What does the word poverty mean

Poverty is a state or condition in which one lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects.[1] When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter;[2] relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another.[2]

Statistically, as of 2019, most of the world’s population live in poverty: in PPP dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day now changed to $2.15/day.(extreme poverty).[3] According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries.[4] Even when countries experience economic development, the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries’ increased wealth to leave poverty.[5] Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for poverty alleviation, such as electrification in rural areas or housing first policies in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the United Nations in 2015, are summarized in Sustainable Development Goal 1: «No Poverty».

Social forces, such as gender, disability, race and ethnicity, can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, children and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the environmental effects of industry or the impacts of climate change or other natural disasters or extreme weather events. Poverty can also make other social problems worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in deforestation, biodiversity loss and ethnic conflict. For this reason, the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals.[6]

Definitions and etymologyEdit

The word poverty comes from the old (Norman) French word poverté (Modern French: pauvreté), from Latin paupertās from pauper (poor).[7]

There are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and usually references a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living.

United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.[8]

World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life.[9]

European Union (EU): The European Union’s definition of poverty is significantly different from definitions in other parts of the world, and consequently policy measures introduced to combat poverty in EU countries also differ from measures in other nations. Poverty is measured in relation to the distribution of income in each member country using relative income poverty lines.[10] Relative-income poverty rates in the EU are compiled by the Eurostat, in charge of coordinating, gathering, and disseminating member country statistics using European Union Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) surveys.[10]

Measuring povertyEdit

The number of people below different poverty lines

Absolute povertyEdit

Absolute poverty, often synonymous with ‘extreme poverty’ or ‘abject poverty’, refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. This set standard usually refers to «a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services.»[11][12][13] Having an income below the poverty line, which is defined as an income needed to purchase basic needs, is also referred to as primary proverty.

The «dollar a day» poverty line was first introduced in 1990 as a measure to meet such standards of living. For nations that do not use the US dollar as currency, «dollar a day» does not translate to living a day on the equivalent amount of local currency as determined by the exchange rate.[14] Rather, it is determined by the purchasing power parity rate, which would look at how much local currency is needed to buy the same things that a dollar could buy in the United States.[14] Usually, this would translate to having less local currency than if the exchange rate were used.[14]

From 1993 through 2005, the World Bank defined absolute poverty as $1.08 a day on such a purchasing power parity basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 US dollar[15] and in 2008, it was updated as $1.25 a day (equivalent to $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices)[16][17] and in 2015, it was updated as living on less than US$1.90 per day,[18] and moderate poverty as less than $2 or $5 a day.[19] Similarly, ‘ultra-poverty’ is defined by a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute as living on less than 54 cents per day.[20] The poverty line threshold of $1.90 per day, as set by the World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four),[21] while in India it was US$1.0 per day[22] and in China the absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010.[23] These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation’s official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that the World Bank method sets the bar too high,[citation needed] others argue it is too low.

Children of the Depression-era migrant workers, Arizona, United States, 1937

There is disagreement among experts as to what would be considered a realistic poverty rate with one considering it «an inaccurately measured and arbitrary cut off».[24] Some contend that a higher poverty line is needed, such as a minimum of $7.40 or even $10 to $15 a day. They argue that these levels are a minimum for basic needs and to achieve normal life expectancy.[25]

One estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people (59% of the world’s population) living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately.[26] Philip Alston, a UN special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, stated the World Bank’s international poverty line of $1.90 a day is fundamentally flawed, and has allowed for «self congratulatory» triumphalism in the fight against extreme global poverty, which he asserts is «completely off track» and that nearly half of the global population, or 3.4 billion, lives on less than $5.50 a day, and this number has barely moved since 1990.[27] Still others suggest that poverty line misleads because many live on far less than that line.[22][28][29]

Other measures of absolute poverty without using a certain dollar amount include the standard defined as receiving less than 80% of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food, sometimes called ultra-poverty.[30]

Relative povertyEdit

Graphical representation of the Gini coefficient, a common measure of inequality. The Gini coefficient is equal to the area marked A divided by the sum of the areas marked A and B, that is, Gini = A/(A + B).

Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context. It is argued that the needs considered fundamental is not an objective measure[31][32] and could change with the custom of society.[33][31] For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a nomadic tribe). Since richer nations would have lower levels of absolute poverty,[34][35] relative poverty is considered the «most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations»[36][37][38][39][40] and is the «most prominent and most-quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators».[41]

Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. This is a calculation of the percentage of people whose family household income falls below the Poverty Line. The main poverty line used in the OECD and the European Union is based on «economic distance», a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.[42] The United States federal government typically regulates this line to three times the cost of an adequate meal.[43]

There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example, the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index.

Global share of wealth by wealth group —Credit Suisse, 2021

Global share of wealth by wealth group —Credit Suisse, 2017

Other aspectsEdit

Rather than income, poverty is also measured through individual basic needs at a time. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and is starting to close the gap to the developed world.[44] Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world.[45] The proportion of the world’s population living in countries where the daily per-capita supply of food energy is less than 9,200 kilojoules (2,200 kilocalories) decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.[46]

An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with beggars waiting for scraps from the previous day. Sweden, 1868.

Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.[47][48][49] Such social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of relational care to those who are experiencing poverty. The World Bank’s «Voices of the Poor», based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include abuse by those in power, dis-empowering institutions, excluded locations, gender relationships, lack of security, limited capabilities, physical limitations, precarious livelihoods, problems in social relationships, weak community organizations and discrimination. Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished «capability» of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of access to information, education, health care, social capital or political power.[50][51] Relational poverty is the idea that societal poverty exists if there is a lack of human relationships. Relational poverty can be the result of a lost contact number, lack of phone ownership, isolation, or deliberate severing of ties with an individual or community. Relational poverty is also understood «by the social institutions that organize those relationships…poverty is importantly the result of the different terms and conditions on which people are included in social life»[52]

In the United Kingdom, the second Cameron ministry came under attack for their redefinition of poverty; poverty is no longer classified by a family’s income, but as to whether a family is in work or not.[53] Considering that two-thirds of people who found work were accepting wages that are below the living wage (according to the Joseph Rowntree Foundation[54]) this has been criticised by anti-poverty campaigners as an unrealistic view of poverty in the United Kingdom.[53]

Secondary povertyEdit

Secondary poverty refers to those that earn enough income to not be impoverished, but who spend their income on unnecessary pleasures, such as alcoholic beverages, thus placing them below it in practice.[55] In 18th- and 19th-century Great Britain, the practice of temperance among Methodists, as well as their rejection of gambling, allowed them to eliminate secondary poverty and accumulate capital.[56] Factors that contribute to secondary poverty includes but are not limited to: alcohol, gambling, tobacco and drugs.

VariabilityEdit

Poverty levels are snapshot pictures in time that omits the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statistics supply additional information about the fraction who leave the poverty level. For example, one study finds that in a sixteen-year period (1975 to 1991 in the US) only 5% of those in the lower fifth of the income level were still at that level, while 95% transitioned to a higher income category.[57] Poverty levels can remain the same while those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The transient poor and chronic poor differ in each society. In a nine-year period ending in 2005 for the US, 50% of the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile.[58]

Global prevalenceEdit

Worlds regions by total wealth (in trillions USD), 2018

According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.9 billion people lived below $1.25 per day in 1981. In 2005, about 4.09 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below $1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on inflation adjusted basis).[59][60] The share of the world’s population living in absolute poverty fell from 43% in 1981 to 14% in 2011.[61] The absolute number of people in poverty fell from 1.95 billion in 1981 to 1.01 billion in 2011.[62] The economist Max Roser estimates that the number of people in poverty is therefore roughly the same as 200 years ago.[62] This is the case since the world population was just little more than 1 billion in 1820 and the majority (84% to 94%)[63] of the world population was living in poverty. According to one study the number of people worldwide living in absolute poverty fell from 1.18 billion in 1950 to 1.04 billion in 1977.[64] According to another study, the number of people worldwide estimated to be starving fell from almost 920 million in 1971 to below 797 million in 1997.[65][unreliable source?] The proportion of the developing world’s population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28% in 1990 to 21% in 2001.[61] Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia.[66]

In 2012 it was estimated that, using a poverty line of $1.25 a day, 1.2 billion people lived in poverty.[67] Given the current economic model, built on GDP, it would take 100 years to bring the world’s poorest up to the poverty line of $1.25 a day.[68] UNICEF estimates half the world’s children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty.[69] The World Bank forecasted in 2015 that 702.1 million people were living in extreme poverty, down from 1.75 billion in 1990.[70] Extreme poverty is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies.[71][72] Of the 2015 population, about 347.1 million people (35.2%) lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million (13.5%) lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world’s population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling below 10% for the first time.[73] During the 2013 to 2015 period, the World Bank reported that extreme poverty fell from 11% to 10%, however they also noted that the rate of decline had slowed by nearly half from the 25 year average with parts of sub-saharan Africa returning to early 2000 levels.[74][75] The World Bank attributed this to increasing violence following the Arab Spring, population increases in Sub-Saharan Africa, and general African inflationary pressures and economic malaise were the primary drivers for this slow down.[76][77] Many wealthy nations have seen an increase in relative poverty rates ever since the Great Recession, in particular among children from impoverished families who often reside in substandard housing and find educational opportunities out of reach.[78] It has been argued by some academics that the neoliberal policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and poverty.[79][80]

In East Asia the World Bank reported that «The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990.»[81] The People’s Republic of China accounts for over three quarters of global poverty reduction from 1990 to 2005, which according to the World Bank is «historically unprecedented».[82] China accounted for nearly half of all extreme poverty in 1990.[83]

In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41% in 1981 to 46% in 2001,[84] which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million.[85] Statistics of 2018 shows population living in extreme conditions has declined by more than 1 billion in the last 25 years. As per the report published by the world bank on 19 September 2018 world poverty falls below 750 million.[86]

In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income.[87] The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the through year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result, poverty rates tripled,[88] excess mortality increased,[89] and life expectancy declined.[90] Russian President Boris Yeltsin’s IMF-backed rapid privatization and austerity policies resulted in unemployment rising to double digits and half the Russian population falling into destitution by the early to mid 1990s.[91] By 1999, during the peak of the poverty crisis, 191 million people were living on less than $5.50 a day.[92] In subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6%.[93][94] The average post-communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005,[95] although as of 2015 some are still far behind that.[96] According to the World Bank in 2014, around 80 million people were still living on less than $5.00 a day.[92]

World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world except Middle East and North Africa since 1990:[97][98]

Region $1 per day $1.25 per day[99] $1.90 per day[100]
1990 2002 2004 1981 2008 1981 1990 2000 2010 2015 2018
East Asia and Pacific 15.4% 12.3% 9.1% 77.2% 14.3% 80.2% 60.9% 34.8% 10.8% 2.1% 1.2%
Europe and Central Asia 3.6% 1.3% 1.0% 1.9% 0.5% — — 7.3% 2.4% 1.5% 1.1%
Latin America and the Caribbean 9.6% 9.1% 8.6% 11.9% 6.5% 13.7% 15.5% 12.7% 6% 3.7% 3.7%
Middle East and North Africa 2.1% 1.7% 1.5% 9.6% 2.7% — 6.5% 3.5% 2% 4.3% 7%
South Asia 35.0% 33.4% 30.8% 61.1% 36% 58% 49.1% — 26% — —
Sub-Saharan Africa 46.1% 42.6% 41.1% 51.5% 47.5% — 54.9% 58.4% 46.6% 42.3% 40.4%
World — — — 52.2% 22.4% 42.7% 36.2% 27.8% 16% 10.1% —

CharacteristicsEdit

Life expectancy has been increasing and converging for most of the world. Sub-Saharan Africa has recently seen a decline, partly related to the AIDS epidemic. Graph shows the years 1950–2005.

The effects of poverty may also be causes as listed above, thus creating a «poverty cycle» operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global.

A Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility

HealthEdit

One-third of deaths around the world—some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day—are due to poverty-related causes. People living in developing nations, among them women and children, are over represented among the global poor and these effects of severe poverty.[101][102][103] Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease, as well as lower life expectancy.[104][105] According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world’s public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.[106]

Almost 90% of maternal deaths during childbirth occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.[107] Those who live in poverty have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of having or incurring a disability within their lifetime.[108] Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3–1.5% annually.[109][110][111]

Studies have shown that poverty impedes cognitive function although some of these findings could not be replicated in follow-up studies.[112] One hypothesised mechanism is that financial worries put a severe burden on one’s mental resources so that they are no longer fully available for solving complicated problems. The reduced capability for problem solving can lead to suboptimal decisions and further perpetuate poverty.[113] Many other pathways from poverty to compromised cognitive capacities have been noted, from poor nutrition and environmental toxins to the effects of stress on parenting behavior, all of which lead to suboptimal psychological development.[114][115] Neuroscientists have documented the impact of poverty on brain structure and function throughout the lifespan.[116]

Infectious diseases continue to blight the lives of the poor across the world. 36.8 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 954,492 deaths in 2017.[117]

Poor people often are more prone to severe diseases due to the lack of health care, and due to living in non-optimal conditions. Among the poor, girls tend to suffer even more due to gender discrimination. Economic stability is paramount in a poor household; otherwise they go in an endless loop of negative income trying to treat diseases. Often when a person in a poor household falls ill it is up to the family members to take care of them due to limited access to health care and lack of health insurance. The household members often have to give up their income or stop seeking further education to tend to the sick member. There is a greater opportunity cost imposed on the poor to tend to someone compared to someone with better financial stability.[118] Increased access to healthcare and improved health outcomes help prevent individuals from falling into poverty due to medical expenses.[119][120]

Substance abuse means that the poor typically spend about 2% of their income educating their children but larger percentages of alcohol and tobacco (for example, 6% in Indonesia and 8% in Mexico).[121]

HungerEdit

Rises in the costs of living make poor people less able to afford items. Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than wealthy people. As a result, poor households and those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains[122] led to food riots in some countries.[123][124][125] The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty.[126] Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis.[127] Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields.[128] Approximately 40% of the world’s agricultural land is seriously degraded.[129][130] In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to United Nations University’s Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.[131] Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night.[132] According to the Global Hunger Index, Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest child malnutrition rate of the world’s regions over the 2001–2006 period.[133]

Mental healthEdit

A psychological study has been conducted by four scientists during inaugural Convention of Psychological Science. The results find that people who thrive with financial stability or fall under low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to perform worse cognitively due to external pressure imposed upon them. The research found that stressors such as low income, inadequate health care, discrimination, and exposure to criminal activities all contribute to mental disorders. This study also found that children exposed to poverty-stricken environments have slower cognitive thinking.[134] It is seen that children perform better under the care of their parents and that children tend to adopt speaking language at a younger age. Since being in poverty from childhood is more harmful than it is for an adult, it is seen that children in poor households tend to fall behind in certain cognitive abilities compared to other average families.[135]

For a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children under three need «A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most crucial during the first 6–24 months of infants’ lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy. Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex activities».[citation needed] In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide.[136] 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).[137] Studies have shown that poverty changes the personalities of children who live in it. The Great Smoky Mountains Study was a ten-year study that was able to demonstrate this. During the study, about one-quarter of the families saw a dramatic and unexpected increase in income. The study showed that among these children, instances of behavioral and emotional disorders decreased, and conscientiousness and agreeableness increased.[138]

EducationEdit

Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This is often a process that begins in primary school. Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in most other countries, tends to be geared towards those students who come from more advantaged backgrounds. As a result, children in poverty are at a higher risk than advantaged children for retention in their grade, special deleterious placements during the school’s hours and not completing their high school education.[139] Advantage breeds advantage.[140] There are many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. One is the conditions in which they attend school. Schools in poverty-stricken areas have conditions that hinder children from learning in a safe environment. Researchers have developed a name for areas like this: an urban war zone is a poor, crime-laden district in which deteriorated, violent, even warlike conditions and underfunded, largely ineffective schools promote inferior academic performance, including irregular attendance and disruptive or non-compliant classroom behavior.[141] Because of poverty, «Students from low-income families are 2.4 times more likely to drop out than middle-income kids, and over 10 times more likely than high-income peers to drop out.»[142]

For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy, and economic dependency upon their low-income parent or parents.[139]
Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are major issues to address since education from preschool to high school is identifiably meaningful in a life.[139]

Poverty often drastically affects children’s success in school. A child’s «home activities, preferences, mannerisms» must align with the world and in the cases that they do not do these, students are at a disadvantage in the school and, most importantly, the classroom.[143] Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from school. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds.[143] These illnesses could potentially restrict a student’s focus and concentration.[144]

In general, the interaction of gender with poverty or location tends to work to the disadvantage of girls in poorer countries with low completion rates and social expectations that they marry early, and to the disadvantage of boys in richer countries with high completion rates but social expectations that they enter the labour force early.[145] At the primary education level, most countries with a completion rate below 60% exhibit gender disparity at girls’ expense, particularly poor and rural girls. In Mauritania, the adjusted gender parity index is 0.86 on average, but only 0.63 for the poorest 20%, while there is parity among the richest 20%. In countries with completion rates between 60% and 80%, gender disparity is generally smaller, but disparity at the expense of poor girls is especially marked in Cameroon, Nigeria and Yemen. Exceptions in the opposite direction are observed in countries with pastoralist economies that rely on boys’ labour, such as the Kingdom of Eswatini, Lesotho and Namibia.[145]

ShelterEdit

Homeless family in Kolkata, India

Street child in Bangladesh. Aiding relatives financially unable to but willing to take in orphans is found to be more effective by cost and welfare than orphanages.[146]

The geographic concentration of poverty is argued to be a factor in entrenching poverty. William J. Wilson’s «concentration and isolation» hypothesis states that the economic difficulties of the very poorest African Americans are compounded by the fact that as the better-off African Americans move out, the poorest are more and more concentrated, having only other very poor people as neighbors. This concentration causes social isolation, Wilson suggests, because the very poor are now isolated from access to the job networks, role models, institutions, and other connections that might help them escape poverty.[147] Gentrification means converting an aging neighborhood into a more affluent one, as by remodeling homes. Landlords then increase rent on newly renovated real estate; the poor people cannot afford to pay high rent, and may need to leave their neighborhood to find affordable housing.[148] The poor also get more access to income and services, while studies suggest poor residents living in gentrifying neighbourhoods are actually less likely to move than poor residents of non-gentrifying areas.[149]

Poverty increases the risk of homelessness.[150] Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world’s urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing world, according to a report by the United Nations.[151]

There are over 100 million street children worldwide.[152] Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty.[146] It is speculated that, flush with money, for-profit orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died.[146] Many child advocates maintain that this can harm children’s development by separating them from their families and that it would be more effective and cheaper to aid close relatives who want to take in the orphans.[146]

UtilitiesEdit

Water and sanitationEdit

As of 2012, 2.5 billion people lack access to sanitation services and 15% practice open defecation.[153] The most noteworthy example is Bangladesh, which had half the GDP per capita of India but has a lower mortality from diarrhea than India or the world average, with diarrhea deaths declining by 90% since the 1990s. Even while providing latrines is a challenge, people still do not use them even when available. By strategically providing pit latrines to the poorest, charities in Bangladesh sparked a cultural change as those better off perceived it as an issue of status to not use one. The vast majority of the latrines built were then not from charities but by villagers themselves.[154]

Water utility subsidies tend to subsidize water consumption by those connected to the supply grid, which is typically skewed towards the richer and urban segment of the population and those outside informal housing. As a result of heavy consumption subsidies, the price of water decreases to the extent that only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is covered.[155][156]
This results in a lack of incentive to maintain delivery systems, leading to losses from leaks annually that are enough for 200 million people.[155][157]
This also leads to a lack of incentive to invest in expanding the network, resulting in much of the poor population being unconnected to the network. Instead, the poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.[155][158] However, subsidies for laying new connections to the network rather than for consumption have shown more promise for the poor.[156]

EnergyEdit

Homes without reliable access to energy such as electricity, heating, cooling, etc.

Energy poverty is lack of access to modern energy services. It refers to the situation of large numbers of people in developing countries and some people in developed countries whose well-being is negatively affected by very low consumption of energy, use of dirty or polluting fuels, and excessive time spent collecting fuel to meet basic needs. Today, 759 million people lack access to consistent electricity and 2.6 billion people use dangerous and inefficient cooking systems.[159] It is inversely related to access to modern energy services, although improving access is only one factor in efforts to reduce energy poverty. Energy poverty is distinct from fuel poverty, which primarily focuses solely on the issue of affordability.

The term “energy poverty” came into emergence through the publication of Brenda Boardman’s book, Fuel Poverty: From Cold Homes to Affordable Warmth (1991). Naming the intersection of energy and poverty as “energy poverty” motivated the need to develop public policy to address energy poverty and also study its causes, symptoms, and effects in society. When energy poverty was first introduced in Boardman’s book, energy poverty was described as not having enough power to heat and cool homes. Today, energy poverty is understood to be the result of complex systemic inequalities which create barriers to access modern energy at an affordable price. Energy poverty is challenging to measure and thus analyze because it is privately experienced within households, specific to cultural contexts, and dynamically changes depending on the time and space.[160]

According to the Energy Poverty Action initiative of the World Economic Forum, «Access to energy is fundamental to improving quality of life and is a key imperative for economic development. In the developing world, energy poverty is still rife.[161]«. As a result of this situation, the United Nations (UN) launched the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative and designated 2012 as the International Year for Sustainable Energy for All, which had a major focus on reducing energy poverty. The UN further recognizes the importance of energy poverty through Goal 7 of its Sustainable Development Goals to «ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.»[159]

Prejudice and exploitationEdit

The urban poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.[155]

Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping,[162] discrimination against people with physical disability,[163] gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination. Children are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as adults.[164] Women are the group suffering from the highest rate of poverty after children, in what is referred to as the feminization of poverty. In addition, the fact that women are more likely to be caregivers, regardless of income level, to either the generations before or after them, exacerbates the burdens of their poverty.[165] Those in poverty have increased chances of incurring a disability which leads to a cycle where disability and poverty are mutually reinforcing.

Max Weber and some schools of modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic success.[166][167] However, researchers[who?] have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.[168] A 2018 report on poverty in the United States by UN special rapporteur Philip Alston asserts that caricatured narratives about the rich and the poor (that «the rich are industrious, entrepreneurial, patriotic and the drivers of economic success» while «the poor are wasters, losers and scammers») are largely inaccurate, as «the poor are overwhelmingly those born into poverty, or those thrust there by circumstances largely beyond their control, such as physical or mental disabilities, divorce, family breakdown, illness, old age, unlivable wages or discrimination in the job market.»[169] Societal perception of people experiencing economic difficulty has historically appeared as a conceptual dichotomy: the «good» poor (people who are physically impaired, disabled, the «ill and incurable,» the elderly, pregnant women, children) vs. the «bad» poor (able-bodied, «valid» adults, most often male).[170]

According to experts, many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is prostitution, as a means of survival and economic desperation.[171] Deterioration of living conditions can often compel children to abandon school to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited.[172] For example, in Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning to sex in return for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.[173] According to studies, as poverty decreases there will be fewer and fewer instances of violence.[174]

Poverty reduction Edit

Various poverty reduction strategies are broadly categorized based on whether they make more of the basic human needs available or whether they increase the disposable income needed to purchase those needs.[176] Some strategies such as building roads can both bring access to various basic needs, such as fertilizer or healthcare from urban areas, as well as increase incomes, by bringing better access to urban markets.

In 2015 all UN Member States adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals as part of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. Goal 1 is to «end poverty in all its forms everywhere».[177] It aims to eliminate extreme poverty for all people measured by daily wages less than $1.25 and at least half the total number of men, women, and children living in poverty. In addition, social protection systems must be established at the national level and equal access to economic resources must be ensured.[178] Strategies have to be developed at the national, regional and international levels to support the eradication of poverty.[179]

Increasing the supply of basic needsEdit

Food and other goodsEdit

Agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides, new seed varieties and new irrigation methods have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern times by boosting yields past previous constraints.[180] Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals is the elimination of hunger and undernutrition by 2030.[181]

Before the Industrial Revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce.[182] Geoffrey Parker wrote that «In Antwerp and Lyon, two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis.»[183] The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed world.[184] Mass production of goods in places such as rapidly industrializing China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them.[185][186]

Even with new products, such as better seeds, or greater volumes of them, such as industrial production, the poor still require access to these products. Improving road and transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from an African seaport 100 kilometres (60 mi) inland than to ship it from the United States to Africa because of sparse, low-quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the world average.[187] Microfranchising models such as door-to-door distributors who earn commission-based income or Coca-Cola’s successful distribution system[188][189] are used to disseminate basic needs to remote areas for below market prices.[190][191]

Health care and educationEdit

Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural Nigerian clinics.

Universal healthcare can reduce the overall cost of providing healthcare by having a single payer negotiating with healthcare providers and minimizing administrative costs.[119][120]

Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health.[192] For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today.[193] It reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to 0.6% today while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not.[193] Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive and educational measures have been made to disseminate what works, such as the Copenhagen Consensus.[194] Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia.[195][196]

Strategies to provide education cost effectively include deworming children, which costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fifth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing schools.[197] Schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half by simply providing free sanitary towels.[198] Fortification with micronutrients was ranked the most cost effective aid strategy by the Copenhagen Consensus.[199] For example, iodised salt costs 2 to 3 cents per person a year while even moderate iodine deficiency in pregnancy shaves off 10 to 15 IQ points.[200] Paying for school meals is argued to be an efficient strategy in increasing school enrollment, reducing absenteeism and increasing student attention.[201]

Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of aid known as conditional cash transfers.[202] In Mexico, for example, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height.[203] Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program.[203]

HousingEdit

The right to housing is argued to be a human right.[204][205] Policy incentives such as Housing First emphasize that other basic needs are easier to be met when housing is first guaranteed.[citation needed]

UtilitiesEdit

Programs that provide telecommunications services such as telephone and broadband internet service can be subsidized by the state to help the poor access such services.[206]

Removing constraints on government servicesEdit

Local citizens from the Jana bi Village wait to gather goods from the Sons of Iraq (Abna al-Iraq) in a military operation conducted in Yusufiyah, Iraq.

Government revenue can be diverted away from basic services by corruption.[207][208] Funds from aid and natural resources are often sent by government individuals for money laundering to overseas banks which insist on bank secrecy, instead of spending on the poor.[209] A Global Witness report asked for more action from Western banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism.[209]

Illicit capital flight, such as corporate tax avoidance,[210] from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays,[211] with one estimate that most of Africa would be developed if the taxes owed were paid.[212] About 60 per cent of illicit capital flight from Africa is from transfer mispricing, where a subsidiary in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or shell company in a tax haven at an artificially low price to pay less tax.[213] An African Union report estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africa’s GDP has been moved to tax havens.[214] Solutions include corporate «country-by-country reporting» where corporations disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs.[213]

Developing countries’ debt service to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government spending on the poor.[215] For example, Zambia spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997.[216] One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief.[217] Since that round of debt relief, private creditors accounted for an increasing share of poor countries’ debt service obligations. This complicated efforts to renegotiate easier terms for borrowers during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic because the multiple private creditors involved say they have a fiduciary obligation to their clients such as the pension funds.[218][219]

The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as primary holders of developing countries’ debt, attach structural adjustment conditionalities in return for loans which are generally geared toward loan repayment with austerity measures such as the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices.[220] In Malawi, almost 5 million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid but after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as Malawi became a major food exporter.[220] A major proportion of aid from donor nations is tied, mandating that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise originating only from the donor country.[221] US law requires food aid be spent on buying food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on transport.[222]

Distressed securities funds, also known as vulture funds, buy up the debt of poor nations cheaply and then sue countries for the full value of the debt plus interest which can be ten or 100 times what they paid.[223] They may pursue any companies which do business with their target country to force them to pay to the fund instead.[223] Considerable resources are diverted on costly court cases. For example, a court in Jersey ordered the Democratic Republic of the Congo to pay an American speculator $100 million in 2010.[223] Now, the UK, Isle of Man and Jersey have banned such payments.[223]

Reversing brain drainEdit

The loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect.[224] As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia.[225] Proposals to mitigate the problem include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools[224] and promoting medical tourism so that health care personnel have more incentive to practice in their home countries.[226] It is very easy for Ugandan doctors to emigrate to other countries. It is seen that only 69% of the health care jobs were filled in Uganda. Other Ugandan doctors were seeking jobs in other countries leaving inadequate or less skilled doctors to stay in Uganda.[227]

Preventing overpopulationEdit

Poverty and lack of access to birth control can lead to population increases that put pressure on local economies and access to resources, amplifying other economic inequality and creating increase poverty.[228][85][229] Better education for both men and women, and more control of their lives, reduces population growth due to family planning.[230][231] According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), those who receive better education can earn money for their lives, thereby strengthening economic security.[232]

Increasing personal incomeEdit

The following are strategies used or proposed to increase personal incomes among the poor. Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three-quarters of the poor today are farmers.[233] Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country’s population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors.[234]

Income grantsEdit

Afghan girl begging in Kabul

A guaranteed minimum income ensures that every citizen will be able to purchase a desired level of basic needs. One method is through a basic income (or negative income tax), which is a system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on.[235] Studies of large cash-transfer programs in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi show that the programs can be effective in increasing consumption, schooling, and nutrition, whether they are tied to such conditions or not.[236][237][238] Proponents argue that a basic income is more economically efficient than a minimum wage and unemployment benefits, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency. In 1968, Paul Samuelson, John Kenneth Galbraith and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system of income guarantees.[239] Winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics, with often diverse political convictions, who support a basic income include Herbert A. Simon,[240] Friedrich Hayek,[241] Robert Solow,[240] Milton Friedman,[242] Jan Tinbergen,[240] James Tobin[243][244][245]
and James Meade.[240]

Income grants are argued to be vastly more efficient in extending basic needs to the poor than subsidizing supplies whose effectiveness in poverty alleviation is diluted by the non-poor who enjoy the same subsidized prices.[246] With cars and other appliances, the wealthiest 20% of Egypt uses about 93% of the country’s fuel subsidies.[247] In some countries, fuel subsidies are a larger part of the budget than health and education.[247][248] A 2008 study concluded that the money spent on in-kind transfers in India in a year could lift all India’s poor out of poverty for that year if transferred directly.[249] The primary obstacle argued against direct cash transfers is the impractically for poor countries of such large and direct transfers. In practice, payments determined by complex iris scanning are used by war-torn Democratic Republic of Congo and Afghanistan,[250] while India is phasing out its fuel subsidies in favor of direct transfers.[251] Additionally, in aid models, the famine relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.[252][253]

Economic freedomsEdit

Corruption often leads to many civil services being treated by governments as employment agencies to loyal supporters[254] and so it could mean going through 20 procedures, paying $2,696 in fees, and waiting 82 business days to start a business in Bolivia, while in Canada it takes two days, two registration procedures, and $280 to do the same.[255] Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created.[256] Often, businesses have to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which is, in effect, a tax on business.[257] Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the ending of the central planning model known as the License Raj in India.[258][259][260]

The World Bank concludes that governments and feudal elites extending to the poor the right to the land that they live and use are ‘the key to reducing poverty’ citing that land rights greatly increase poor people’s wealth, in some cases doubling it.[261] Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were security of tenure and ensuring land transactions costs were low.[261]

Greater access to markets brings more income to the poor. Road infrastructure has a direct impact on poverty.[262][263] Additionally, migration from poorer countries resulted in $328 billion sent from richer to poorer countries in 2010, more than double the $120 billion in official aid flows from OECD members. In 2011, India got $52 billion from its diaspora, more than it took in foreign direct investment.[264]

Financial servicesEdit

Information and communication technologies for development help to fight poverty.

Microloans, made famous by the Grameen Bank, is where small amounts of money are loaned to farmers or villages, mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to increase their economic rewards. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprofits off the poor even from its founder, Muhammad Yunus,[265] and in India, Arundhati Roy asserts that some 250,000 debt-ridden farmers have been driven to suicide.[266][267][268]

Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans.[269] Additionally, a large part of microfinance loans are spent not on investments but on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account.[269] Microsavings are designs to make savings products available for the poor, who make small deposits. Mobile banking uses the wide availability of mobile phones to address the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts.[269] This usually involves a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers’ phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.[270]

Reversing wealth concentrationEdit

Oxfam, among others,[271] has called for an international movement to end extreme wealth concentration arguing that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else—particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.[272][273] And they say that the gains of the world’s billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, were enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.[274]

Proposals put forward to reverse wealth concentration that might reduce poverty include taxation and governance reforms, legal and financial labor supports, direct financial and medical aid, expansion of educational opportunities, and the development of civil infrastructure:

Tax and governance reformsEdit

Progressive taxation involves increasing tax rates on high-income earners and wealthy individuals, while providing tax relief to low- and middle-income earners. Doing so reduces inequality and poverty.[275][276]

Wealth taxes involve taxing a portion of an individual’s net worth above a certain threshold. This proposal has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in countries like France, Spain, and the United States. Wealth taxation has been proposed to directly fund the alleviation of poverty.[277][278][279]

Reducing payroll taxes provides workers greater take-home pay and allows employers to spend more on wages and salaries. Payroll taxes often fall disproportionately on the poorest workers.[280][281][282]

Policies that support small businesses and entrepreneurship can also be effective in reducing poverty and wealth concentration. Small businesses are a vital source of job creation and economic growth, particularly in low-income communities. By providing small businesses with access to capital, technical assistance, and other resources, policymakers can help to support the growth and success of small businesses, the jobs they create, and economic activity in disadvantaged regions. Policies that support entrepreneurship can provide individuals with the opportunity to start their own businesses and build wealth, reducing poverty and promoting economic mobility.[283][284]

Expanding access to affordable credit can also help reduce poverty and wealth concentration by providing individuals with the financial resources they need to invest in their futures. For low-income individuals and families, access to credit can be limited, predatory, or both, making it difficult to pay for education, start a business, or buy a home. By expanding access to affordable credit, policymakers can help to level the playing field and promote economic mobility. Affordable credit can help individuals to build wealth over time, reducing poverty and promoting long-term financial security.[285][286]

Land reform providing secure tenure to land ownership improves the welfare of the poor and creates incentives for investment. Facilitating land exchange and distribution through markets and non-market channels can expedite land access for productive but land-poor producers, promoting socially desirable land allocation and utilization.[287]

Labor supportEdit

Employment subsidies such as the earned income tax credit provide tax relief for low-income workers, reducing poverty substantially.[280][288] Other indirect programs to subsidize employment and hiring have also been shown to reduce poverty.[289]

Increasing the labor share, the proportion of business income paid as wages and salaries instead of allocated to shareholders as profit, has a direct impact on poverty reduction.[290] The incidence of poverty is inversely related to the labor share in both developed and developing countries.[291]

Reducing the workweek length can help reduce poverty and wealth concentration by creating more job opportunities, as employers will need to hire additional workers to maintain productivity levels. This can lead to lower unemployment rates because of a wider division of labor. A shorter workweek can also provide workers with more time for education, training, and entrepreneurship, further improving their earning potential. Shorter workweeks can improve work-life balance and promote better physical and mental health, reducing the risk of illness and absenteeism, which can lead to lower productivity and wages.[292][293][294]

EducationEdit

Early childhood education can reduce poverty and wealth concentration by providing children from low-income families with a strong foundation for future success. Children who attend high-quality early childhood education programs are more likely to do well in school, graduate from high school, and go on to college or vocational training. This, in turn, can lead to better job prospects and higher earnings. Early childhood education can also promote social mobility by reducing the achievement gap between low-income children and their more affluent peers.[295][296]

Free college, policies of no-cost public education through the tertiary level, increases access to higher education for low-income students who may not otherwise have the financial resources to attend college. By eliminating or reducing tuition and fees, free college policies can help to remove financial barriers to higher education, enabling more students to pursue college degrees and improve their economic prospects and upward mobility.[297][298]

Job training and vocational education programs can reduce poverty and wealth concentration by providing individuals with the skills and knowledge needed to secure higher-paying jobs. These programs often target specific industries or occupations that are in high demand, and they can provide training in technical skills, as well as important soft skills like communication and problem-solving.[299][300]

InfrastructureEdit

Expanding and lowering the cost of public transportation strengthens the job prospects of low-income individuals and allows them to access to a greater variety of essential shops and markets than higher cost alternatives in food deserts.[301][302] Higher density and lower cost housing affords low-income families and first-time homebuyers with more and less expensive shelter opportunities, reducing economic inequality.[303][304] Ensuring the availability of water, sanitation, energy, and transportation infrastructure are all essential for reducing poverty.[305][306]

PerspectivesEdit

Economic theoriesEdit

Data shows substantial social segregation correlating with economic income groups.[307] However, social connectedness to people of higher income levels is a strong predictor of upward income mobility.[307]

The cause of poverty is a highly ideologically charged subject, as different causes point to different remedies. Very broadly speaking, the socialist tradition locates the roots of poverty in problems of distribution and the use of the means of production as capital benefiting individuals, and calls for redistribution of wealth as the solution, whereas the neoliberal school of thought holds that creating conditions for profitable private investment is the solution. Neoliberal think tanks have received extensive funding,[308] and the ability to apply many of their ideas in highly indebted countries in the global South as a condition for receiving emergency loans from the International Monetary Fund.

The existence of inequality is in part due to a set of self-reinforcing behaviors that all together constitute one aspect of the cycle of poverty. These behaviors, in addition to unfavorable, external circumstances, also explain the existence of the Matthew effect, which not only exacerbates existing inequality, but is more likely to make it multigenerational. Widespread, multigenerational poverty is an important contributor to civil unrest and political instability.[309] For example, Raghuram G. Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India and former chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, has blamed the ever-widening gulf between the rich and the poor, especially in the US, to be one of the main fault lines which caused the financial institutions to pump money into subprime mortgages—on political behest, as a palliative and not a remedy, for poverty—causing the financial crisis of 2007–2009. In Rajan’s view the main cause of the increasing gap between high income and low income earners was lack of equal access to higher education for the latter.[310]

A data based scientific empirical research, which studied the impact of dynastic politics on the level of poverty of the provinces, found a positive correlation between dynastic politics and poverty; i.e. the higher proportion of dynastic politicians in power in a province leads to higher poverty rate.[311] There is significant evidence that these political dynasties use their political dominance over their respective regions to enrich themselves, using methods such as graft or outright bribery of legislators.[312]

Many scholars and public intellectuals argue that, throughout most of human history, extreme poverty was the norm for roughly 90% of the population, with only the emergence of industrial capitalism in the 19th century lifting masses of people out of it.[313] This narrative is advanced by, among others, Martin Ravallion,[314] Nicholas Kristof,[315] and Steven Pinker.[316] Some academics including Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel have challenged this contemporary mainstream narrative on poverty, arguing that extreme poverty was not the norm throughout human history, but emerged during «periods of severe social and economic dislocation,» including high European feudalism and the apex of the Roman Empire, and that it expanded significantly after 1500 with the emergence of colonialism and the beginnings of capitalism, stating that «the expansion of the capitalist world-system caused a dramatic and prolonged process of impoverishment on a scale unparalleled in recorded history.» Sullivan and Hickel assert that only with the rise of anti-colonial and socialist political movements in the 20th century did human welfare begin to see significant improvement.[313]

EnvironmentalismEdit

Important studies such as the Brundtland Report concluded that poverty causes environmental degradation, while other theories like environmentalism of the poor conclude that the global poor may be the most important force for sustainability.[317] Either way, the poor suffer most from environmental degradation caused by reckless exploitation of natural resources by the rich.[318] This unfair distribution of environmental burdens and benefits has generated the global environmental justice movement.[319]

A report published in 2013 by the World Bank, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network, found that climate change was likely to hinder future attempts to reduce poverty. The report presented the likely impacts of present day, 2 °C and 4 °C warming on agricultural production, water resources, coastal ecosystems and cities across Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and South East Asia. The impacts of a temperature rise of 2 °C included: regular food shortages in Sub-Saharan Africa; shifting rain patterns in South Asia leaving some parts under water and others without enough water for power generation, irrigation or drinking; degradation and loss of reefs in South East Asia, resulting in reduced fish stocks; and coastal communities and cities more vulnerable to increasingly violent storms.[320] In 2016, a UN report claimed that by 2030, an additional 122 million more people could be driven to extreme poverty because of climate change.[321]

Global warming can also lead to a deficiency in water availability; with higher temperatures and CO2 levels, plants consume more water leaving less for people. By consequence, water in rivers and streams will decline in the mid-altitude regions like Central Asia, Europe and North America. And if CO2 levels continue to rise, or even remain the same, droughts will be happening much faster and will be lasting longer. According to a 2016 study led by Professor of Water Management, Arjen Hoekstra, four billion people are affected by water scarcity at least one month per year.[322]

SpiritualityEdit

Among some individuals, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism (only for monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism, whilst in Christianity, in particular Roman Catholicism, it is one of the evangelical counsels. The main aim of giving up things of the materialistic world is to withdraw oneself from sensual pleasures (as they are considered illusionary and only temporary in some religions—such as the concept of dunya in Islam). This self-invited poverty (or giving up pleasures) is different from the one caused by economic imbalance.

Some Christian communities, such as the Simple Way, the Bruderhof, and the Amish value voluntary poverty;[323] some even take a vow of poverty, similar to that of the traditional Catholic orders, in order to live a more complete life of discipleship.[324]

Benedict XVI distinguished «poverty chosen» (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and «poverty to be fought» (unjust and imposed poverty). He considered that the moderation implied in the former favors solidarity, and is a necessary condition so as to fight effectively to eradicate the abuse of the latter.[325]

As it was indicated above the reduction of poverty results from religion, but also can result from solidarity.[326]

Charts and tablesEdit

World population living in extreme poverty, 1990–2015

World map of countries by Human Development Index categories in increments of 0.050 (based on 2019 data, published in 2020)

  ≥ 0.900

  0.850–0.899

  0.800–0.849

  0.750–0.799

  0.700–0.749

  0.650–0.699

  0.600–0.649

  0.550–0.599

  0.500–0.549

  0.450–0.499

  0.400–0.449

  ≤ 0.399

  Data unavailable

See alsoEdit

  • Accumulation by dispossession
  • Aporophobia
  • Bottom of the pyramid
  • Environmental racism
  • Food bank
  • Income disparity
  • International development
  • International inequality
  • Involuntary unemployment
  • Juvenilization of poverty
  • List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
  • Millennium Development Goals
  • Poverty trap
  • Redistribution of income and wealth
  • Social programs
  • Social safety net
  • United Nations Millennium Declaration
  • World Poverty Clock

ReferencesEdit

CitationsEdit

  1. ^ «Ending Poverty». United Nations. Archived from the original on 9 September 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  2. ^ a b «Poverty | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization». www.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
  3. ^ Roser, Max; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban (1 January 2019). «Global Extreme Poverty». Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  4. ^ «Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries and Situations», The World Bank Group A to Z 2016, The World Bank, pp. 60a–62, 7 October 2015, doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0484-7_fragile_and_conflict_affected, ISBN 978-1-4648-0484-7, retrieved 2 January 2022
  5. ^ B. Milanovic, Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization (Harvard Univ. Press, 2016).
  6. ^ dpicampaigns. «Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere». United Nations Sustainable Development. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  7. ^ Skeat, Walter (2005). An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-44052-1.
  8. ^ «Indicators of Poverty & Hunger» (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  9. ^ «Poverty and Inequality Analysis». worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  10. ^ a b Dvorak, Jaroslav (November 2015). «European Union Definition of Poverty». The SAGE Encyclopedia of World Poverty. ResearchGate. doi:10.4135/9781483345727.n270. ISBN 978-1-4833-4570-3.
  11. ^ UN declaration at World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995
  12. ^ «Poverty». World Bank. Archived from the original on 30 August 2004. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
  13. ^ Sachs, Jeffrey D. (2005). The End of Poverty. Penguin Press. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-59420-045-8.
  14. ^ a b c Devichand, Mukul (2 December 2007). «When a dollar a day means 25 cents». bbcnews.com. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  15. ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua & Sangraula, Prem (2008). «Dollar a Day Revisited» (PDF). The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  16. ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua; Sangraula, Prem (May 2008). Dollar a Day Revisited (PDF) (Report). Washington, DC: The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
  17. ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua; Sangraula, Prem (2009). «Dollar a day» (PDF). The World Bank Economic Review. 23 (2): 163–184. doi:10.1093/wber/lhp007. S2CID 26832525. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  18. ^ ««The Bank uses an updated international poverty line of US $1.90 a day, which incorporates new information on differences in the cost of living across countries (the PPP exchange rates).»«. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  19. ^ WDI. «Societal poverty a global measure of relative poverty». Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  20. ^ International Food Policy Research Institute, The World’s Most Deprived. Characteristics and Causes of Extreme Poverty and Hunger Archived 23 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Washington: IFPRI Oct 2007
  21. ^ «Poverty Definitions». US Census Bureau. 2011. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
  22. ^ a b «World Bank’s $1.25/day poverty measure – countering the latest criticisms». The World Bank. 2010. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
  23. ^ «New Progress in Development-oriented Poverty Reduction Program for Rural China (1,274 yuan per year = US$ 0.55 per day)». The Government of China. 2011. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  24. ^ «Did we really reduce extreme poverty by half in 30 years?». @politifact. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  25. ^ Hickel, Jason (29 January 2019). «Bill Gates says poverty is decreasing. He couldn’t be more wrong». The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  26. ^ «Four Reasons to Question the Official ‘Poverty Eradication’ Story of 2015». Archived from the original on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
  27. ^ Beaumont, Peter (7 July 2020). «‘We squandered a decade’: world losing fight against poverty, says UN academic». The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  28. ^ «Poverty Measures» (PDF). The World Bank. 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  29. ^ Sen, Amartya (March 1976). «Poverty: An Ordinal Approach to Measurement». Econometrica. 44 (2): 219–231. doi:10.2307/1912718. JSTOR 1912718.
  30. ^ Lipton, Michael (1986), ‘Seasonality and ultra-poverty’, Sussex, IDS Bulletin 17.3
  31. ^ a b Adamson, Peter (2012). «Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world’s rich countries – UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Report Card – number 10» (PDF). Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  32. ^ Minority [Republican] views, p. 46 in U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Economic Committee on the January 1964 Economic Report of the President with Minority and Additional Views (Report). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. January 1964.
  33. ^ Smith, Adam (1776). An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Vol. 5.
  34. ^ Bradshaw, Jonathan; Chzhen, Yekaterina; Main, Gill; Martorano, Bruno; Menchini, Leonardo; Chris de Neubourg (January 2012). Relative Income Poverty among Children in Rich Countries (PDF) (Report). Innocenti Working Paper. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. ISSN 1014-7837. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  35. ^ A League Table of Child Poverty in Rich Nations – Innocenti Report Card No.1 (Report). Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
  36. ^ Raphael, Dennis (June 2009). «Poverty, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and Advocacy Dilemmas». Canadian Journal of Nursing Research. 41 (2): 7–18. PMID 19650510. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
  37. ^ Child poverty in rich nations: Report card no. 6 (Report). Innocenti Research Centre. 2005.
  38. ^ «Growing unequal? Income distribution and poverty in OECD countries» (PDF). Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  39. ^ Human development report: Capacity development: Empowering people and institutions (Report). Geneva: United Nations Development Program. 2008.
  40. ^ «Child Poverty». Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada. 2013. Archived from the original on 4 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  41. ^ Marx, Ive; van den Bosch, Karel. «How Poverty Differs From Inequality, On Poverty Management in an Enlarged EU Context: Conventional and Alternative Approaches» (PDF). ec.europa.eu. Antwerp: Centre for Social Policy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2018.
  42. ^ Blastland, Michael (31 July 2009). «Just what is poor?». BBC News. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
  43. ^ Mankiw, Gregory (2016). Principles of Economics. Boston: Cengage. p. 406. ISBN 978-1-305-58512-6.
  44. ^ Hardy, Melissa A.; Reyes, Adriana M. (1 February 2016). «The Longevity Legacy of World War II: The Intersection of GI Status and Mortality». The Gerontologist. 56 (1): 104–114. doi:10.1093/geront/gnv041. ISSN 0016-9013. PMID 26220413. Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  45. ^ «Levels and Trends in Child Mortality» (PDF). UNICEF, World Health Organization, The World Bank and UN Population Division. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
  46. ^ Kenny, Charles (2005). «Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging». World Development. 33: 1–19. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.06.016.
  47. ^ H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and social solidarity, in International Labour Review, 133 5–6
  48. ^ G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13
  49. ^ Townsend, P. (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom. London: Penguin.
  50. ^ «A Glossary for Social Epidemiology». World Health Organization. March 2002. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  51. ^ «Journal of Poverty». Journal of Poverty. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  52. ^ Lawson, Victoria; Elwood, Sarah, eds. (2018). Relational Poverty Politics: Forms, Struggles, and Possibilities. The University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-5312-8.
  53. ^ a b Khan, Javed (19 July 2015). «The welfare reform and work bill will make poor children poorer». The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  54. ^ «Record numbers of working families in poverty due to low-paid jobs». The Guardian. 24 November 2014. Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  55. ^ Townsend, Peter (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living. University of California Press. p. 565. ISBN 978-0-520-03976-6.
  56. ^ Swatos, William H. (1998). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Rowman Altamira. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1.
  57. ^ W. Michael Cox; Alm, Richard (1995). By Our Own Bootstraps (PDF) (Report). Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
  58. ^ Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005 (PDF) (Report). Department of the Treasury. 13 November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2012.
  59. ^ Chen, Shaohua & Ravallioniz, Martin (August 2008). «The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty» (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
  60. ^ «Fighting poverty in emerging markets – the gloves go on; Lessons from Brazil, China and India». The Economist. 26 November 2009. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
  61. ^ a b «The World Bank, 2007, Understanding Poverty». Web.worldbank.org. 19 April 2005. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  62. ^ a b Roser, Max (2015). «World Poverty». Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
  63. ^ Bourguignon, François; Morrisson, Christian (2002). «Inequality Among World Citizens: 1820–1992» (PDF). American Economic Review. 92 (4): 727–744. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.5.7307. doi:10.1257/00028280260344443. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  64. ^ Economic Inequality and Poverty International Perspectives Edited by Lars Osberg, 2017, P.71
  65. ^ The Skeptical Environmentalist Measuring the Real State of the World By Bjørn Lomborg, 2001, P.61
  66. ^ «How Have the World’s Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?» Table 3, p. 28″. worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  67. ^ Ravallion, Martin. «How long will it take to lift one billion people out of poverty?.» The World Bank Research Observer 28.2 (2013): 139.
  68. ^ Jason Hickel (30 March 2015). It will take 100 years for the world’s poorest people to earn $1.25 a day Archived 24 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
  69. ^ Madu, Ernest C. «Investment and Development Will Secure the Rights of the Child». Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  70. ^ The World Bank (2016). Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016: Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change (PDF) (Report). Washington, DC: World Bank. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0669-8. ISBN 978-1-4648-0669-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
  71. ^ «World Bank Sees Progress Against Extreme Poverty, But Flags Vulnerabilities». The World bank. 29 February 2012. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  72. ^ «Poverty and Equity – India, 2010 World Bank Country Profile». Povertydata.worldbank.org. 30 March 2012. Archived from the original on 25 November 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  73. ^ «World Bank Forecasts Global Poverty to Fall Below 10% for First Time; Major Hurdles Remain in Goal to End Poverty by 2030». Worldbank.org. 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
  74. ^ «Ending Extreme Poverty: Progress, but Uneven and Slowing» (PDF). The world Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  75. ^ Elliott, Larry (20 January 2019). «World’s 26 richest people own as much as poorest 50%, says Oxfam». The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  76. ^ Inman, Phillip (19 September 2018). «World Bank reports slower progress on extreme poverty». The Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  77. ^ Müller-Jung, Friederike (17 October 2018). «World Bank report: Poverty rates remain high in Africa». Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  78. ^ Charlton, Emma (20 November 2018). «Why rich countries are seeing more poverty». World Economic Forum. Archived from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
  79. ^ Haymes, Stephen; Vidal de Haymes, Maria; Miller, Reuben, eds. (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States. London: Routledge. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-415-67344-0. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  80. ^ Jones, Campbell; Parker, Martin; Ten Bos, Rene (2005). For Business Ethics. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-415-31135-9. Critics of neoliberalism have therefore looked at the evidence that documents the results of this great experiment of the past 30 years, in which many markets have been set free. Looking at the evidence, we can see that the total amount of global trade has increased significantly, but that global poverty has increased, with more today living in abject poverty than before neoliberalism.
  81. ^ «East Asia Remains Robust Despite US Slow Down». worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  82. ^ Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead. World Bank Publications. 2022. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4648-1878-3. By any measure, the speed and scale of China’s poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.
  83. ^ Stuart, Elizabeth (19 August 2015). «China has almost wiped out urban poverty. Now it must tackle inequality». The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
  84. ^ Perry (1972). Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science, 12/e. Pearson Education. p. 548. ISBN 978-81-317-3066-9. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  85. ^ a b «Birth rates must be curbed to win war on global poverty». The Independent. London. 31 January 2007. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
  86. ^ Zumbrun, Josh (19 September 2018). «World Poverty Falls Below 750 Million, Report Says». The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  87. ^ «Worldbank.org reference». Web.worldbank.org. 19 April 2005. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  88. ^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-691-16502-8.
  89. ^ Rosefielde, Steven (2001). «Premature Deaths: Russia’s Radical Economic Transition in Soviet Perspective». Europe-Asia Studies. 53 (8): 1159–1176. doi:10.1080/09668130120093174. S2CID 145733112.
  90. ^ Ghodsee, Kristen (2017). Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism. Duke University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0-8223-6949-3. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  91. ^ Mattei, Clara E. (2022). The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism. University of Chicago Press. pp. 301–303. ISBN 978-0-226-81839-9. «If, in 1987–1988, 2 percent of the Russian people lived in poverty (i.e., survived on less than $4 a day), by 1993–1995 the number reached 50 percent: in just seven years half the Russian population became destitute.
  92. ^ a b Ghodsee, Kristen; Orenstein, Mitchell A. (2021). Taking Stock of Shock: Social Consequences of the 1989 Revolutions. Oxford University Press. p. 43. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197549230.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-754924-7.
  93. ^ «World Bank, Data and Statistics, WDI, GDF, & ADI Online Databases». World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  94. ^ «Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries». The New York Times. 12 October 2000. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  95. ^ Appel, Hilary; Orenstein, Mitchell A. (2018). From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-108-43505-5. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  96. ^ Milanović, Branko (2015). «After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism». Challenge. 58 (2): 135–138. doi:10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402. S2CID 153398717. So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.
  97. ^ «World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data». World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  98. ^ The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.
  99. ^ «Regional aggregation using 2005 PPP and $1.25 per day poverty line». The World Bank. 2011. Archived from the original on 17 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
  100. ^ «Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) – East Asia & Pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe & Central Asia, Middle East & North Africa, South Asia, Latin America & Caribbean, World». World Bank Open Data. Archived from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  101. ^ «Human Development Report» (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
  102. ^ Pogge, Thomas (2010). Politics as Usual: What Lies Behind the Pro-Poor Rhetoric (1st ed.). Polity Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7456-3892-8. Archived from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
  103. ^ «The World Health Report, World Health Organization (See annex table 2)». Who.int. Archived from the original on 26 January 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  104. ^ «Rising food prices curb aid to global poor». Christian Science Monitor. 24 July 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  105. ^ Cano P.E., Librado (2010). Transformation of an individual family community nation and the world. Trafford. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-4269-4766-7.
  106. ^ «The Starvelings». The Economist. 24 January 2008. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  107. ^ «The causes of maternal death». BBC News. 23 November 1998. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
  108. ^ «Disability – Disability: Overview». Go.worldbank.org. 28 March 2013. Archived from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  109. ^ «Economic costs of AIDS». Globalpolicy.org. 23 July 2003. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  110. ^ Sachs, Jeffrey; Malaney, Pia (3 September 2010). «The economic and social burden of malaria». Nature. 415 (6872): 680–685. doi:10.1038/415680a. PMID 11832956. S2CID 618837.
  111. ^ «Poverty Issues Dominate WHO Regional Meeting». Wpro.who.int. Archived from the original on 3 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  112. ^ O’Donnell, Michael (2 November 2021). «Empirical audit and review and an assessment of evidentiary value in research on the psychological consequences of scarcity». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (44): e2103313118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11803313O. doi:10.1073/pnas.2103313118. PMC 8612349. PMID 34711679.
  113. ^ Mani, Anandi; Mullainathan, Sendhil; Shafir, Eldar; Zhao, Jiaying (2013). «Poverty Impedes Cognitive Function» (PDF). Science. 341 (6149): 976–980. Bibcode:2013Sci…341..976M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.398.6303. doi:10.1126/science.1238041. PMID 23990553. S2CID 1684186. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  114. ^ Black, Maureen M; Walker, Susan P; Fernald, Lia C; Andersen, Christopher T; DiGirolamo, Ann M; Lu, Chunling; Grantham-McGregor, Sally (7 January 2017). «Early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course». The Lancet. 389 (10064): 77–90. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31389-7. PMC 5884058. PMID 27717614.
  115. ^ Britto, Pia R; Lye, Stephen J; Proulx, Kerrie; Yousafzai, Aisha K; Matthews, Stephen G; Vaivada, Tyler; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A (7 January 2017). «Nurturing care: promoting early child development». The Lancet. 389 (10064): 91–102. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31390-3. PMID 27717615. S2CID 39094476. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
  116. ^ Farah, Martha J. (27 September 2017). «The neuroscience of socioeconomic status: Correlates, causes and consequences». Neuron. 96 (1): 56–71. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.034. PMID 28957676.
  117. ^ «Prevalence, new cases and deaths from HIV/AIDS». Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  118. ^ OECD/WHO (2003). Poverty and Health (DAC Guidelines and Reference Series). DAC Guidelines and Reference Series. Paris: OECD. doi:10.1787/9789264100206-en. ISBN 978-92-64-10020-6. ISSN 1990-0988. OCLC 55519605.
  119. ^ a b Blumenthal, David (9 September 2014), «Do Health Care Costs Fuel Economic Inequality in the United States?», www.commonwealthfund.org, retrieved 22 February 2023
  120. ^ a b Dastidar, Biswanath Ghosh; Suri, Shailesh; Nagaraja, Vikranth H.; Jani, Anant (16 November 2022). «A virtual bridge to Universal Healthcare in India». Communications Medicine. 2 (1): 145. doi:10.1038/s43856-022-00211-7. ISSN 2730-664X. PMC 9667848. PMID 36385160. S2CID 253525261. any strategy by India to haul its massive population out of poverty must necessarily include measures to provide UHC nationwide.
  121. ^ «The economic lives of the poor». MIT. October 2006. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
  122. ^ «The cost of food: Facts and figures». BBC News. 16 October 2008. Archived from the original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  123. ^ Watts, Jonathan (4 December 2007). «Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring». The Guardian. Beijing. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  124. ^ Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008). «Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?». The Times. London. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  125. ^ Borger, Julian (26 February 2008). «Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits». The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  126. ^ «100 million at risk from rising food costs». ABC News. Australia: ABC. 14 April 2008. Archived from the original on 10 March 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  127. ^ «Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion». Planetark.com. 5 June 2007. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  128. ^ Exploitation and Over-exploitation in Societies Past and Present, Brigitta Benzing, Bernd Herrmann
  129. ^ «The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization». Earth-policy.org. Archived from the original on 10 August 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  130. ^ Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). «Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land». The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  131. ^ «Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025». News.mongabay.com. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  132. ^ «1.02 billion people hungry». fao.org. 19 June 2009. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  133. ^ «2008 Global Hunger Index Key Findings & Facts». 2008. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
  134. ^ Sleek, Scott (31 August 2015). «How Poverty Affects the Brain and Behavior». APS Observer. 28 (7). Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  135. ^ Farah, Martha J.; Betancourt, Laura; Shera, David M.; Savage, Jessica H.; Giannetta, Joan M.; Brodsky, Nancy L.; Malmud, Elsa K.; Hurt, Hallam (September 2008). «Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans». Developmental Science. 11 (5): 793–801. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00688.x. PMID 18810850.
  136. ^ Atkins, M.S.; McKay, M.; Talbott, E.; Arvantis, P. (1996). «DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams». School Psychology Review. 25 (3): 274–283. doi:10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817. Citing: Bell, C.C.; Jenkins, E.J. (1991). «Traumatic stress and children». Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 2 (1): 175–185. doi:10.1353/hpu.2010.0089. PMID 1685908. S2CID 28660040.
  137. ^ Atkins, M.S.; McKay, M.; Talbott, E.; Arvantis, P. (1996). «DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams». School Psychology Review. 25 (3): 274–283. doi:10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817. Citing: Osofsky, J.D.; Wewers, S.; Harm, D.M.; Fick, A.C. (1993). «Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children?». Psychiatry. 56 (1): 36–45. doi:10.1080/00332747.1993.11024619. PMID 8488211.; and, Richters, J.E., & Martinez, P. (1993).
  138. ^ «The remarkable thing that happens to poor kids when you give their parents a little money». The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
  139. ^ a b c Huston, A. C. (1991). Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  140. ^ Raghuram G. Rajan (2012). Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy. Archived 20 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine Published by: Collins Business
  141. ^ Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in Danger: Coping with the Consequences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Print.
  142. ^ «Cause and Effect: The High Cost of High School Dropouts». The Huffington Post. 30 November 2014. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
  143. ^ a b Solley, Bobbie A. (2005). When Poverty’s Children Write: Celebrating Strengths, Transforming Lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, Inc.
  144. ^ Jensen, Eric. «Teaching with Poverty in Mind». ASCD. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  145. ^ a b UNESCO (2019). Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-100329-5. Archived from the original on 6 December 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
  146. ^ a b c d Dugger, Celia W. (5 December 2009). «Aid gives alternatives to African orphanages». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 May 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
  147. ^ Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  148. ^ Moss, Jeremiah. 24 July 2018. Vanishing New York: How a Great City Lost Its Soul. HarperCollins Publishers.
  149. ^ «In praise of gentrification». The Economist. 23 June 2018. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
  150. ^ «Study: 744,000 homeless in United States». USA Today. 10 January 2007. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  151. ^ «Report reveals global slum crisis». BBC News. 16 June 2006. Archived from the original on 30 October 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  152. ^ «Street Children». Portal.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 21 May 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  153. ^ WHO and UNICEF Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York, p. 2
  154. ^ «How Bangladesh vanquished diarrhoea». The Economist. 22 March 2018. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  155. ^ a b c d «Trickle-Down Economics». foreignpolicy.com. 5 December 2011. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2014.
  156. ^ a b Komives, Kristin; Foster, Vivien; Halpern, Jonathan; Wodon, Quentin (2005). Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who benefits from utility subsidies? (PDF). Washington, DC: The World Bank. ISBN 978-0-8213-6342-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 December 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  157. ^ Kingdom, Bill; Liemberger, Roland; Marin, Philippe (2006). The challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in developing countries. How the private sector can help: A look at performance-based service contracting (PDF). Water supply and sanitation board discussion paper series. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  158. ^ Kjellen, Marianne & McGranahan, Gordon (2006). Informal Water Vendors and the Urban Poor (PDF). Human settlements discussion paper series. London: IIED. ISBN 978-1-84369-586-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  159. ^ a b «Goal 7 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs». sdgs.un.org. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
  160. ^ Simcock, Neil; Thomson, Harriet; Petrova, Saska; Bouzarovski, Stefan, eds. (11 September 2017). Energy Poverty and Vulnerability: A Global Perspective. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315231518. ISBN 978-1-315-23151-8.
  161. ^ «Access2017». Archived from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  162. ^ «Ending Poverty in Community (EPIC)». Usccb.org. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  163. ^ Filmer, D. (2008), «Disability, poverty, and schooling in developing countries: results from 14 household surveys», The World Bank Economic Review, 22(1), pp. 141–163
    • Yeo, R. (2005), Disability, poverty and the new development agenda Archived 13 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Disability Knowledge and Research, UK Government, pp. 1–33

  164. ^ «Child poverty». www.unicef.org. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
  165. ^ «Gender Lens on Poverty» (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  166. ^ Moore, Wilbert. 1974. Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  167. ^ Parsons, Talcott. 1966. Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  168. ^ Kerbo, Harold. 2006. Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective, 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  169. ^ ««Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies,» says UN expert». OHCHR. 4 June 2018. Archived from the original on 17 September 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
  170. ^ Brodiez-Dolino, Axelle (7 June 2021). «Perceptions of People in Poverty Throughout History». ATD Fourth World (Online written interview.). Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  171. ^ «Experts encourage action against sex trafficking». .voanews.com. 15 May 2009. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  172. ^ «Child sex boom fueled by poverty». Globalpost.com. Archived from the original on 1 November 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  173. ^ Thomson, Mike (12 June 2009). «Zimbabwean girls trade sex for food». BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  174. ^ Lee, Steven (1996). «Poverty and Violence». Social Theory and Practice. 22 (1): 67. doi:10.5840/soctheorpract199622119. ISSN 0037-802X.
  175. ^ United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313 Archived 23 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine)
  176. ^ Dalglish C. and M. Tonelli (2016). Entrepreneurship at the Bottom of the Pyramid. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-84655-5.
  177. ^ «Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere».
  178. ^ «2030 Development agenda: ILO Focus targets (The 2030 development agenda)». www.ilo.org.
  179. ^ «Goal 1 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs».
  180. ^ «Forgotten benefactor of humanity». Theatlantic.com. January 1997. Archived from the original on 4 January 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  181. ^ Martin. «Goal 2: Zero Hunger». United Nations Sustainable Development. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  182. ^ Poverty (sociology). britannica.com. Archived from the original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  183. ^ Geoffrey Parker (2001). «Europe in crisis, 1598–1648 Archived 19 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine«. Wiley–Blackwell. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-631-22028-2
  184. ^ Great Depression Archived 9 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica
  185. ^ Fuller, Thomas (27 December 2007). «In Laos, Chinese motorcycles change lives». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 April 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  186. ^ «China boosts African economies, offering a second opportunity». Christian Science Monitor. 25 June 2007. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  187. ^ Dugger, Celia (31 March 2006). «Overfarming African land is worsening Hunger Crisis». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  188. ^ Das, Reenita (30 June 2014). «If Coca-Cola can be Delivered All Over the Developing World, Why Can’t Essential Medicine?». Forbes. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  189. ^ Maly, Tim (27 March 2013). «Clever Packaging: Essential Medicine Rides Coke’s Distribution Into Remote Villages». wired.com. Archived from the original on 20 June 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  190. ^ Kalan, Jonathan (3 June 2013). «Africa’s ‘Avon Ladies’ saving lives door-to-door». BBC News. Archived from the original on 21 January 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
  191. ^ Rosenberg, Tina (10 October 2012). «The ‘Avon Ladies’ of Africa». nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  192. ^ «Disease Control Priorities Project». dcp2.org. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  193. ^ a b Brown, David (3 April 2006). «Saving millions for just a few dollars». The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  194. ^ Prabhat, Jha. «Benefits and costs of the health targets for the post-2015 development agenda». copenhageconsensus.com. Copenhagen Consensus Center. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
  195. ^ «India’s Tata launches water filter for rural poor». BBC News. 7 December 2009. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  196. ^ «Millions mark UN hand-washing day». BBC News. 15 October 2008. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  197. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. (20 November 2009). «How can we help the world’s poor». NYTimes. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  198. ^ «Sanitary pads help Ghana girls go to school». BBC News. 29 January 2010. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  199. ^ «Raising the World’s I.Q.» New York Times. 4 December 2008. Archived from the original on 17 July 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  200. ^ «In Raising the World’s I.Q., the Secret’s in the Salt». The New York Times. 16 December 2006. Archived from the original on 17 July 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  201. ^ «Free school meals a recipe for success for young learners in Liberia». The Guardian. 27 October 2016. Archived from the original on 31 October 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
  202. ^ «Brazil becomes antipoverty showcase». Christian Science Monitor. 13 November 2008. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  203. ^ a b «Latin America makes dent in poverty with ‘conditional cash’ programs». Christian Science Monitor. 21 September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 September 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  204. ^ Desmond, Matthew (2016). Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City. Crown Books.[ISBN missing][page needed]
  205. ^ Bratt, Rachel G. (Editor), Stone, Michael E. (Editor), Hartman, Chester (Editor). 2006. A Right to Housing: Foundation for a New Social Agenda. Temple University Press.[ISBN missing][page needed]
  206. ^ California LifeLine program assessment & evaluation. Sacramento, California: California Public Utilities Commission. Consensus and Collaboration Program and Institute for Social Research, California State University. 20 May 2022.
  207. ^ «Anti-Corruption Climate Change: it started in Nigeria». United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 13 November 2007. Archived from the original on 22 April 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  208. ^ «Nigeria: the Hidden Cost of Corruption». Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 14 April 2009. Archived from the original on 23 October 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  209. ^ a b «Banks, graft and development». The Economist. 12 March 2009. Archived from the original on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  210. ^ José Antonio Ocampo and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (30 September 2015). Tax avoidance by corporations is out of control. The United Nations must step in Archived 10 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  211. ^
    Fröberg, Kristina; Waris, Attiya (January 2011). Bringing The Billions Back – How Africa And Europe Can End Illicit Capital Flight. Stockholm: Forum Syd. p. 7. ISBN 978-91-89542-59-4. Retrieved 13 April 2022 – via Academia.edu.
  212. ^ «Africa losing billions in tax evasion». Al-Jazeera. 16 January 2012. Archived from the original on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  213. ^ a b Sharife, Khadija (18 June 2011). «‘Transparency’ hides Zambia’s lost billions». Al-Jazeera. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  214. ^ Mathiason, Nick (21 January 2007). «Western bankers and lawyers ‘rob Africa of $150bn every year’«. The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  215. ^ The World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, Progress Report. Retrieved from Worldbank.org Archived 13 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
  216. ^ «Third World Debt». worldcentric.org. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  217. ^ «Zambia overwhelmed by free health care». BBC News. 7 April 2006. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  218. ^ «World poverty rising as rich nations call in debt amid Covid, warns Gordon Brown». The Guardian. 15 November 2020. Archived from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
  219. ^ «UK urged to take lead in easing debt crisis in developing countries». The Guardian. 21 February 2021. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
  220. ^ a b Dugger, Celia W. (2 December 2007). «Ending famine simply by ignoring the experts». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  221. ^ «Tied aid strangling nations, says UN». ispnews.net. Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  222. ^ «Let them eat micronutrients». Newsweek. 20 September 2008. Archived from the original on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  223. ^ a b c d «Jersey law to stop ‘vulture funds’ comes into force». BBC News. 1 March 2013. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  224. ^ a b «Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis». voanews.com. 3 May 2006. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  225. ^ Blomfield, Adrian (2 November 2004). «Out of Africa – health workers leave in droves». The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  226. ^ «Inpatients abroad». foreignpolicy.com. 30 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  227. ^ «What educated people from poor countries make of the «brain drain» argument». The Economist. 27 August 2018. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
  228. ^ «Population and poverty». www.unfpa.org. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
  229. ^ «Population growth driving climate change, poverty: experts Archived 23 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine». Agence France-Presse. 21 September 2009.
  230. ^ World Bank. 2001. Engendering Development – Through Gender Equality in Right, Resources and Voice. New York: Oxford University Press.
  231. ^ Crist, Eileen; Ripple, William J.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Rees, William E.; Wolf, Christopher (2022). «Scientists’ warning on population» (PDF). Science of the Total Environment. 845: 157166. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.845o7166C. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166. PMID 35803428. S2CID 250387801. Alongside ambitious investment in schooling girls (and more broadly, of course, all children), priority should be given to making high-quality family-planning services available to every woman on the planet, while economic, geographic, and cultural barriers to access should be removed. The combination of institutional support to plan one’s child-bearing choices and educational attainment, including enhanced opportunity for higher education for women, yields immediate fertility declines.
  232. ^ «Population and Poverty». 2014. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  233. ^ Dugger, Celia W. (20 October 2007). «World Bank report puts agriculture at core of antipoverty effort». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 November 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  234. ^ «Climate Change: Bangladesh facing the challenge». The World Bank. 8 September 2008. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  235. ^ Wright, Erik Olin (14 February 2017), «Can the universal basic income solve global inequalities?», en.unesco.org, retrieved 22 February 2023
  236. ^ Davis, Benjamin; Gaarder, Marie; Handa, Sudhanshu; Yablonski, Jenn (2012). «Special Section on Social Cash Transfers in Sub-Saharan Africa». Journal of Development Effectiveness. 4 (1): 1–187. doi:10.1080/19439342.2012.659024. S2CID 129406705. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  237. ^ Krahe, Dialika (10 August 2009). «A new approach to aid: How a basic income program saved a Namibian village». Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  238. ^ «Namibians line up for free cash». BBC News. 23 May 2008. Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  239. ^ Economists’ Statement on Guaranteed Annual Income, 1/15/1968–April 18, 1969 folder, General Correspondence Series, Papers of John Kenneth Galbraith, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Cited in: Jyotsna Sreenivasan, «Poverty and the Government in America: A Historical Encyclopedia.» Archived 29 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009), p. 269
  240. ^ a b c d Standing, Guy (2005). «1. About Time: Basic Income Security As A Right». In Standing, Guy (ed.). Promoting Income Security as a Right: Europe and North America (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-84331-174-4. Among those who have become convinced of the virtues of the basic income approach are several Nobel Prize-winning economists of surprisingly diverse political convictions: Milton Friedman, Herbert Simon, Robert Solow, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin (besides, of course, James Meade who was an advocate from his younger days).
  241. ^ Hayek, Friedrich (1973). Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy. Vol. 2. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-7100-8403-3.
  242. ^ Friedman, Milton; Friedman, Rose (1990). Free to Choose: A Personal Statement. Harcourt. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-0-15-633460-0.
  243. ^ Steensland, Brian (2007). The failed welfare revolution. Princeton University Press. pp. 70–78. ISBN 978-0-691-12714-9.
  244. ^ «Is a Negative Income Tax Practical?», James Tobin, Joseph A. Pechman, and Peter M. Mieszkowski, Yale Law Journal 77 (1967): 1–27.
  245. ^ Fettig, David (2011). «Interview with James Tobin – The Region – Publications & Papers | The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis». minneapolisfed.org. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2011. I would pursue my recommendations of years ago for a negative income tax.
  246. ^
    Jha, Shikha; Ramaswami, Bharat (2010). «How Can Food Subsidies Work Better? Answers from India and the Philippines» (PDF). Erd Working Paper. Manila: Asian Development Bank. ISSN 1655-5252. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2015. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  247. ^ a b «How to end fossil fuel subsidies without hurting the poor». Aljazeera. 11 December 2012. Archived from the original on 14 December 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  248. ^ «India Aims to Keep Money for Poor Out of Others’ Pockets». The New York Times. 5 January 2013. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  249. ^ Kapur, Devesh; Mukhopadhyay, Subramanian (12 April 2008). «More for the Poor and Less for and by the State: The Case for Direct Cash Transfers» (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  250. ^ «Biometrics, Identity and Development». Center for Global Development. 14 October 2010. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
  251. ^ «India announces changes in subsidies, will hand out cash to its poor». The Washington Post. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
  252. ^ «UN aid debate: give cash not food?». Christian Science Monitor. 4 June 2008. Archived from the original on 3 July 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  253. ^ «Cash roll-out to help hunger hot spots». World Food Program. 8 December 2008. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  254. ^ «Arab bureaucracies». economist.com. 14 November 2014. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  255. ^ Dipak Das Gupta; Mustapha K. Nabli; World Bank (2003). Trade, Investment, and Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Engaging With the World. World Bank Publications. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-8213-5574-9. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  256. ^ «Ending mass poverty». cato.org. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  257. ^ Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. Macroeconomics. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.
  258. ^ Doyle, Mark (4 October 2006). «Can aid bring an end to poverty». BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  259. ^ «India:the economy». BBC News. 3 December 1998. Archived from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  260. ^ «Poor Little Rich Country». foreignpolicy.com. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  261. ^ a b «Land rights help fight poverty». bbcnews.com. 20 June 2003. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
  262. ^ «Global Competitiveness Report 2006, World Economic Forum». weforum.org. Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  263. ^ «Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction: Cross-country Evidence». abdi.org. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  264. ^ «Migration and development: The aid workers who really help». The Economist. 8 October 2009. Archived from the original on 10 March 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  265. ^ Yunus, Muhammad (14 January 2011). «Sacrificing microcredit for megaprofits». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  266. ^ Bajaj, Vikas (5 January 2011). «Microlenders, honored with Nobel, are struggling». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 June 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  267. ^ Polgreen, Lydia; Bajaj, Vikas (17 November 2010). «India microcredit faces collapse from defaults». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  268. ^ Excerpt From «Capitalism: A Ghost Story» By Arundhati Roy Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Democracy Now! Retrieved 27 May 2014.
  269. ^ a b c Kiviat, Barbara (30 August 2009). «Microfinance’s next step: deposits». Time. Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
  270. ^ Greenwood, Louise (12 August 2009). «Africa’s mobile banking revolution». bbcnews.com. Archived from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
  271. ^ «Inequality and Poverty — OECD». Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  272. ^ Khazan, Olga (20 January 2013). «Can we fight poverty by ending extreme wealth?». Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
  273. ^ «Oxfam seeks ‘new deal’ on inequality from world leaders». BBC News. 18 January 2013. Archived from the original on 18 August 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
  274. ^ Hagan, Shelly (22 January 2018). «Billionaires Made So Much Money Last Year They Could End Extreme Poverty Seven Times». Money. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
  275. ^ Gatzia, Dimitria E.; Woods, Douglas (September 2014). «Progressive taxation as a means to equality of condition and poverty alleviation». Economics, Management, and Financial Markets. 9 (4): 29–43. ISSN 1842-3191. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  276. ^ Amaglobeli, David; Thevenot, Celine (March 2022), Tackling Inequality on All Fronts, International Monetary Fund, retrieved 22 February 2023
  277. ^ Terreblanche, Sampie (January 2018). «A Wealth Tax for South Africa» (PDF). SCIS Working Paper (1). South Africa: The Southern Centre for Inequality Studies, University of the Witwatersrand. Retrieved 24 February 2023. wealth tax … income could be used to set up a restitution fund to help alleviate the worst poverty.
  278. ^ Mattauch, Linus (31 January 2019), «Reducing wealth inequality through wealth taxes without compromising economic growth», Oxford Martin School, retrieved 22 February 2023
  279. ^ Michalos, Alex C. (1988). «A Case for a Progressive Annual Net Wealth Tax». Public Affairs Quarterly. 2 (2): 105–140. ISSN 0887-0373. JSTOR 40435679. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  280. ^ a b Scholz, John Karl (2007). «Taxation and poverty: 1960-2006» (PDF). Focus. 25 (1): 52–57. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  281. ^ Jean-Paul, Fitoussi (2000), «Payroll tax reductions for the low paid» (PDF), OECD Economic Studies, vol. 2000/II, no. 31, pp. 115–131, OCLC 882887538
  282. ^ Brittain, John A. (1971). «The Incidence of Social Security Payroll Taxes». The American Economic Review. 61 (1): 110–125. ISSN 0002-8282. JSTOR 1910545. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  283. ^ Hussain, Mohammad Delwar; Bhuiyan, Abul Bashar; Bakar, Rosni (15 October 2014). «Entrepreneurship Development and Poverty Alleviation: An Empirical Review». Journal of Asian Scientific Research. 4 (10): 558–573. ISSN 2223-1331.
  284. ^ Midgley, James (July 2008). «Microenterprise, global poverty and social development». International Social Work. 51 (4): 467–479. doi:10.1177/0020872808090240. ISSN 0020-8728. S2CID 143945337.
  285. ^ Hartfree, Yvette; Collard, Sharon (1 October 2015). «Locating credit and debt within an anti-poverty strategy for the UK». Journal of Poverty and Social Justice. 23 (3): 203–214. doi:10.1332/175982715X14443317211950. ISSN 1759-8273. S2CID 167507335.
  286. ^ Chaniwa, Marjorie; Nyawenze, Collen; Mandumbu, Ronald; Mutsiveri, Godfrey; Gadzirayi, Christopher T.; Munyati, Vincent T.; Rugare, Joyful Tatenda (2020), Nhamo, Godwell; Odularu, Gbadebo O. A.; Mjimba, Vuyo (eds.), «Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe», Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 115–127, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_8, ISBN 978-3-030-33216-7, S2CID 214161949, retrieved 24 February 2023
  287. ^ Deininger, Klaus (2003). «Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction». World Bank Policy Research Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  288. ^ Hoynes, Hilary; Patel, Ankur (July 2015). «Effective Policy for Reducing Inequality? The Earned Income Tax Credit and the Distribution of Income» (PDF). Journal of Human Resources. Cambridge, MA. 53 (4). doi:10.3386/w21340. S2CID 153263015.
  289. ^ Orszag, J. Michael; Snower, Dennis J. (1 October 2003). «Designing employment subsidies». Labour Economics. 10 (5): 557–572. doi:10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00035-6. ISSN 0927-5371.
  290. ^ Giovannoni, Olivier (30 January 2010), Functional Distribution of Income, Inequality and the Incidence of Poverty: Stylized Facts and the Role of Macroeconomic Policy (PDF), University of Texas Inequality Project, retrieved 25 February 2023
  291. ^ Jayadev, A. (20 January 2007). «Capital account openness and the labour share of income». Cambridge Journal of Economics. 31 (3): 423–443. doi:10.1093/cje/bel037. ISSN 0309-166X.
  292. ^ Azid, Toseef; Burki, Umar; Khawaja, Muhammad Junaid; Shirazi, Nasim Shah; Tahir, Muhammad (2021), «State of poverty and labor market», Labor Economics in an Islamic Framework, pp. 182–200, doi:10.4324/9781032019550-12, ISBN 9781032019550, S2CID 244894555, retrieved 24 February 2023
  293. ^ Abate, T. (July 11, 2010) «Get to Work: Want more jobs? Shorten the workweek» Archived July 12, 2010, at the Wayback Machine San Francisco Chronicle page D-3
  294. ^ Coote, Anna; Franklin, Jane; Simms, Andrew (February 2010). 21 hours: Why a shorter working week can help us all to flourish in the 21st century (PDF). London: New Economics Foundation. ISBN 978-1-904882-70-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  295. ^ Steven Barnett, W. (1 March 1998). «Long-Term Cognitive and Academic Effects of Early Childhood Education on Children in Poverty». Preventive Medicine. 27 (2): 204–207. doi:10.1006/pmed.1998.0275. ISSN 0091-7435. PMID 9578996.
  296. ^ King, Mary (8 December 2021). «A Strong Economic Case for Federal Investment in Universal Preschool». Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  297. ^ García, Rosa M. (February 2019). «Debt-Free College: Principles for Prioritizing Low-Income Students» (PDF). Center for Law and Social Policy. Retrieved 24 February 2023. Policymakers must ensure that low-income students and students of color receive the greatest benefit from these debt-free college initiatives. This will help low-income students move along pathways out of poverty and reduce racial wealth inequalities.
  298. ^ Hacker, Jon Marcus, Holly K. (17 December 2015), «The rich-poor divide on America’s college campuses is getting wider, fast», The Hechinger Report, retrieved 22 February 2023
  299. ^ Oh, Sehun; DiNitto, Diana M.; Kim, Yeonwoo (1 January 2021). «Exiting poverty: a systematic review of U.S. postsecondary education and job skills training programs in the post-welfare reform era». International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy. 41 (11/12): 1210–1226. doi:10.1108/IJSSP-09-2020-0429. ISSN 0144-333X. S2CID 234253474.
  300. ^ Xu, Chunqiu; Sun, Yang (25 March 2021). «Mechanism of vocational education promoting precision poverty alleviation». The International Journal of Electrical Engineering & Education: 002072092098350. doi:10.1177/0020720920983505. ISSN 0020-7209. S2CID 233691683.
  301. ^ Sanchez, Thomas W. (1 June 2008). «Poverty, policy, and public transportation». Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 42 (5): 833–841. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2008.01.011. ISSN 0965-8564. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  302. ^ Hernández, Diego (1 August 2017). «Public transport, well-being and inequality: coverage and affordability in the city of Montevideo» (PDF) (122). CEPAL Review.
  303. ^ Cooke, Thomas J.; Denton, Curtis (17 February 2015). «The suburbanization of poverty? An alternative perspective» (PDF). Urban Geography. 36 (2): 300–313. doi:10.1080/02723638.2014.973224. S2CID 145716858. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  304. ^ Desmond, Matthew (2022). «Unaffordable America: Poverty, housing, and eviction». In Mueller, Elizabeth J.; Tighe, J. Rosie (eds.). The affordable housing reader (Second ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Taylor & Francis. pp. 389–395. ISBN 978-1-000-59482-9. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  305. ^ Giné Garriga, Ricard; Pérez Foguet, Agustí (1 March 2013). «Unravelling the Linkages Between Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Rural Poverty: The WASH Poverty Index». Water Resources Management. 27 (5): 1501–1515. doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0251-6. ISSN 1573-1650. S2CID 189950003.
  306. ^ Assessing the impact of transport and energy infrastructure on poverty reduction. Cynthia C. Cook, Asian Development Bank. Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. 2005. ISBN 978-971-561-580-8. OCLC 61391598.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  307. ^ a b Data from Chetty, Raj; Jackson, Matthew O.; Kuchler, Theresa; Stroebel, Johannes; et al. (1 August 2022). «Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility». Nature. 608 (7921): 108–121. Bibcode:2022Natur.608..108C. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4. PMC 9352590. PMID 35915342. Charted in Leonhardt, David (1 August 2022). «‘Friending Bias’ / A large new study offers clues about how lower-income children can rise up the economic ladder». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022.
  308. ^ Lapham, Lewis (October 2004). «Tentacles of rage». Harper’s Magazine. September 2004. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
  309. ^ «Fragile states – poverty, instability and violence». www.eda.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  310. ^ Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy by Raghuram G. Rajan (2012) Paperback. HarperCollins India. 1 January 2012. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  311. ^ Mendoza, Ronald U.; Beja, Edsel L. Jr.; Venida, Victor S.; Yap, David B. (1 December 2012). «Inequality in democracy: Insights from an empirical analysis of political dynasties in the 15th Philippine Congress» (PDF). Philippine Political Science Journal. 33 (2): 132–145. doi:10.1080/01154451.2012.734094. ISSN 0115-4451. S2CID 154856834. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  312. ^ «What is wrong with political dynasties?». GMA News Online. Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  313. ^ a b Sullivan, Dylan; Hickel, Jason (2023). «Capitalism and extreme poverty: A global analysis of real wages, human height, and mortality since the long 16th century». World Development. 161: 106026. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026. S2CID 252315733.
  314. ^ Ravallion, Martin (2016). The Economics of Poverty: History, Measurement, and Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-021277-3.
  315. ^ Kristof, Nicholas (28 December 2019). «This Has Been the Best Year Ever». The New York Times. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  316. ^ Pinker, Steven (2018). Enlightenment now: The case for reason, science, humanism, and progress. Viking. ISBN 978-0-525-42757-5.
  317. ^ Martínez Alier, Juan (2005). The environmentalism of the poor : a study of ecological conflicts and valuation. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-567328-9. OCLC 61669200.
  318. ^ «Anantha Duraiappah (1996). Poverty and Environmental Degradation: a Literature Review and Analysis CREED Working Paper Series No 8 International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Retrieved on June 27, 2016″ (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  319. ^ Martinez-Alier, Joan; Temper, Leah; Del Bene, Daniela; Scheidel, Arnim (3 May 2016). «Is there a global environmental justice movement?». The Journal of Peasant Studies. 43 (3): 731–755. doi:10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198. ISSN 0306-6150. S2CID 156535916.
  320. ^ REPORT: Warmer world will keep millions of people trapped in poverty. Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Climate & Development Knowledge Network. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
  321. ^ «Climate change could drive 122m more people into extreme poverty by 2030». The Guardian. 17 October 2016. Archived from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  322. ^ «Thirsty future ahead as climate change explodes plant growth». Science. 4 November 2019. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  323. ^ Premier (18 July 2019). «Meet the Bruderhof: Our exclusive peek inside a modern Christian utopia». Premier Christianity. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
  324. ^ Oved, Iaácov (2017). The witness of the brothers : a history of the Bruderhof. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-47253-1. OCLC 994005958.
  325. ^ «World Peace Day Address 2009». The Vatican. 1 January 2009. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  326. ^ «S. Adamiak, D. Walczak, Catholic social teaching and social solidarity in the context of social security, Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting, Vol 3, No 1, p. 17». Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
  327. ^ «Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) | Data». data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  328. ^ «GINI index (World Bank estimate) | Data». data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2020.

SourcesEdit

  •   This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality​, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

Further readingEdit

  • Allen, Robert C. 2020. «Poverty and the Labor Market: Today and Yesterday. Archived 24 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine» Annual Review of Economomics.
  • Half of the world’s poor live in just 5 countries Roy Katayama & Divinshi Wadha. World Bank Blogs.
  • Atkinson, Anthony. Poverty in Europe 1998
  • Babb, Sarah (2009). Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-03365-5.
  • Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011)
  • Bergmann, Barbara. «Deciding Who’s Poor» Archived 20 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Dollars & Sense, March/April 2000
  • Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. «Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty.» American Economic Review 88:348–51. 1998.
  • Brady, David «Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty» Social Forces 81#3 2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse.
  • Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. «Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database.» Review of Income and Wealth 34:115–142.
  • Chase, Elaine; Bantebya-Kyomuhendo, Grace (2015). Poverty and Shame. Global Experiences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968672-8.
  • Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. «The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty.» pp. 18–50 in Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994.
  • Firebaugh, Glenn. «Empirics of World Income Inequality.» American Journal of Sociology (2000) 104:1597–1630. in JSTOR
  • Gans, Herbert J., «The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All» Archived 5 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20–24
  • Gordon, David M. Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives. 1972.
  • Haveman, Robert H. Poverty Policy and Poverty Research. University of Wisconsin Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-299-11150-2
  • Haymes, Stephen, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds). The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States Archived 17 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Routledge, 2015. ISBN 978-0-415-67344-0.
  • Iceland, John Poverty in America: a handbook University of California Press, 2003
  • Lee, Dwight R. (2008). «Wealth and Poverty». In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 537–539. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n326. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
  • McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600–1850 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers, and almshouse dwellers.
  • O’Connor, Alice (2000). «Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era». Annual Review of Sociology. 26: 547–562. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.547.
  • Osberg, Lars; Xu, Kuan. «International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and bootstrap inference». The Journal of Human Resources. 2000 (35): 51–81.
  • Paugam, Serge. «Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view.» pp. 41–62 in The Future of European Welfare, edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998.
  • Philippou, Lambros (2010). «Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty». Philosophical Inquiry. 32 (1–2): 103–115. doi:10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218.
  • Prashad, Vijay. The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South. Verso Books, June 2014. ISBN 978-1-78168-158-9
  • Pressman, Steven, Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1994 ISBN 978-0-8108-2833-9
  • Robinson, Marilynne, «Is Poverty Necessary? An idea that won’t go away», Harper’s Magazine, vol. 338, no. 2029 (June 2019), pp. 25–33. «To bring up the subject of providing a better life is to lean too far left, to flirt with socialism…. ‘Why… do wages tend to a minimum which will give but a bare living?’ A short answer would be: because they can…. Insofar as the public is barred from taking a central role in society, we lose wisdom to stealth, stupidity, parochialism.»
  • Rothman, David J., (editor). The Almshouse Experience (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. ISBN 978-0-405-03092-5Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Court’s Committee on Pauper Laws (published in [Boston?], 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901).
  • Roy, Arundhati, Capitalism: A Ghost Story, Haymarket Books, 2014, ISBN 978-1-60846-385-5.
  • Sen, Amartya, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981.
  • Sen, Amartya, Development as Freedom, New York, Knopf, 1999.
  • Smeeding, Timothy M., O’Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective. Urban Institute Press 1990.
  • Smith, Stephen C., Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005
  • Triest, Robert K. (1998). «Has Poverty Gotten Worse?». Journal of Economic Perspectives. 12: 97–114. doi:10.1257/jep.12.1.97.
  • Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. The Spirit Level, London: Allen Lane, 2009
  • World Bank: «Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?» Archived 15 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  • World Bank, «World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People», 2004

External linksEdit

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Poverty.

Look up poverty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Poverty.

  • Addressing Global Poverty from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
  • Data visualizations of the long-run development of poverty and list of data sources on poverty on ‘Our World in Data’.
  • Islamic Development Bank (archived 18 September 2009)
  • Luxembourg Income Study Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data (archived 4 December 2005)
  • Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Contains reports on economic development as well as relations between rich and poor nations.
  • OPHI Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI) Research to advance the human development approach to poverty reduction.
  • Transparency International Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world.
  • United Nations Hundreds of free reports related to economic development and standards of living in countries around the world, such as the annual Human Development Report.
  • US Agency for International Development USAID is the primary US government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries.
  • World Bank Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the annual World Development Report.
  • World Food Program Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world.
  • Why poverty Documentary films about poverty broadcast on television around the world in November 2012, then will be available online.
  • Annual income of richest 100 people enough to end global poverty four times over. Oxfam International, 19 January 2013.
  • Contains estimates on the number of people living in poverty in selected countries from 1973 to 1985
  • Contains information on poverty in 1980
  • Contains estimates on trends in global extreme poverty since 1820
  • Contains estimates on trends in world poverty from 1970 to 2006
  • Includes estimates on poverty in various European countries in the Eighties
  • Contains estimates on global poverty in 1975
  • Making Poverty History, by Vijay Prashad for Jacobin. 10 November 2014.
Источник

Princeton’s WordNetRate this definition:3.2 / 5 votes

  1. poverty, poorness, impoverishmentnoun

    the state of having little or no money and few or no material possessions

WiktionaryRate this definition:3.0 / 2 votes

  1. povertynoun

    The quality or state of being poor or indigent; want or scarcity of means of subsistence; indigence; need.

  2. povertynoun

    Any deficiency of elements or resources that are needed or desired, or that constitute richness; as, poverty of soil; poverty of the blood; poverty of ideas.

Samuel Johnson’s DictionaryRate this definition:0.0 / 0 votes

  1. Povertynoun

    Etymology: pauvreté, Fr.

    1. Indigence; necessity; want of riches.

    My men are the poorest,
    But poverty could never draw them from me.
    William Shakespeare.

    Such madness, as for fear of death to die,
    Is to be poor for fear of poverty.
    John Denham.

    These by their strict examples taught,
    How much more splendid virtue was than gold;
    Yet scarce their swelling thirst of fame could hide,
    And boasted poverty with too much pride.
    Matthew Prior.

    There is such a state as absolute poverty, when a man is destitute not only of the conveniencies, but the simple necessaries of life, being disabled from acquiring them, and depending entirely on charity.
    John Rogers.

    2. Meanness; defect.

    There is in all excellencies in compositions a kind of poverty, or a casualty or jeopardy.
    Francis Bacon.

WikipediaRate this definition:3.5 / 2 votes

  1. Poverty

    Poverty is not having enough material possessions or income for a person’s needs. Poverty may include social, economic, and political elements.
    Absolute poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing and shelter. The threshold at which absolute poverty is defined is always about the same, independent of the person’s permanent location or era.
    On the other hand, relative poverty occurs when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. Therefore, the threshold at which relative poverty is defined varies from one country to another, or from one society to another. For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a nomadic tribe).
    Governments and non-governmental organizations try to reduce poverty. Providing basic needs to people who are unable to earn a sufficient income can be hampered by constraints on government’s ability to deliver services, such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms and providing financial services.

Webster DictionaryRate this definition:3.0 / 1 vote

  1. Povertynoun

    the quality or state of being poor or indigent; want or scarcity of means of subsistence; indigence; need

  2. Povertynoun

    any deficiency of elements or resources that are needed or desired, or that constitute richness; as, poverty of soil; poverty of the blood; poverty of ideas

FreebaseRate this definition:3.1 / 11 votes

  1. Poverty

    Poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care and education. Relative poverty is defined contextually as economic inequality in the location or society in which people live.
    For much of history, poverty was considered largely unavoidable as traditional modes of production were insufficient to give an entire population a comfortable standard of living. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made wealth increasingly more inexpensive and accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. The supply of basic needs can be restricted by constraints on government services such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, and providing financial services.
    Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank estimated 1.29 billion people were living in absolute poverty in 2008. Of these, about 400 million people in absolute poverty lived in India and 173 million people in China. In USA 1 in 5 children lives in poverty. In terms of percentage of regional populations, sub-Saharan Africa at 47% had the highest incidence rate of absolute poverty in 2008. Between 1990 and 2010, about 663 million people moved above the absolute poverty level. Still, extreme poverty is a global challenge; it is observed in all parts of the world, including the developed economies.

Chambers 20th Century DictionaryRate this definition:4.0 / 1 vote

  1. Poverty

    pov′ėr-ti, n. the state of being poor: necessity: want: meanness: defect.—adjs. Pov′erty-strick′en, Pov′erty-struck, reduced to a state of poverty: in great suffering from poverty. [O. Fr. poverte (Fr. pauvreté)—L. paupertas, -tatis—pauper, poor.]

U.S. National Library of MedicineRate this definition:3.0 / 1 vote

  1. Poverty

    A situation in which the level of living of an individual, family, or group is below the standard of the community. It is often related to a specific income level.

British National Corpus

  1. Spoken Corpus Frequency

    Rank popularity for the word ‘poverty’ in Spoken Corpus Frequency: #3181

  2. Written Corpus Frequency

    Rank popularity for the word ‘poverty’ in Written Corpus Frequency: #3997

  3. Nouns Frequency

    Rank popularity for the word ‘poverty’ in Nouns Frequency: #1355

How to pronounce poverty?

How to say poverty in sign language?

Numerology

  1. Chaldean Numerology

    The numerical value of poverty in Chaldean Numerology is: 6

  2. Pythagorean Numerology

    The numerical value of poverty in Pythagorean Numerology is: 4

Examples of poverty in a Sentence

  1. Mother Teresa:

    Without out suffering, our work would just be social work, very good and helpful, but it would not be the work of Jesus Christ, not part of the Redemption. All the desolation of the poor people, not only their material poverty, but their spiritual destitution, must be redeemed. And we must share it, for only by being one with them can we redeem them by bringing God into their lives and bringing them to God.

  2. Stephane Hallegatte:

    The report demonstrates that ending poverty and fighting climate change cannot be done in isolation — the two will be much more easily achieved if they are addressed together, and between now and 2030, good, climate-informed development gives us the best chance we have of warding off increases in poverty due to climate change.

  3. Angel Enriquez:

    But if you talk to someone who comes from poverty, or someone who’s a person of color, they are going to benefit from the forgiveness program the most because they’re the ones that have to jump through extra financial hoops in order to get where everyone else in the educated country is.

  4. Abdul Qayyum:

    Violence has forced us out of our homes but here misery and poverty have made our life even more difficult, such a life is not worth living.

  5. Bob Graham of Florida:

    Social Security is not just a concept to me, i know why it exists. Fifty percent of today’s seniors would be in poverty without a Social Security check. I promise you, if you make me your president, I will save Social Security because I know why it exists.

Popularity rank by frequency of use

Translations for poverty

From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary

  • فقرArabic
  • бедната́Belarusian
  • pobresaCatalan, Valencian
  • puvertà, puvartàCorsican
  • chudobaCzech
  • ArmutGerman
  • φτώχειαGreek
  • malriĉecoEsperanto
  • pauperismo, pobrezaSpanish
  • vaesusEstonian
  • فقرPersian
  • köyhyys, puuteFinnish
  • pauvretéFrench
  • bochtaineachtIrish
  • bochdainn, airc, truaigheScottish Gaelic
  • pobrezaGalician
  • દળદર, ગરીબાઈGujarati
  • עוניHebrew
  • ग़रीबीHindi
  • nincstelenség, hiány, szegénység, nyomorúságHungarian
  • povressaInterlingua
  • kemiskinanIndonesian
  • fátæktIcelandic
  • povertàItalian
  • 貧困, 貧乏, 欠乏Japanese
  • 빈곤, 가난, 貧困Korean
  • هه‌ژاریKurdish
  • paupertāsLatin
  • skurdasLithuanian
  • fattigdomNorwegian
  • armoedeDutch
  • fattigdomNorwegian Nynorsk
  • téʼéʼį́Navajo, Navaho
  • pauretatOccitan
  • ubóstwo, biedaPolish
  • pobrezaPortuguese
  • paupertate, mizerie, sărăcieRomanian
  • нищета, скудность, нужда, бедность, недостаток, нехваткаRussian
  • siromáštvo, neimáština, òskudicaSerbo-Croatian
  • chudoba, bieda, nedostatokSlovak
  • fattigdomSwedish
  • ufukaraSwahili
  • வறுமைTamil
  • బీదరికం, పేదరికంTelugu
  • fakirlik, yoksullukTurkish
  • біднота́Ukrainian
  • غریبیUrdu
  • nghèo nànVietnamese

Get even more translations for poverty »

Translation

Find a translation for the poverty definition in other languages:

Select another language:

  • — Select —
  • 简体中文 (Chinese — Simplified)
  • 繁體中文 (Chinese — Traditional)
  • Español (Spanish)
  • Esperanto (Esperanto)
  • 日本語 (Japanese)
  • Português (Portuguese)
  • Deutsch (German)
  • العربية (Arabic)
  • Français (French)
  • Русский (Russian)
  • ಕನ್ನಡ (Kannada)
  • 한국어 (Korean)
  • עברית (Hebrew)
  • Gaeilge (Irish)
  • Українська (Ukrainian)
  • اردو (Urdu)
  • Magyar (Hungarian)
  • मानक हिन्दी (Hindi)
  • Indonesia (Indonesian)
  • Italiano (Italian)
  • தமிழ் (Tamil)
  • Türkçe (Turkish)
  • తెలుగు (Telugu)
  • ภาษาไทย (Thai)
  • Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese)
  • Čeština (Czech)
  • Polski (Polish)
  • Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)
  • Românește (Romanian)
  • Nederlands (Dutch)
  • Ελληνικά (Greek)
  • Latinum (Latin)
  • Svenska (Swedish)
  • Dansk (Danish)
  • Suomi (Finnish)
  • فارسی (Persian)
  • ייִדיש (Yiddish)
  • հայերեն (Armenian)
  • Norsk (Norwegian)
  • English (English)

Word of the Day

Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily?

Citation

Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography:

Are we missing a good definition for poverty? Don’t keep it to yourself…

Источник

Encyclopedia Britannica

Encyclopedia Britannica

  • Entertainment & Pop Culture
  • Geography & Travel
  • Health & Medicine
  • Lifestyles & Social Issues
  • Literature
  • Philosophy & Religion
  • Politics, Law & Government
  • Science
  • Sports & Recreation
  • Technology
  • Visual Arts
  • World History
  • On This Day in History
  • Quizzes
  • Podcasts
  • Dictionary
  • Biographies
  • Summaries
  • Top Questions
  • Infographics
  • Demystified
  • Lists
  • #WTFact
  • Companions
  • Image Galleries
  • Spotlight
  • The Forum
  • One Good Fact
  • Entertainment & Pop Culture
  • Geography & Travel
  • Health & Medicine
  • Lifestyles & Social Issues
  • Literature
  • Philosophy & Religion
  • Politics, Law & Government
  • Science
  • Sports & Recreation
  • Technology
  • Visual Arts
  • World History
  • Britannica Explains
    In these videos, Britannica explains a variety of topics and answers frequently asked questions.
  • Britannica Classics
    Check out these retro videos from Encyclopedia Britannica’s archives.
  • Demystified Videos
    In Demystified, Britannica has all the answers to your burning questions.
  • #WTFact Videos
    In #WTFact Britannica shares some of the most bizarre facts we can find.
  • This Time in History
    In these videos, find out what happened this month (or any month!) in history.
  • Student Portal
    Britannica is the ultimate student resource for key school subjects like history, government, literature, and more.
  • COVID-19 Portal
    While this global health crisis continues to evolve, it can be useful to look to past pandemics to better understand how to respond today.
  • 100 Women
    Britannica celebrates the centennial of the Nineteenth Amendment, highlighting suffragists and history-making politicians.
  • Saving Earth
    Britannica Presents Earth’s To-Do List for the 21st Century. Learn about the major environmental problems facing our planet and what can be done about them!
  • SpaceNext50
    Britannica presents SpaceNext50, From the race to the Moon to space stewardship, we explore a wide range of subjects that feed our curiosity about space!

Источник

When a person is unable to get the minimum basic necessities of life this situation is known as poverty. Poverty means that the income level from employment is so less that basic human needs are not met. Poverty-stricken people can go without proper housing, clean water, healthy food, and medical attention.

Progress has been made in measuring and analyzing poverty, the World Bank Organisation is working to identify other indicators and dimensions of poverty. This includes identifying social indicators to track education, health, access to services, social exclusion, and vulnerability.

Poverty

What is Poverty?

Poverty is defined as a state or circumstance in which an individual or a group lacks the financial means and necessities for a basic level of living. It can also be defined as a situation in which one’s earnings from work are insufficient to meet fundamental human requirements.

Poverty, according to the World Bank, is a severe lack of well-being that has various aspects. Low earnings and the inability to obtain the essential commodities and services required for a dignified existence are examples. Poverty also includes poor health and education, a lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, a lack of physical security, a lack of voice, and a lack of capacity and chance to improve one’s life. In 2011, 21.9% of India’s population was living below the national poverty threshold. 

Understanding Poverty

Poverty is both an individual as well as a broader social problem. On the individual level, ends are not met which can lead to physical and mental issues. At the societal level, high poverty can damper to overall economic growth and be associated with problems like unemployment, crime, urban decay, lack of education, and detrimental health.

Important points related to poverty are:

  • The two main dimensions of Poverty are Hunger and lack of shelter.
  • Poverty is a condition where one is barely having basic necessities of life. when parents are not able to send their children to school or a situation where individuals or families can’t afford medical facilities
  • Lack of clean water and sanitation facilities is also one of the conditions of poverty.
  • Lack of regular job to earn or live a regular life with basic necessities of life.

Poverty as a phenomenon is as old as human existence, its significance has evolved over time. Under the traditional mode of economic production, widespread poverty had been accepted as inevitable. This meant, the total output of goods and services, even if equally divided, would still be insufficient for the entire population to lead a comfortable life. However, this was proved wrong by industrialization, as industrialized nations have outputs sufficient to raise the entire population to a comfortable level.

Poverty Trap

Types of Poverty

There are two major kinds of Poverty, that are:

  1. Cyclic Poverty: It refers to poverty that can be widespread throughout the population, but its occurrence is of limited duration. In non-industrialized countries, the inability to meet basic needs rests mainly on temporary food shortages caused by natural phenomena. Prices can be hiked because of scarcities of food, which brought misery.
  2. Collective Poverty: Collective poverty involves relative permanent insufficiency of means for secure basic needs. Both generalized and concentrated collective poverty can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Collective poverty usually is related to economic underdevelopment.
  3. Concentrated Collective Poverty: In many developed industrial countries, particular demographic groups are more vulnerable to long-term poverty. Their chief economic traits include unemployment, underemployment, unskilled occupation, and job instability.

Causes of Poverty in India

  • India’s population has been continuously increasing throughout the years. It has increased at a pace of 2.2 percent per year for the past 45 years, implying that around 17 million people are added to the country’s population each year. This has a significant impact on the demand for consumer products.
  • Low Agricultural Productivity: The agriculture sector’s low productivity is a key source of poverty. Low productivity can be caused by a variety of factors. 
    • It is mostly due to fragmented and subdivided landholdings, a lack of cash, ignorance about modern farming technology, the use of conventional farming practices, loss during storage, and other factors. 
  • Inadequate Utilization of resources: The country suffers from underemployment and hidden unemployment, notably in the agricultural sector. Low agricultural productivity and a drop in living standards have ensued as a result of this.
  • Economic Development at a Slow Rate: India’s economic development has been slow, particularly in the first 40 years of independence before the LPG reforms in 1991.
  • Continuous Price hike: The country’s price increases have been consistent, adding to the burden carried by the poor. Although a few people have profited, the lower-income groups have suffered as a result, and are unable to meet even their most basic needs. 
  • Unemployment is another element that contributes to poverty in India. As the world’s population grows, so does the number of people looking for work. However, the increase in possibilities is insufficient to meet the demand for work.
  • Social Issues: In addition to economic problems, social factors obstruct India’s poverty eradication efforts. The laws of inheritance, the caste system, and certain customs, to name a few, are all obstacles in this respect.

FAQs on Poverty

Question 1: What is Poverty?

Answer:

Poverty refers to not having enough money to meet basic needs including food, clothing and shelter.

Question 2: What is Poverty Line?

Answer:

A person is considered to be poor if his income or consumption level falls below the given “minimum level” necessary to fulfill the basic needs.

Question 3: What do you understand by human poverty?

Answer:

It refers to denial of political, social, and economic opportunities to an individual to maintain a reasonable standard of living is known as human poverty.

Question 4:  Why do different countries use different poverty lines?

Answer:

Each country uses different poverty lines as different countries basic needs vary according to the social and economic situations, because of the variable cost of living in different countries have different lines of poverty.

Question 5:  Which social group is most vulnerable to poverty in India?

Answer:

Scheduled tribes and scheduled castes are social groups most vulnerable among with casual labour households in rural and urban areas that are dependent on agriculture labour are vulnerable economic group.

Источник

A boy from an East Cipinang trash dump slum in Jakarta, Indonesia shows his find.

Poverty is a condition in which a person or community is deprived of, or lacks, the essentials for a minimum standard of well-being and life. Since poverty is understood in many senses, these essentials may be material resources such as food, safe drinking water, and shelter, or they may be social resources such as access to information, education, health care, social status, political power, or the opportunity to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.

Poverty may also be defined in relative terms. In this view income disparities or wealth disparities are seen as an indicator of poverty and the condition of poverty is linked to questions of scarcity and distribution of resources and power. Poverty is also a type of religious vow, a state that may be taken on voluntarily in keeping with practices of piety and the effort to come closer to God and the realm of spirit by denying the desires of the body.

However it is defined, poverty naturally causes suffering because it involves the lack of something essential to human life. In the ideal, all people should be able to satisfy their needs and experience lives of health, happiness, and prosperity, not poverty.

Causes of poverty

Many different factors have been cited to explain why poverty occurs. However, no single explanation has gained universal acceptance. Some possible factors include:

Material

One possible cause of poverty is lack of material, which takes a number of forms. Natural factors such as climate or environment, combined with geographic factors can have a great affect. Geographic factors include access to fertile land, fresh water, minerals, energy, and other natural resources. Presence or absence of natural features helping or limiting communication, such mountains, deserts, navigable rivers, or coastline. Historically, geography has prevented or slowed the spread of new technology to areas such as the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa. The climate also limits what crops and farm animals may be used on similarly fertile lands.[1] On the other hand, research has found that countries with an abundance of natural resources creating quick wealth from exports tend to have less long-term prosperity than countries with less of these natural resources.

Inadequate nutrition in childhood in poor nations may lead to physical and mental stunting that, in turn, may lead to economic problems. Hence, this may be both a cause and an effect. For example, lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development, and this can affect enormous numbers of people. Disease, specifically diseases of poverty can make poverty even worse. AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis among others overwhelmingly afflict developing nations, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity. Further, many tropical nations are affected by parasites like malaria, schistosomiasis, and trypanosomiasis that are not present in temperate climates. The Tsetse fly makes it very difficult to use many animals in agriculture in afflicted regions.

Economic

Economics offers a number of explanations for poverty. The first is poverty itself, which prevents (for example) various forms of investment. Also important is the inability to find a well-paying job, unemployment and/or underemployment. Many argue that globalization is having an adverse economic effect on poverty. These critics claim that globalization leads to economic exploitation of the developing world by rich countries. This alleged exploitation takes the form of sweatshops, overuse of land, and the use of monopoly power to exploit those without recourse to competitive services or products.

Many claim that restrictions on free trade contribute to poverty, in particular, the very high subsidies to and protective tariffs for agriculture in the developed world. This drains the taxed money and increases the prices for the consumers in developed world; decreases competition and efficiency; prevents exports by more competitive agricultural and other sectors in the developed world due to retaliatory trade barriers; and undermines the very type of industry in which the developing countries do have comparative advantages.[2]

Political

Political factors influencing poverty can include lacking the rule of law, democracy, infrastructure, which is normally the responsibility of a sound government; lacking health care, which distracts citizens from participation in government; or lacking education, which likewise prevents entry into the realm of politics.[3][4] Government corruption can also lead to poverty as citizens do not receive the benefits of their own taxes or of international aid organizations.

A country’s status as a tax haven can contribute to poverty as well. These havens, which tax their own citizens and companies but not those from other nations and refuse to disclose information necessary for foreign taxation, can cripple their own peoples. The practice of not taxing foreign companies enables large scale political corruption, tax evasion, and organized crime in the foreign nations.[5]

Historical factors, for example imperialism and colonialism, Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, Monarchy, Fascism, and Totalitarianism have all been named as causes by scholars writing from different perspectives.[6][7] For example, poorly functioning property rights is seen by some as a cause of poverty, while socialists see the institution of property rights itself as a cause of poverty.[8]

A homeless woman with her dog in a street of Rome

There exist many social factors leading to poverty on top of those previously listed. Lack of freedom and social oppression can lead to people being unable to take political or economic action to their benefit. Lack of social integration stunts the development of any productive social action groups, making it difficult to become involved in politics on a grand scale. The existence of slavery around the world prevents the accumulation of any wealth and has severe psychological repercussions for those forced into it. Crime, both white-collar crime and blue-collar crime can stunt economic growth as much as government corruption can, also leading to increased levels of poverty. War, including civil war, genocide, and democide can completely disrupt an economy, throwing all the participants at the margins into poverty. Another controversial phenomenon is the «brain drain» of intelligent people from developing countries moving to rich countries to pursue careers.

On a more personal level, high levels of substance abuse, such as alcoholism and drug abuse prevent personal accumulation of wealth and can be general blights on society. Individual beliefs, actions, and choices may also be factors, as in the Christian ascetic tradition.[9] Mental illness and disability, such as autism and schizophrenia, damage one’s position in society and can prevent employment or accumulation of wealth. Finally, discrimination of various kinds, such as age discrimination, gender discrimination, racial discrimination can keep deserving, able people out of jobs and lock them into cycles of poverty.

Effects of poverty

A starving female child during the Nigerian-Biafran war of the late 1960s. The abdomen is paradoxically swollen due to Kwashiorkor or severe protein malnutrition.

Some effects of poverty may also be causes, as listed above, thus creating a «poverty cycle» and complicating the subject further. Some of these effects include Depression, lack of sanitation, increased vulnerability to natural disasters, extremism of political views or actions, hunger, starvation, malnutrition, human trafficking, and increased suicides.

Some of the larger society-wide effects include increased risk of political violence; such as terrorism, war, and genocide, homelessness, lack of opportunities for employment, high crime rate, low literacy, social isolation, loss of population due to emigration, increased discrimination, lower life expectancy and drug abuse.

Measuring poverty

Although the most severe poverty is in the developing world, there is evidence of poverty in every region. Poverty may be seen as the collective condition of poor people, or of poor groups, and in this sense entire nation-states are sometimes regarded as poor. To avoid stigma these nations are usually called developing nations.

When measured, poverty may be absolute or relative. Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context. In this case, the number of people counted as poor could increase while their income rise. A relative measurement would be to compare the total wealth of the poorest one-third of the population with the total wealth of richest 1 percent of the population.

Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. An example of an absolute measurement would be the percentage of the population eating less food than is required to sustain the human body (approximately 2000-2500 calories per day).

The international poverty line is a monetary threshold under which an individual is considered to be living in poverty. It is calculated by taking the value of the goods needed to sustain one adult and converting it into dollars. The current international poverty line is $1.90 per day.[10] The World Bank reported that the global extreme poverty rate fell to 9.2 percent in 2017, from 10.1 percent in 2015, equivalent to 689 million people living on less than $1.90 a day. Four out of five people below the international poverty line lived in rural areas. A preliminary estimate for 2020, incorporating the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, projected additional poor to be more urban dwelling and work in the sectors most affected by lockdowns and mobility restrictions rather than in agriculture. At higher poverty lines, 24.1 percent of the world lived on less than $3.20 a day and 43.6 percent on less than $5.50 a day in 2017.[11]

The World Bank’s «Voices of the Poor,» based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identified a range of factors which poor people consider elements of poverty.[12] Most important are those necessary for material well-being, especially food. Many others relate to social rather than material issues.

  • precarious livelihoods
  • excluded locations
  • gender relationships
  • problems in social relationships
  • lack of security
  • abuse by those in power
  • dis-empowering institutions
  • limited capabilities, and
  • weak community organizations.

Poverty reduction

In politics, the fight against poverty is usually regarded as a social goal and many governments have — secondarily at least — some dedicated institutions or departments.

Economic growth

The anti-poverty strategy of the World Bank depends heavily on reducing poverty through the promotion of economic growth and shared prosperity.[13] However, some consider this approach does not actively or directly work to reduce or eliminate poverty. The World Bank argues that an overview of many studies show that growth is fundamental for poverty reduction, and in principle growth as such does not affect inequality, growth accompanied by progressive distributional change is better than growth alone, high initial income inequality is a brake on poverty reduction. Poverty itself is also likely to be a barrier for poverty reduction; and wealth inequality seems to predict lower future growth rates.

The Global Competitiveness Report, the Ease of Doing Business Index, and the Index of Economic Freedom are annual reports, often used in academic research, ranking the world’s nations on factors argued to increase economic growth and reduce poverty. Business groups see the reduction of barriers to the creation of new businesses, or reducing barriers for existing business, as having the effect of bringing more people into the formal economy.[14]

Direct aid

Governments can directly help those in need. This has been applied with mixed results in most Western societies during the twentieth century, in what became known as the welfare state. Especially for those most at risk, such as the elderly and people with disabilities, help can be monetary or as food aid.

A shanty town in Manila, Philippines.

Private charity is often formally encouraged within the legal system. For example, charitable trusts and tax deductions for charity.

Poverty-stricken women washing clothes by a road in Mumbai, India.

Foreign aid

Most developed nations give foreign aid to developing nations and have produced Poverty Reduction Strategy papers or PRSPs.[15].

Some think tanks and NGOs have argued, however, that Western monetary aid often only serves to increase poverty and social inequality.[16]

Supporters argue that the problems may be solved with better audits of how the aid is used. Also, aid from non-governmental organizations may be more effective that governmental aid; this may be because it is better at reaching the poor and better controlled at the grassroots level.[17]

Other approaches

Some argue for a radical change of the economic system. There are several proposals for a fundamental restructuring of existing economic relations, and many of their supporters argue that their ideas would reduce or even eliminate poverty entirely if they were implemented. Such proposals have been put forward by both left-wing and right-wing groups: socialism, communism, anarchism, libertarianism and participatory economics, among others.

In his book The End of Poverty, world renowned economist Jeffrey Sachs laid out a plan to eradicate global poverty by the year 2025. Following his recommendations, international organizations began working to help eradicate poverty worldwide with intervention in the areas of housing, food, education, basic health, agricultural inputs, safe drinking water, transportation, and communications.

The Poor People’s Economic Human Rights Campaign is an organization in the United States working to secure freedom from poverty for all by organizing the poor themselves. The Campaign believes that a human rights framework, based on the value of inherent dignity and worth of all persons, offers the best means by which to organize for a political solution to poverty.

Religious poverty

Saint Francis of Assisi renounces his worldly goods in a painting attributed to Giotto di Bondone.

Among some groups, in particular religious groups, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced in order to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of renunciation among Buddhists and Jains, whilst in Roman Catholicism it is one of the evangelical counsels, and taken as a vow among certain religious orders. The way poverty is understood among these orders takes a variety of forms. For example, the Franciscan orders have traditionally forgone all individual and corporate forms of ownership. However, while individual ownership of goods and wealth is forbidden for Benedictines, following the Rule of Saint Benedict, the monastery itself may possess both goods and money, and through history some monasteries have become very wealthy indeed.

In this context of religious vows, poverty may be understood as a means of self-denial in order to place oneself at the service of others; Pope Honorius III wrote in 1217 that the Dominicans «lived a life of voluntary poverty, exposing themselves to innumerable dangers and sufferings, for the salvation of others.» However, following Jesus’ warning that riches can be like thorns that choke up the good seed of the word (Matthew 13:22), voluntary poverty is often understood by Christians as of benefit to the individual — a form of self-discipline by which one distances oneself from distractions from God.

Notes

  1. ↑ Jared M. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel (W.W. Norton & Company, 1999).
  2. ↑ Stephen Slivinski, Daniel Griswold, and Christopher Preble, Six Reasons to Kill Farm Subsidies and Trade Barriers Reason, February 2006. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  3. ↑ Ian Vásquez, Ending Mass Poverty Economic Perspectives, September 4, 2001. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  4. ↑ John Weiss and Haider A. Khan (eds.), Poverty Strategies in Asia: A Growth Plus Approach (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-184542928).
  5. ↑ Nick Mathiason, Western bankers and lawyers ‘rob Africa of $150bn every year The Observer, January 20, 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  6. ↑ Tirfe Mammo, The Paradox of Africa’s Poverty: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge, Traditional Practices and Local Institutions — The Case of Ethiopia (Red Sea Press, 1999, ISBN 1569020493).
  7. ↑ James Mahoney, Long-Run Development and the Legacy of Colonialism in Spanish America American Journal of Sociology 109(1) (July 2003). Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  8. ↑ Hernando de Soto, The Mystery of Capital Finance & Development 38(1) (March 2001. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  9. ↑ Arthur Vermeersch, The Moral Doctrine of Poverty The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911 ed. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  10. ↑ Will Kenton, International Poverty Line Investopedia. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  11. ↑ Poverty: Overview The World Bank, October 7, 2020. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  12. ↑ Deepa Narayan and Patti Patesch (eds.), Voices of the Poor: From Many Lands (Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0195216035).
  13. ↑ Inequality and Shared Prosperity: Overview. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  14. ↑ The Doing Business database A member of the World Bank Group. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  15. ↑ Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) International Monetary Fund, December 28, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  16. ↑ Thalif Deen, Tied Aid Strangling Nations, Says U.N. Inter Press Service IPS, July 7 2004. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
  17. ↑ John Stossel and Patrick McMenamin, Will More Foreign Aid End Global Poverty? ABC News, November 15, 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2020.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Allen, Tim. Poverty and Development: Into the 21st Century. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0198776268
  • Bourke, Dale. The Skeptic’s Guide To Global Poverty. Authentic, 2007. ISBN 1932805575
  • DeVol, Philip. Bridges Out of Poverty. aha Process, 2006. ISBN 1929229690
  • Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999.
  • Iceland, John. Poverty in America: A Handbook, University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 0520248414
  • Karelis, Charles. The Persistence of Poverty: Why the Economics of the Well-Off Can’t Help the Poor. Yale University Press, 2007. ISBN 0300120907
  • Kerbo, Harold. World Poverty: The Roots of Global Inequality and the Modern World System. McGraw Hill, 2005. ISBN 0073042951
  • Landes, David. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor. W.W. Norton & Co., 1999. ISBN 0393318885
  • Mammo, Tirfe. The Paradox of Africa’s Poverty: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge, Traditional Practices and Local Institutions — The Case of Ethiopia. Red sea Press, 1999. ISBN 1569020493
  • Narayan, Deepa, and Patti Patesch (eds.), Voices of the Poor: From Many Lands Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0195216035
  • Payne, Ruby. A Framework for Understanding Poverty. aha Process, 2005. ISBN 1929229488
  • Sachs, Jeffrey. The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time. Penguin, 2006. ISBN 0143036580
  • Smith, Steven. Ending Global Poverty: A Guide to What Works. Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ISBN 140396534X
  • Weiss, John, and Haider A. Khan (eds.). Poverty Strategies in Asia: A Growth Plus Approach. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-184542928
  • Yunus, Muhammed. Banker to the Poor: Micro-Lending and the Battle Against World Poverty. Public Affairs, 2003. ISBN 1586481983

External links

All links retrieved November 30, 2022.

  • Alliance to End Hunger
  • Bread for the World
  • Global Distribution of Poverty Global poverty datasets and map collection
  • Poverty and Pauperism Catholic Encyclopedia
  • One
  • The Crime of Poverty by Henry George
  • A Principled Economics Approach To Poverty

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article
in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

  • Poverty  history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

  • History of «Poverty»

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Источник
  • С русского на:
  • Английский
  • С английского на:
  • Все языки
  • Азербайджанский
  • Арабский
  • Африкаанс
  • Болгарский
  • Венгерский
  • Вьетнамский
  • Гаитянский
  • Греческий
  • Грузинский
  • Датский
  • Иврит
  • Индонезийский
  • Ирландский
  • Исландский
  • Испанский
  • Итальянский
  • Казахский
  • Каталанский
  • Корейский
  • Латинский
  • Латышский
  • Литовский
  • Македонский
  • Мокшанский
  • Монгольский
  • Немецкий
  • Нидерландский
  • Норвежский
  • Папьяменто
  • Персидский
  • Польский
  • Португальский
  • Румынский, Молдавский
  • Русский
  • Сербский
  • Словацкий
  • Словенский
  • Суахили
  • Тагальский
  • Тамильский
  • Турецкий
  • Украинский
  • Урду
  • Финский
  • Французский
  • Хинди
  • Хорватский
  • Чешский
  • Шведский
  • Эстонский

  • 1
    poverty

    Large English-Russian phrasebook > poverty

  • 2
    poverty

    1) бе́дность, нужда́

    2) ску́дость; оскуде́ние

    Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > poverty

  • 3
    Poverty

    США. Лингвострановедческий англо-русский словарь > Poverty

  • 4
    poverty

    Персональный Сократ > poverty

  • 5
    poverty

    English-Russian dictionary of biology and biotechnology > poverty

  • 6
    poverty

    Politics english-russian dictionary > poverty

  • 7
    poverty

    1. n бедность, нищета

    2. n скудость, бедность

    3. n нехватка, отсутствие

    Синонимический ряд:

    1. barrenness (noun) barrenness; deficiency; sterility; unfruitfulness

    2. beggary (noun) abjection; beggary; borasca; destituteness; destitution; distress; impecuniousness; impoverishment; indigence; indigency; insolvency; mendicancy; need; neediness; pauperism; pennilessness; penury; poorness; privation; unprosperousness; want

    3. shortage (noun) dearth; defect; deficit; exigency; failure; inadequacy; insufficience; insufficiency; jejuneness; lack; meagerness; meagreness; paucity; scantiness; scarceness; scarcity; shortage

    Антонимический ряд:

    abundance; fruitfulness; opulence; plenty; riches; wealth

    English-Russian base dictionary > poverty

  • 8
    poverty

    [ʹpɒvətı]

    1. бедность, нищета

    2. 1) скуд(н)ость, бедность

    poverty of ideas — бедность /скудость/ мысли

    poverty of the land — скудность /неплодородность/ почвы

    he showed a striking poverty in his knowledge of the problem — он продемонстрировал поразительное невежество в этом вопросе

    2) нехватка, отсутствие ()

    poverty row — проф. мелкие компании, производящие дешёвые кинофильмы

    poverty is no sin /disgrace, crime, vice/ — бедность — не порок

    when poverty comes in at the door, love flies out at the window — когда бедность входит в дверь, любовь уходит в окно

    НБАРС > poverty

  • 9
    poverty

    сущ.

    1)

    ,

    соц.

    бедность, нищета

    See:

    2)

    общ.

    скудость, скудность, бедность

    * * *

    нищета: уровень доходов ниже минимального прожиточного уровня.

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > poverty

  • 10
    poverty

    [‘pɔvətɪ]

    сущ.

    1) бедность, нищета, нужда, скудость

    abject / dire / extreme / grinding / severe poverty — полная нищета

    in poverty — в бедности, в нужде, в нищете

    to wipe out / eliminate / eradicate poverty — уничтожить бедность

    poverty line; poverty level — черта бедности

    Syn:

    2) скудность; оскудение

    Англо-русский современный словарь > poverty

  • 11
    poverty

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > poverty

  • 12
    poverty

    ˈpɔvətɪ сущ.
    1) бедность, нищета, нужда, скудость to breed poverty ≈ плодить нищету to eliminate, eradicate, wipe out poverty ≈ уничтожить бедность abject, dire, extreme, grinding, severe poverty ≈ полная нищета in poverty ≈ в бедности, в нужде, в нищете to live in grinding poverty ≈ нуждаться, жить в крайней нужде Syn: want
    2) скудность;
    оскудение
    бедность, нищета — to be reduced to abject * впасть в крайнюю нищету скуд(н) ость, бедность — * of ideas бедность /скудость/ мысли — * of the land скудность /неплодородность/ почвы — he showed a striking * in his knowledge of the problem он продемонстрировал поразительно невежество в этом вопросе нехватка, отсутствие( чего-л.) — * of vitamins отсутствие витаминов — * of intellect недостаток ума — * of (the) blood (медицина) анемия > * row (кинематографический) (профессионализм) мелкие компании, производящие дешевые кинофильмы > * is no sin /disgrace, crime, vice/ (пословица) бедность — не порок > * is not a shame but the being ashamed of it is (пословица) бедность — не порок, стыдиться бедности — не добродетель > when * comes in at the door, love flies out at the window( пословица) когда бедность входит в дверь, любовь уходит в окно
    absolute ~ абсолютное обнищание;
    крайняя нищета
    poverty бедность, нужда ~ бедность ~ скудность;
    оскудение
    relative ~ относительная бедность

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > poverty

  • 13
    poverty

    [‘pɔvətɪ]

    n

    бедность, нищета, нужда, скудость

    — abject poverty


    — poverty of the land
    — in poverty
    — live in grinding poverty
    — eliminate out poverty

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > poverty

  • 14
    poverty

    English-Russian big medical dictionary > poverty

  • 15
    poverty

    [ˈpɔvətɪ]

    absolute poverty абсолютное обнищание; крайняя нищета poverty бедность, нужда poverty бедность poverty скудность; оскудение relative poverty относительная бедность

    English-Russian short dictionary > poverty

  • 16
    poverty

    бедность; нищета, экономическое положение, при котором индивид или группа не могут пользоваться необходимыми благами;

    poverty line — черта бедности.

    * * *

    сущ.

    бедность; нищета, экономическое положение, при котором индивид или группа не могут пользоваться необходимыми благами;

    Англо-русский словарь по социологии > poverty

  • 17
    poverty

    English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > poverty

  • 18
    poverty

    1. бедность

    бедность
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    бедность
    Категория, по-разному понимаемая разными экономистами и различно определяемая в разных странах (последнее понятно: тот, кто считается бедным в богатой стране, вполне может «сойти за богатого» – в бедной). Поэтому критерии отнесения той или иной части населения к категории бедных существенно различаются: в одних случаях (Россия, США) это прожиточный минимум, в других (в ряде европейских стран) — т.н. социальный минимум, половина среднедушевого дохода в данной стране, к третьим (в основном, развивающимся странам) применяется некий «международный прожиточный минимум», составляющий от 1 до 4 долларов США на человека в день. Следует различать: — уровень бедности, который определяется как доля населения, относящегося к домохозяйствам с доходами ниже прожиточного минимума; — глубину бедности, которая понимается как средняя величина разности между доходами лиц, относящихся к бедным домохозяйствам, и величиной прожиточного минимума. Глубина бедности исчисляется в процентах к прожиточному минимуму. Официальная черта бедности (в ряде стран говорят о пороге бедности, прожиточном минимуме), обычно рассчитывается на основе т.н. «потребительской корзины» — минимального набора продуктов питания, непродовольственных товаров и услуг, необходимых для сохранения здоровья человека и обеспечения его жизнедеятельности. В Российской Федерации прожиточный минимум (как стоимостная оценка потребительской корзины) определяется по стране в целом и по регионам, отдельно на душу населения, для трудоспособного населения, для пенсионеров, для детей. Семьи, уровень доходов которых не соответствует прожиточному минимуму, считаются бедными. На этой основе, в меру своих финансовых возможностей, государство устанавливает разного рода льготы, жилищные субсидии, скидки к ценам на продукты и так далее (в некоторых странах, например, в США осуществляются программы обеспечения бедных бесплатным продовольствием). Уровень бедности – важнейшая характеристика экономической ситуации в стране, борьба с бедностью — одно из главных направлений экономической политики большинства современных государств. Важно также понятие относительной бедности. Под этот критерий попадают люди, которые получают доход ниже среднего уровня: например, 40 % от среднего уровня. Если же рассматривать разрыв между самыми богатыми и самыми бедными, то чем больше этот разрыв, тем больше вероятность социального недовольства. В новой России уровень бедности, исчисленный как численность населения с денежными доходами ниже величины прожиточного уровня, снизился с 33,5 % в 1992 году до примерно 13 % в настоящее время и продолжает снижаться. См также: Джини коэффициент, Минимальный размер оплаты труда (МРОТ), Фондовый коэффициент, Распределение доходов населения.
    [ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

    EN

    poverty
    State in which the individual lacks the resources necessary for subsistence.
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    • охрана окружающей среды
    • экономика

    EN

    • poverty

    DE

    • Armut

    FR

    • pauvreté

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > poverty

  • 19
    poverty

    2000 самых употребительных английских слов > poverty

  • 20
    poverty

    Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > poverty

Страницы

  • Следующая →
  • 1
  • 2
  • 3
  • 4
  • 5
  • 6
  • 7

См. также в других словарях:

  • Poverty — • Discusses poverty as a concept and canonical discipline Catholic Encyclopedia. Kevin Knight. 2006. Poverty     Poverty     † …   Catholic encyclopedia

  • Poverty — Pov er*ty (p[o^]v [ e]r*t[y^]), n. [OE. poverte, OF. povert[ e], F. pauvret[ e], fr. L. paupertas, fr. pauper poor. See {Poor}.] 1. The quality or state of being poor or indigent; want or scarcity of means of subsistence; indigence; need. Swathed …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • poverty — pov‧er‧ty [ˈpɒvəti ǁ ˈpɑːvərti] noun [uncountable] 1. the situation or experience of being poor: • 86% of the population lives in poverty. • a major anti poverty initiative 2. the poverty line the income below which people are officially… …   Financial and business terms

  • poverty — poverty, indigence, penury, want, destitution, privation all denote the state of one who is poor or without enough to live upon. Poverty, the most comprehensive of these terms, typically implies such deficiency of resources that one is deprived… …   New Dictionary of Synonyms

  • poverty — [päv′ər tē] n. [ME poverte < OFr povreté < L paupertas < pauper, POOR] 1. the condition or quality of being poor; indigence; need 2. deficiency in necessary properties or desirable qualities, or in a specific quality, etc.; inadequacy… …   English World dictionary

  • poverty — late 12c., from O.Fr. poverte, from L. paupertatem (nom. paupertas) poverty, from pauper (see POOR (Cf. poor)). Seeing so much poverty everywhere makes me think that God is not rich. He gives the appearance of it, but I suspect some financial… …   Etymology dictionary

  • poverty — poverty, poorness Poverty is the usual noun corresponding to poor in its meanings to do with lack of wealth or lack of things regarded like wealth (e.g. poverty of inspiration). Poorness is not often used and is more usual in meanings to do with… …   Modern English usage

  • poverty — I noun absence, bare subsistence, beggarliness, beggary, dearth, deficiency, deficit, depletion, destitution, difficulty, distress, embarrassed circumstances, exigency, famine, humbleness, impecuniosity, impecuniousness, impoverishment, indigence …   Law dictionary

  • poverty — [n] want; extreme need, often financial abjection, aridity, bankruptcy, barrenness, beggary, dearth, debt, deficiency, deficit, depletion, destitution, difficulty, distress, emptiness, exiguity, famine, hardship, impecuniousness, impoverishment,… …   New thesaurus

  • poverty — ► NOUN 1) the state of being extremely poor. 2) the state of being insufficient in amount. ORIGIN Old French poverte, from Latin pauper poor …   English terms dictionary

  • Poverty — Street children sleeping in Mulberry Street – Jacob Riis photo New York, United States (1890) Poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money.[1] Absolute poverty or destitution is inability to afford …   Wikipedia

Источник

often attributive

1

a

: the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions

b

: renunciation as a member of a religious order of the right as an individual to own property

3

a

: debility due to malnutrition

Synonyms

Choose the Right Synonym for poverty



the extreme poverty of the slum dwellers

indigence implies seriously straitened circumstances.



the indigence of her years as a graduate student

penury suggests a cramping or oppressive lack of money.



a catastrophic illness that condemned them to years of penury

want and destitution imply extreme poverty that threatens life itself through starvation or exposure.



lived in a perpetual state of want



the widespread destitution in countries beset by famine

Example Sentences



He was born in poverty.



There is a poverty of information about the disease.

Recent Examples on the Web

Living in poverty, lacking health care, good nutrition and educational opportunities are other factors, apart from or combined with lead exposure.


—Allison Futterman, Discover Magazine, 7 Apr. 2023




More than a quarter of residents in the state’s predominantly Black capital live in poverty.


—Bracey Harris, NBC News, 6 Apr. 2023




At Ninety-Fifth Street, 94 percent of students live in poverty; many parents work essential jobs and suffer from chronic illness.


—Meg Bernhard, New York Times, 5 Apr. 2023




Critics also said that, without additional resources for child care, health care and education, the bill would ensure that many more children will grow up in poverty.


—Kathryn Varn, USA TODAY, 3 Apr. 2023




By the end of 2022, 5.4 million Ecuadoreans, or 30% of the population, lived in poverty.


—Leila Miller, Los Angeles Times, 3 Apr. 2023




But key Senate Democrats see the program as a way to create equity, allowing students living in poverty to avoid failing public school systems.


—Erin Cox, Washington Post, 31 Mar. 2023




Like many of her students, Cheboi grew up in poverty, without access to education and proper nutrition.


—Allie Torgan, CNN, 31 Mar. 2023




Living in poverty, Gwen felt her only choice was to become one of the growing number of disabled people using Canada’s world-leading Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD) program simply because the state refuses to provide them with quality of life.


—Krista Stevens, Longreads, 31 Mar. 2023


See More

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word ‘poverty.’ Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Etymology

Middle English poverte, from Anglo-French poverté, from Latin paupertat-, paupertas, from pauper poor — more at poor

First Known Use

12th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Time Traveler

The first known use of poverty was
in the 12th century

Dictionary Entries Near poverty

Cite this Entry

“Poverty.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poverty. Accessed 14 Apr. 2023.

Share

More from Merriam-Webster on poverty

Last Updated:
12 Apr 2023
— Updated example sentences

Subscribe to America’s largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Merriam-Webster unabridged

Источник

A working definition of poverty is: The condition of not having access to those things considered ‘basic’ or ‘normal’ within a society (1)

Origins of the Concept

  • The academic use of the concept can be traced back to Seebohm Rowntree’s (1901) study of Poverty in York, which set the tone for much later work which sought to uncover the extent of poverty in society.
  • In the late 1950s Peter Townsend developed a relational concept of poverty based on lifestyles, from which he distilled 12 recurring items, such as ‘household does not have a refrigerator’, into a poverty or deprivation index. This is a relative, rather than an absolute concept of poverty.
  • Later studies have used questionnaires to find out what people themselves define as necessities in order to measure ‘relative poverty’.
  • Today national governments also use ‘poverty lines’, which is usually set at 50-60% below the national average household income.

Absolute and Relative Poverty 

Sociologists generally recognize two definitions of poverty – absolute and relative

Absolute poverty is grounded in the idea of material subsistence -the basic needs which must be me in order to sustain a reasonably healthy existence, mainly food, shelter and clothing. By these standards, there are still hundreds of millions of people around the world who live in absolute poverty, mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and rural India.

However, the problem with the concept of absolute poverty is that there is no universal definition of it, and definitions of need are culturally variable: for example the !Kung bushmen do not regard themselves as living in absolute poverty, but many people in the West may define them as suffering from this condition.

Most sociologists today use the concept of relative poverty, which relates poverty to the standards of living in a particular society. The main reason for using relative poverty as a measurement is that as societies ‘develop’, people tend to adjust their ideas of what counts as a ‘necessity’ upwards – for example in poor areas of less developed countries, running water and flush toilets are not generally regarded as necessities, while in more developed countries refrigerators and telephones may be regarded as necessities.

Critics of the relative poverty measurement argue that it detracts our attention away from the more serious issue of ‘absolute poverty’, which is potentially life threatening, whereas those living in relative poverty (in the UK and other developed countries at least) tend not to be starving.

However, measuring relative poverty is useful as it highlights injustice in society and groups which experience discrimination and marginalization – women, some ethnic minorities, the young and the old are more likely to be in relative poverty than other groups.

Individual and Social-Structural Explanations of Poverty

Explanations of poverty tend to either blame the individual (‘blame the victim’ approaches) or blame society (structural, or ‘blame the system’ approaches).

Blame the victim approaches tend to argue that poverty has always been with us, and always will be, they see society as generally fair and offering opportunities to individuals for advancement: if individuals fail to take advantage of these opportunities it is down to their own lack of effort, and those individuals who fail to ‘rise up’ in the system have no one else to blame but themselves.

Such ideas were popular in 19th century Britain, when work houses were developed to deal with the poor (the ‘failures’), and had a resurgence in the 1980s when New Right/ neoliberal ideas explained poverty as the fault of individuals themselves, probably the most classic statement of this being Charles Murray’s theory of the underclass in which he blamed persistent poverty on an over-reliance on benefits and an unwillingness to work on the part of the long term unemployed.

‘Blame the system’ approaches can be traced back to R.H. Tawney who argued that poverty is a key factor in explaining social inequality which results in extremes of wealth and poverty.

These approaches focus more on how the structure of society systemically disadvantages some groups rather than others – inequalities in class, gender, ethnicity and physical ability all make it more difficult for some to take advantage of opportunities, and this is no fault of the individual when discrimination or cultural capital possessed by the elite class effectively block opportunities for some while opening them up for others on an unequal basis.

Blame the system approaches also point out that major structural changes in society can also affect poverty levels – the decline of manufacturing in the UK from the 1970s for example led to declining job opportunities for large sections of the traditional working classes, while the flexibilisation of work patterns as part of neoliberal working regimes have locked millions of workers in the UK into temporary, low paid jobs during the 1980s and 1990s.

From this structuralist point of view, social policy is the solution to poverty, two recent examples being the introduction of the minimum wage and the expansion of in-work benefits.

Criticisms of the Concept of Poverty

Absolute poverty is difficult to measure because there is no universally agreed concept of ‘needs’, and the same criticisms can be applied to relative poverty – if we are to base the definition of this on not having certain items, then it is impossible to escape subjective interpretations of what the cluster of ‘necessary items’ should be.

The concept of relative poverty has also been criticised as only actually measuring inequality, rather than poverty, so the concept lacks clear meaning – – at least the concept of ‘absolute poverty’ helps us to identify people in real need, whereas it is not necessarily possible to say this about someone who is in ‘relative poverty’ when they level of it keeps rising with increasing standards of living.

Focusing on relative poverty detracts attention away from those in absolute poverty.

Some sociologists have moved away from the concept of poverty in favour of ‘social exclusion’ which focuses instead on the processes which deny poorer people access to certain citizenship rights.

Continuing relevance

Research on poverty has demonstrated that a substantial amount of people in both the United Kingdom and the United States are in poverty at any one time, and that there is a clear link between socio-economic structures and the persistence of poverty in modern societies.

Signposting and related posts

Poverty is one of the most important concepts within A-level sociology.

I teach poverty along with the related concept of relative deprivation as part of my introduction to sociology module in first two weeks of the course.

You might like to read this post next to understand more about the extent of poverty in the UK.

Having a critical understanding the concept of poverty in society is crucial to understanding how social class affects life chances.

The concept is especially relevant to the Marxist theory of society.

It is directly relevant to the concept of material deprivation in education, as a part explanation of why so many children do so badly at school, and the related concept of relative deprivation is part of left realist explanations of crime.

It is also absolutely integral to the global development module which is all about explaining why some countries are poor while others are rich!

Sources/ Find out More

(1) Giddens and Sutton (2017) Essential Concepts in Sociology

Источник


Asked by: Mr. Kurtis Schneider

Score: 4.4/5
(57 votes)

Poverty is the state of not having enough material possessions or income for a person’s basic needs. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects.

What is the official definition of poverty?

What Is Poverty? Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living. Poverty means that the income level from employment is so low that basic human needs can’t be met.

What are the 3 types of poverty?

On the basis of social, economical and political aspects, there are different ways to identify the type of Poverty:

  • Absolute poverty.
  • Relative Poverty.
  • Situational Poverty.
  • Generational Poverty.
  • Rural Poverty.
  • Urban Poverty.

What is poverty definition essay?

Poverty is a social problem with the fact that most of the people have limited economic resources and their standard of living is low. The people have been deprived of modern facilities in education, health, communication and good food. … It is a social problem because they have failed to increase their income resources.

What is the dictionary definition of poverty?

noun. the state or condition of having little or no money, goods, or means of support; condition of being poor. deficiency of necessary or desirable ingredients, qualities, etc.: poverty of the soil.

38 related questions found

What is poverty easy words?

Poverty is the state of not having enough material possessions or income for a person’s basic needs. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects.

What is poverty grammar?

noun. noun. /ˈpɑvərt̮i/ 1[uncountable] the state of being poor conditions of abject/extreme poverty to alleviate/relieve poverty Many elderly people live in poverty.

Why is poverty so important?

Poverty is associated with a host of health risks, including elevated rates of heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, infant mortality, mental illness, undernutrition, lead poisoning, asthma, and dental problems.

What is poverty and its causes?

Hint: A condition or state in which a person or a community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living is known as Poverty. Poverty means that the income level from employment is so low that basic human needs can’t be met.

What are the means of overcoming poverty?

Providing all people with access to basic social services including education, health care, adequate food, sanitation, shelter and clean water. Progressively developing social protection systems to support those who cannot support themselves.

What are the 10 causes of poverty?

10 Common Root Causes of Poverty

  • #1. Lack of good jobs/job growth. …
  • #2: Lack of good education. The second root cause of poverty is a lack of education. …
  • #3: Warfare/conflict. …
  • #4: Weather/climate change. …
  • #5: Social injustice. …
  • #6: Lack of food and water. …
  • #7: Lack of infrastructure. …
  • #8: Lack of government support.

What are two major types of poverty?

Two Main Classifications of Poverty – Absolute vs Relative Poverty. Both of these two types of poverty are focused on income and consumption. However, sometimes poverty is not only to do with economics, but it is also connected with society and politics.

What is the example of poverty?

Poverty is the state of being poor, having little money or being in need of a specific quality. An example of poverty is the state a person is in when he is homeless and has no money or assets. The state of being poor; lack of the means of providing material needs or comforts. Smallness in amount; scarcity; paucity.

Who defines poverty?

If a family’s total income is less than the family’s threshold, then that family and every individual in it is considered in poverty. … The official poverty definition uses money income before taxes and does not include capital gains or noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps).

What is poverty line class 9?

Poverty Line It is an imaginary line used by any country to determine its poverty. Poor It is person which lacks the financial resources and essential things to enjoy. Calories and Rupees fixed for rural and urban areas to measure poverty line.

What are 5 causes of poverty?

What Causes Poverty?

  • Lack of shelter.
  • Limited access to clean water resources.
  • Food insecurity.
  • Physical disabilities.
  • Lack of access to health care.
  • Unemployment.
  • Absence of social services.
  • Gender discrimination.

What are effects of poverty?

Poverty is linked with negative conditions such as substandard housing, homelessness, inadequate nutrition and food insecurity, inadequate child care, lack of access to health care, unsafe neighborhoods, and underresourced schools which adversely impact our nation’s children.

What is poverty causes and solutions?

A low income is a major cause of poverty. If you are earning a low income, you will not be able to save money and invest it in order to increase your wealth. Moreover, in countries with a quite low income, people will often not be able to provide for basic needs like enough food or for the treatment of diseases.

Why is poverty education important?

Education is often referred to as the great equalizer: It can open the door to jobs, resources, and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. Access to high-quality primary education and supporting child well-being is a globally-recognized solution to the cycle of poverty.

What are the main issues of poverty?

Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion as well as the lack of participation in decision-making.

What is the importance of no poverty?

The contribution of science to end poverty has been significant. For example, it has enabled access to safe drinking water, reduced deaths caused by water-borne diseases, and improved hygiene to reduce health risks related to unsafe drinking water and lack of sanitation.

Which form of poor is poverty?

It is an adjective. «A poor man.» The noun form of poor is poverty. «Many people in the world still live in poverty.»

Which kind of noun is poverty?

The quality or state of being poor or indigent; want or scarcity of means of subsistence; indigence; need.

What is the verb form of poverty?

impoverish. to reduce to poverty: a country impoverished by war. to make poor in quality, productiveness, etc.; exhaust the strength or richness of: Bad farming practices impoverished the soil.

Источник

Like this post? Please share to your friends:
  • What does the word political mean
  • What does the word policing mean
  • What does the word please mean
  • What does the word pleasant
  • What does the word planet means