Here are a few examples of slang used in different English speaking countries:

21 Most Common British Slang

22 Popular American Slang

11 Very Common Canadian Slang

11 Most Used Aussie Slang

8 Best Gen Z Slang

Gen Z or generation z refers to youth who were born after 1996. Gen Z uses specific slang words while communicating:

Top 5 Best Slang Dictionary

1. Urban Dictionary
2. Unsuck It
3. Wiktionary
4. Online Slang Dictionary
5. Double-Tongued Dictionary

There are good slang and bad slang. Good slang has a real meaning, while bad slang has no meaning, and is simply a succession of sounds. Good slang is often humorous, witty, picturesque. It is also refined in its associations. Now good slang words frequently elevate themselves to the rank of colloquialism, and thus in time gain admission to the legitimate speech, “Hit or miss”, “tooth and nail”, “by hook or crook”, “sink or swim” “rough-and-ready”, “higgledy-piggledy were all slang, but have now passed through the colloquial stage and are recognized idioms.

“Again, an expression that is unquestionable slang may be so apt and necessary in the discussion of a particular subject, and so often quoted by the best writers, that it loses its taint and becomes a part of our common stock of quotation.”

Slang is vocabulary (words, phrases, and linguistic usages) of an informal register, common in verbal conversation but avoided in formal writing.^[1] It also sometimes refers to the language generally exclusive to the members of particular in-groups in order to establish group identity, exclude outsiders, or both. The word itself came about in the 18th century and has been defined in multiple ways since its conception.

Etymology of the word slang[edit]

In its earliest attested use (1756), the word slang referred to the vocabulary of «low» or «disreputable» people. By the early nineteenth century, it was no longer exclusively associated with disreputable people, but continued to be applied to usages below the level of standard educated speech.^[2] In Scots dialect it meant «talk, chat, gossip»,^[3] as used by Aberdeen poet William Scott in 1832: «The slang gaed on aboot their war’ly care.»
^[4] In northern English dialect it meant «impertinence, abusive language».^[5]

The origin of the word is uncertain, although it may be connected with thieves’ cant^{[citation needed]}. A Scandinavian origin has been proposed (compare, for example, Norwegian slengenavn, which means «nickname»), but based on «date and early associations» is discounted by the Oxford English Dictionary.^[2] Jonathon Green, however, agrees with the possibility of a Scandinavian origin, suggesting the same root as that of sling, which means «to throw», and noting that slang is thrown language – a quick and honest way to make your point.^[6][7]

Defining slang[edit]

Linguists have no simple and clear definition of slang, but agree that it is a constantly changing linguistic phenomenon present in every subculture worldwide. Some argue that slang exists because we must come up with ways to define new experiences that have surfaced with time and modernity.^[8] Attempting to remedy the lack of a clear definition, however, Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter argue that an expression should be considered «true slang» if it meets at least two of the following criteria:^[8]

Michael Adams remarks that «[Slang] is liminal language… it is often impossible to tell, even in context, which interests and motives it serves… slang is on the edge.»^[9] Slang dictionaries, collecting thousands of slang entries, offer a broad, empirical window into the motivating forces behind slang.^[10]

While many forms of lexicon may be considered low-register or «sub-standard», slang remains distinct from colloquial and jargon terms because of its specific social contexts. While viewed as inappropriate in formal usage, colloquial terms are typically considered acceptable in speech across a wide range of contexts, while slang tends to be perceived as infelicitous in many common communicative situations. Jargon refers to language used by personnel in a particular field, or language used to represent specific terms within a field to those with a particular interest. Although jargon and slang can both be used to exclude non-group members from the conversation, the purpose of jargon is said to be optimizing conversation using terms that imply technical understanding.^[11] On the other hand, slang tends to emphasize social and contextual understanding.

While colloquialisms and jargon may seem like slang because they reference a particular group, they do not necessarily fit the same definition, because they do not represent a particular effort to replace the general lexicon of a standard language. Colloquialisms are considered more acceptable and more expected in standard usage than slang is, and jargon is often created to talk about aspects of a particular field that are not accounted for in the general lexicon.^[12] However, this differentiation is not consistently applied by linguists; the terms «slang» and «jargon» are sometimes treated as synonymous,^[13] and the scope of «jargon» is at times extended to mean all forms of socially-restricted language.^[14]

It is often difficult to differentiate slang from colloquialisms and even high-register lexicon, because slang generally becomes accepted into common vocabulary over time. Words such as «spurious» and «strenuous» were once perceived as slang, though they are now considered general, even high-register words. The literature on slang even discusses mainstream acknowledgment of a slang term as changing its status as true slang, because it has been accepted by the media and is thus no longer the special insider speech of a particular group. For example, Black American Music uses a lot of slang based on nationality and origin. The use of slang is a combinations of slurring and slurping words as a result. Nevertheless, a general test for whether a word is a slang word or not is whether it would be acceptable in an academic or legal setting, as both are arenas in which standard lexicon is considered necessary and/or whether the term has been entered in the Oxford English Dictionary, which some scholars claim changes its status as slang.^[12]

Examples of slang (cross-linguistic)[edit]

Formation of slang[edit]

It is often difficult to collect etymologies for slang terms, largely because slang is a phenomenon of speech, rather than written language and etymologies which are typically traced via corpus.

Eric Partridge, cited as the first to report on the phenomenon of slang in a systematic and linguistic way, postulated that a term would likely be in circulation for a decade before it would be written down.^[15] Nevertheless, it seems that slang generally forms via deviation from a standard form. This «spawning» of slang occurs in much the same way that any general semantic change might occur. The difference here is that the slang term’s new meaning takes on a specific social significance having to do with the group the term indexes.

Coleman also suggests that slang is differentiated within more general semantic change in that it typically has to do with a certain degree of «playfulness». The development of slang is considered to be a largely «spontaneous, lively, and creative» speech process.^[15]

Still, while a great deal of slang takes off, even becoming accepted into the standard lexicon, much slang dies out, sometimes only referencing a group. An example of this is the term «groovy» which is a relic of 1960s and 70s American hippie slang. Nevertheless, for a slang term to become a slang term, people must use it, at some point in time, as a way to flout standard language.^[12] Additionally, slang terms may be borrowed between groups, such as the term «gig» which was originally coined by jazz musicians in the 1930s and then borrowed into the same hippie slang of the 1960s.^[12] ‘The word «groovy» has remained a part of subculture lexicon since its popularization. It is still in common use today by a significant population. The word «gig» to refer to a performance very likely originated well before the 1930s, and remained a common term throughout the 1940s and 1950s before becoming vaguely associated with the hippie slang of the 1960s. The word «gig» is now a widely accepted synonym for a concert, recital, or performance of any type.

Generally, slang terms undergo the same processes of semantic change that words in the regular lexicon do.^[15]

Slang often forms from words with previously differing meanings, one example is the often used and popular slang word «lit», which was created by a generation labeled «Generation Z». The word itself used to be associated with something being on fire or being «lit» up until 1988 when it was first used in writing to indicate a person who was drunk^[16] in the book «Warbirds: Diary of an Unknown Aviator». Since this time «lit» has gained popularity through Rap songs such as ASAP Rocky’s «Get Lit» in 2011. As the popularity of the word has increased so too has the number of different meanings associated with the word. Now «lit» describes a person who is drunk and/or high, as well as an event that is especially awesome and «hype».

Words and phrases from popular Hollywood films and television series frequently become slang.^[17]

[edit]

Indexicality[edit]

Slang is usually associated with a particular social group and plays a role in constructing identity. While slang outlines social space, attitudes about slang partly construct group identity and identify individuals as members of groups. Therefore, using the slang of a particular group associates an individual with that group. Michael Silverstein’s orders of indexicality can be employed to assign a slang term as a second-order index to that particular group. Using a slang term, however, can also give an individual the qualities associated with the term’s group of origin, whether or not the individual is trying to identify as a member of the group. This allocation of qualities based on abstract group association is known as third-order indexicality.

As outlined in Elisa Mattiello’s book «An Introduction to English Slang»,^[18] a slang term can assume several levels of meaning and can be used for many reasons connected with identity. For example, male adolescents use the terms «foxy» and «shagadelic» to «show their belonging to a band, to stress their virility or their age, to reinforce connection with their peer group and to exclude outsiders, to show off, etc.» These two examples use both traditional and untraditional methods of word formation to create words with more meaning and expressiveness than the more direct and traditional words «sexy» and «beautiful»:

• The slang term «foxy» is arguably not even a case of word formation since this process (denominal adjective with -y suffix from «fox») already occurred in the formation of this word with its standard English meanings of «foxlike, crafty, cunning». Instead, the traditional word’s meaning is extended^[19] to «attractive, desirable, pretty, sexy» with the following added implications according to Mattiello:

From the semantic point of view, slangy foxy is more loaded than neutral sexy in terms of information provided. That is, for young people foxy means having the quality of: (1) attracting interest, attention, affection, (2) causing desire, (3) excellent or admirable in appearance, and (4) sexually provocative, exciting, etc., whereas sexy only refers to the quality indicated in point (4).

• «shagadelic» is a combination of a slang term with a slang suffix and therefore is considered an «extra-grammatical» creation.

Matiello stresses that those agents who identify themselves as «young men» have «genuinely coined» these terms and choose to use them over «canonical» terms —like beautiful or sexy—because of the indexicalized social identifications the former convey.

First and second order indexicality[edit]

In terms of first and second order indexicality, the usage of speaker-oriented terms by male adolescents indicated their membership to their age group, to reinforce connection to their peer group, and to exclude outsiders.^[18]

Higher-order indexicality[edit]

In terms of higher order indexicality, anyone using these terms may desire to appear fresher, undoubtedly more playful, faddish, and colourful than someone who employs the standard English term «beautiful». This appearance relies heavily on the hearer’s third-order understanding of the term’s associated social nuances and presupposed use-cases.^[18]

Subculture associations[edit]

Often, distinct subcultures will create slang that members will use in order to associate themselves with the group, or to delineate outsiders.

Slang terms are often known only within a clique or ingroup. For example, Leet («Leetspeak» or «1337») was originally popular only among certain internet subcultures such as software crackers and online video gamers. During the 1990s, and into the early 21st century, however, Leet became increasingly commonplace on the internet, and it has spread outside internet-based communication and into spoken languages.^[20] Other types of slang include SMS language used on mobile phones, and «chatspeak», (e.g., «LOL», an acronym meaning «laughing out loud» or «laugh out loud» or ROFL, «rolling on the floor laughing»), which are widely used in instant messaging on the internet.^[21]

As subcultures are often forms of counterculture, which is understood to oppose the norm, it follows that slang has come to be associated with counterculture.

Social media and internet slang[edit]

Slang is often adopted from social media as a sign of social awareness and shared knowledge of popular culture. This type known as internet slang has become prevalent since the early 2000s along with the rise in popularity of social networking services, including Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. This has spawned new vocabularies associated with each new social media venue, such as the use of the term «friending» on Facebook, which is a verbification of «friend» used to describe the process of adding a new person to one’s group of friends on the website, despite the existence of an analogous term «befriend». This term is much older than Facebook, but has only recently entered the popular lexicon.^[22] Other examples of slang in social media demonstrate a proclivity toward shortened words or acronyms. These are especially associated with services such as Twitter, which (as of November 2017) has a 280-character limit for each message and therefore requires a relatively brief mode of expression.^[23] This includes the use of hashtags which explicitly state the main content of a message or image, such as #food or #photography.^[24]

Debates about slang[edit]

Some critics believe that when slang becomes more commonplace it effectively eradicates the «proper» use of a certain language. However, academic (descriptive) linguists believe that language is not static but ever-changing and that slang terms are valid words within a language’s lexicon. While prescriptivists study and promote the socially preferable or «correct» ways to speak, according to a language’s normative grammar and syntactical words, descriptivists focus on studying language to further understand the subconscious rules of how individuals speak, which makes slang important in understanding such rules. Noam Chomsky, a founder of anthropological linguistic thought, challenged structural and prescriptive grammar and began to study sounds and morphemes functionally, as well as their changes within a language over time.^[25]

In popular culture[edit]

The 1941 film, Ball of Fire, portrays a professor played by Gary Cooper who is researching and writing an encyclopedia article about slang.^[26]

See also[edit]

• A New Dictionary of the Terms Ancient and Modern of the Canting Crew
• Slang dictionary
• Urban Dictionary

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• A Dictionary of Slang, Jargon & Cant, Albert Barrère and Charles Godfrey Leland (1889 edition, full text, at Wikimedia Commons).
• The Online Slang Dictionary – American and English terms, features other statistical information.
• Bradley, Henry (1911). «Slang» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). pp. 207–210.
• SlangLang – Popular slang words with their meaning, origin and spread

Slang is a set of highly informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language. Slang is often highly regional, specific to a particular territory or subculture. Slang words and expressions can spread outside their original arena, and some may even lose their slang status and become accepted as a standard language. Often, the widespread adoption of a slang term by mainstream culture will cause the subculture it originated in to create a new, less recognized term.

The origins of slang are usually found in the desire of those members of a particular group, or subculture, to communicate freely and intelligibly with each other from their common base of shared experience, interests, attitudes, and identity. This is, however, coupled with the desire to differentiate themselves either from another group, or from the larger society as a whole. Thus, slang involves the unconventional, even the taboo, (to differentiate the speaker from the norms of society) and often hostility and vulgar epithets for authorities or rivals (to differentiate from the «others» who are not members of the same group). Slang, therefore, has both positive and negative aspects. When it facilitates easier and familiar communication among those with a common base it functions to improve harmonious communication; when it draws distinctions, particularly hostile ones, building barriers between groups of people, it enhances the problems in human relationships that have been experienced throughout history.

Definition

According to Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter,^[1] an expression should be considered «true slang» if it meets at least two of the following criteria:

• It lowers, if temporarily, «the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing»; in other words, it is likely to be seen in such contexts as a «glaring misuse of register» (where a «register» is a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting).
• Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or with a group of people that are familiar with it and use the term.
• «It is a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social status or greater responsibility.»
• It replaces «a well known conventional synonym.» This is done primarily to avoid «the discomfort caused by the conventional item [or by] further elaboration.»

It is important to make a distinction between slang and jargon. Jargon is the technical vocabulary of a particular profession. Similarly to slang, those outside of the profession may not understand the terms or meaning of jargon. Unlike slang, however, jargon is not intended to exclude non-members of the group, and is concerned mainly with the technical peculiarities and specifics of a given field. Additionally, jargon does not fit the definition of slang, as it meets only a single criterion.

Origins of slang

During the Middle Ages, there was very little standardized language. Different dialects and pronunciations often represented one of the first concepts of «slang,» although dialects are specifically not slang. During the sixteenth century, English Criminal Cant evolved. A specific set of language that was created for use by criminals and cheats, English Criminal Cant was not originally considered slang (since it was a specifically developed «language»), but by the eighteenth century it had evolved into slang.

Around the mid-1600s, slang began to appear in popular plays, like that of Richard Brome, and also in poems and songs. By the eighteenth century, English slang was influenced by the cultural differences in America, and slang usage began to expand. Slang was often associated with either criminals or foreigners during this time, and often dealt with human anatomy or taboo topics like sexuality. It was not until the 1920s that society began to adopt a more liberal attitude towards slang. Slang became popular with fiction writers and society at large. The development of English slang was assisted by a number of events, such as the American Civil War and the abolitionist movement.^[2]

Types of Slang

One use of slang is to circumvent social taboos, as mainstream language tends to shy away from evoking certain realities. For this reason, slang vocabularies are particularly rich in certain domains, such as sexuality, violence, crime, and drugs. Argot (French and Spanish for «slang»), also known as cant, is slang used particularly by thieves and other criminals, to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations.

Slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is very common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning. Thus, «cool» and «hot» can both mean «very good or impressive.»

Alternatively, slang can grow out of mere familiarity with the things described. For example, wine connoisseurs may refer to Cabernet Sauvignon as «Cab Sav,» Chardonnay as «Chard» and so on.^[3] Not only does using the abbreviated names for different wines expend less superfluous effort, but it also serves as a shared code among connoisseurs and evokes a sense of the speaker’s familiarity with wine.

Even within a single language community, slang tends to vary widely across social, ethnic, economic, and geographic strata. Slang sometimes grows more and more common until a term can become regarded as mainstream, acceptable language (for example, the Spanish word caballo or the English «movie»). Other times, the terms fall into disuse. Numerous slang terms pass into informal mainstream speech, and sometimes into formal speech, though this may involve a change in meaning or usage.

Cockney rhyming slang

Cockney rhyming slang is a form of English slang which originated in the East End of London, and has been popularized by film, music, and literature. Anthony Burgess used rhyming slang as a part of the fictitious «Nadsat» dialect in his classic book A Clockwork Orange.

Traditional Cockney rhyming slang works by taking two words that are related through a short phrase and using the first word to stand for a word that rhymes with the second. For instance, «boat» means «face» as «boat race» rhymes with face. Similarly, «plates» means «feet» («plates of meat»), and bread means «money» (bread and honey).

The origins of rhyming slang are disputed. It remains a matter of speculation as to whether rhyming slang evolved as a linguistic accident or whether it was developed intentionally to confuse non-locals. If deliberate, it might have simply been used to maintain a sense of community, or in the marketplace for vendors to talk amongst themselves without customers knowing what they were saying, or by criminals (similar to thieves’ cant) to confuse the police.

The proliferation of rhyming slang has meant many of its traditional expressions have passed into common language, and the creation of new ones (often ironically) is no longer restricted to Cockneys. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in Britain, such as «have a butcher’s» (which means to have a look, from «butcher’s hook»), and these are often now used without awareness of their origins. Many English speakers are unaware that the term «use your loaf» is derived from «loaf of bread» meaning head. The extent of the use of rhyming slang is often exaggerated; only a very few phrases are in everyday use. Many examples are only used by people who are discussing rhyming slang, or by people who are being ironic or are making up a term on the spot for a joke, often at the expense of the tourist. In addition, since the original purpose was to encode or disguise speech from the comprehension of bystanders, terms that become too well-known still have a tendency to lose actual currency fairly quickly, putting whatever usage the slang enjoys into a constant flux.

Below are just a few of the most common examples of Cockney rhyming slang.

• Apples = apples and pears = stairs
• Barnet = Barnet Fair = hair
• Brass = Brass Flute = Prostitute
• Dog = dog and bone = telephone
• Jam = Jam jar = Car
• China = China plate = mate
• Frog = frog and toad = road
• Rosie = Rosie Lee = tea

Internet slang

The Internet has created an entire subculture of users, who have developed an extensive library of slang. Many internet slang terms originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes, and often appear in lower case. For example, «you» becomes «u» and «are» becomes «r.» Web forums are often credited with helping popularize and spread forms of internet slang. Online gaming is often responsible for the development and popularization of internet slang.

Within the Internet community, there are numerous subcultures with their own specific set of slang. Leet speak originated with hackers, and later became popular with the online gaming community. Leet (sometimes written as 1337 or l33t) uses various combinations of alphanumerics to replace letters of words. «E» is commonly replaced by «3,» and «S» by «5.» Leet commonly has its own sets of colloquialisms and jokes, and exists in a number of languages in addition to English, such as Greek, Russian, and Chinese. Excessive use of leet is often used to ridicule or satirize new members of an internet community, who are often referred to as n00bs (newbies or newcomers).

One of the most popular types of internet slang is the use of acronyms. For example, well-known acronyms include «LOL,» which stands for «laughing out loud.» «IMHO» for «in my humble opinion,» and «TTYL» meaning «talk to you later.» Instant messaging and texting over mobile phones have popularized a large amount of acronyms and abbreviations, as they are both quicker and easier to type than the full version. Numbers are sometimes incorporated into internet and text messaging slang. «L8r» uses the phonetic sound of «eight» to create the word «later.» Similarly, «h8» means «hate.»

«Emoticons» (smileys) are another popular form of internet slang. Emoticons are a form of ASCII art in which a short sequence of typed characters are used to resemble a facial expression and convey an emotion. They are viewed sideways, where a clockwise rotation of ninety degrees would orient them vertically. The most basic emoticon is :), where the colon represents the eyes and the parenthesis the mouth, forming a rough approximation of a «happy face.» Other common emoticons or «smileys» are «sad face»  and «shocked» 8-O. A great many variants of emoticons exist, such as 8D, =), =D, =>), >=D,:p, |=[, >8), >XD, and so forth. There is another variation of «smileys» resembling a wink by combining a semicolon and a parenthesis, such as ;), ;] or ;}. The differing use of parentheses can give the emoticon a slightly different slant; for example ;} can represent an evil or otherwise malicious wink.

The other major style of emoticon, which does not require the viewer to tilt their head, evolved in East Asia. In the basic smiling manga emoticon, ^_^, the carets representing the eyes, and the underscore a mouth. Notably, this «smiley» has a straight mouth and smiling eyes, suggesting a cultural difference in reading emotions.^[4] Other popular east Asian emoticons use Japanese characters.

Slang in popular culture

Many subcultures have numerous slang phrases unique to that specific subculture. Prison inmates have their own slang, as do musicians. Slang often originates within a group as a way to communicate without including outsiders, and thus is often found within groups of teenagers. The use of slang not only gives a group the ability to exclude outsiders, but serves as a means of bonding the group together through a shared vocabulary. Each culture generally has its own set of slang vocabulary, which can vary from region to region. In a large city, slang can even vary substantially from neighborhood to neighborhood.

Slang is often used in film and fiction. The proper use of slang can add a sense of realism to a work of fiction, as well as evoke a specific time period or point in history. Conversely, improper or forced use of slang can be the subject of ridicule. For example, teachers or other authority figures who attempt to use teenage slang are often made fun of by the teenagers they are trying to connect with.

It is important to note that while slang is often employed in creative works, it is rarely acceptable in formal and scholarly works. The use of slang in a formal or scholarly setting can instantly discredit the value of what a person has to say. (The major exception to this is, obviously, formal and scholarly studies on slang itself.)

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Ayto, John. The Oxford Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0198607519
• Cohen, Gerald L. and Barry Popik (eds.) Studies in Slang. Part VI. Peter Lang Publishing, 1999. ISBN 978-0820443775
• Croft, William. Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach. Pearson ESL, 2001. ISBN 978-0582356771
• Franklyn, Julian. A Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. London: Routledge, 1992. ISBN 978-0415046022
• Green, Jonathon. Cassell’s Rhyming Slang. London: Cassell, 2000. ISBN 978-0304355136
• Lillo, Antonio. «Bees, Nelsons and Sterling Denominations: A Brief Look at Cockney Slang and Coinage.» Journal of English Linguistics 28(2) (2000): 145-172.
• Lillo, Antonio. «From Alsatian Dog to Wooden Shoe: Linguistic Xenophobia in Rhyming Slang.» English Studies 82 (4)(2001): 336-348.
• Lillo, Antonio. «A Wee Keek at Scottish Rhyming Slang.» Scottish Language 23 (2004): 93-115.
• __________. «Exploring Rhyming Slang in Ireland.» English World-Wide 25(2) (2004): 273-285.

Slang
words are identified and distinguished by contrasting them to
standard literary vocabulary. They are expressive, mostly ironical
words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent
topics of discourse. For the most part they sound somewhat vulgar,
cynical and harsh, aiming to show the object of speech in the light
of an off-hand contemptuous ridicule. Vivid examples can be furnished
by various slang words for money,
such
as beans,
brass, dibs, dough, chink, oof, wads; the
slang synonyms for word head
are
attic,
brain-pan, hat peg, nut, upper storey, compare
also various synonyms for the adjective drunk:
boozy, cock-eyed, high, soaked, tight and
many more. Notions that for some reason or other are apt to excite an
emotional reaction attract as a rule many synonyms: there are many
slang words for food, alcohol drinks, stealing and other violations
of the law, for jail, death, madness, drug use, etc.

Slang
has often attracted the attention of lexicographers. The best-known
English slang dictionary is compiled by E. Partridge.

The
subject of slang has caused much controversy for many years. Very
different opinions have been expressed concerning its nature, its
boundaries and the attitude that should be adopted towards it. The
question whether it should be considered a healthful source of
vocabulary development or a manifestation of vocabulary decay has
been often discussed.

It
has been repeatedly stated by many authors that after a slang word
has been used in speech for a certain period of time, people get
accustomed to it and it ceases to produce that shocking effect for
the sake of which it has been originally coined. The most vital among
slang words are then accepted into literary vocabulary. The examples
are bet,
bore, chap, donkey, fun, humbug, mob, odd, pinch, shabby, sham, snob,
trip, also
some words from the American slang: graft,
hitch-hiker, sawbones, etc.

These
words were originally slang words but have now become part of
literary vocabulary. The most prominent place among them is occupied
by words or expressions having no synonyms and serving as expressive
names for some specific notions. The word teenager,
so
very frequent now, is a good example. Also blurb
—
a publisher’s eulogy of a book printed on its jacket or in
advertisements elsewhere, which is originally American slang word.

The
communicative value of these words ensures their stability. But they
are rather the exception. The bulk of slang is formed by shortlived
words. E. Partridge, one of the best known specialists in English

249

slang,
gives as an example a series of vogue words designating a man of
fashion that superseded one another in English slang. They are: blood
(1550-1660),
macaroni
(1760),
buck
(1720-1840),
swell
(1811),
dandy
(1820-1870),
toff
(1851)¹.

It
is convenient to group slang words according to their place in the
vocabulary system, and more precisely, in the semantic system of the
vocabulary. If they denote a new and necessary notion, they may prove
an enrichment of the vocabulary and be accepted into standard
English. If, on the other hand, they make just another addition to a
cluster of synonyms, and have nothing but novelty to back them, they
die out very quickly, constituting the most changeable part of the
vocabulary.

Another
type of classification suggests subdivision according to the sphere
of usage, into general slang and special slang. General slang
includes words that are not specific for any social or professional
group, whereas special slang is peculiar for some such group:
teenager slang, university slang, public school slang, Air Force
slang, football slang, sea slang, and so on. This second group is
heterogeneous. Some authors, A.D. Schweitzer for instance, consider
argot to belong here. It seems, however, more logical to
differentiate slang and argot. The essential difference between them
results from the fact that the first has an expressive function,
whereas the second is primarily concerned with secrecy. Slang words
are clearly motivated, сf. cradle-snatcher
‘an
old man who marries or courts a much younger woman’; belly-robber
‘the
head of a military canteen’; window-shopping
‘feasting
one’s eyes on the goods displaced in the shops, without buying
anything’. Argot words on the contrary do not show their
motivation, сf. rap
‘kill’,
shin
‘knife’,
book
‘a
life sentence’.

Regarding
professional words that are used by representatives of various trades
in oral intercourse, it should be observed that when the word is the
only name for some special notion it belongs not to slang but to
terminology. If, on the other hand, it is a jocular name for
something that can be described in some other way, it is slang.

There
are cases, of course, when words originating as professional slang
later on assume the dignity of special terms or pass on into general
slang. The borderlines are not always sharp and distinct.

For
example, the expression be
on the beam was
first used by pilots about the beam of the radio beacon indicating
the proper course for the aircraft to follow. Then figuratively be
on the beam came
to mean ‘to be right’, whereas be
off the beam came
to mean ‘to be wrong’ or ‘to be at a loss’.

¹
To this list the 20th century words masher
and
teddy-boy
could
be added. There seems to be no new equivalent in today’s English
because such words as mod
and
rocker
(like
beat
and
beatnik)
or
hippy
and
punk
imply
not only, and not so much a certain way of dressing but other tastes
and mental make-up as well. Mods
(admirers
of modern jazz music) and more sportive rockers
were
two groups of English youth inimical to one another. The words are
formed by abbreviation and ellipsis: mod<
modern jazz; rocker < rock’n roll; beat, beatnik < beat
generation’, punk<punk rocker.

250

A
great deal of slang comes from the USA: corny,
cute, fuss-pot, teenager, swell, etc.
It would be, however, erroneous to suppose that slang is always
American in its origin. On the contrary, American slang also contains
elements coming from Great Britain, such as cheerio
‘goodbye’,
right-o
‘yes’
> Gerry
for
‘a German soldier’, and some, though not many, others.

Slang
is a difficult problem and much yet remains to be done in elucidating
it, but a more complete treatment of this layer of vocabulary would
result in an undue swelling of the chapter. Therefore in concluding
the discussion of slang we shall only emphasise that the most
important peculiarities of slang concern not form but content. The
lexical meaning of a slang word contains not only the denotational
component but also an emotive component (most often it expresses
irony) and all the other possible types of connotation — it is
expressive, evaluative and stylistically coloured and is the marked
member of a stylistic opposition.

tions,
the
salesmen of these were stationers
and
what they sold — stationery
(with
the noun suffix -ery
as
in grocery
or
bakery).

Not
all doublets come in pairs. Examples of groups are: appreciate,
appraise, apprise; astound, astonish, stun; kennel, channel, canal.

The
Latin word discus
is
the origin of a whole group of doublets:

dais<ME
deis < OF deis
< Lat
discus dish < ME dish < OE disc < Lat discus disc/disk <
Lat discus discus (in
sport) < Lat discus

Other
doublets that for the most part justify their names by coming in
pairs show in their various ways the influence of the language or
dialect systems which they passed before entering the English
vocabulary.

Compare
words borrowed in Middle English from Parisian French: chase,
chieftain, chattels, guard, gage with
their doublets of Norman French origin: catch,
captain, cattle, ward, wage.

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