What does the word god

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Earliest attestation of the Germanic word in the 6th-century Codex Argenteus (Mt 5:34)

The English word god comes from the Old English god, which itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic *ǥuđán. Its cognates in other Germanic languages include guþ, gudis (both Gothic), guð (Old Norse), god (Old Saxon, Old Frisian, and Old Dutch), and got (Old High German).

Etymology[edit]

The Proto-Germanic meaning of *ǥuđán and its etymology is uncertain. It is generally agreed that it derives from a Proto-Indo-European neuter passive perfect participle *ǵʰu-tó-m. This form within (late) Proto-Indo-European itself was possibly ambiguous, and thought to derive from a root *ǵʰeu̯- «to pour, libate» (the idea survives in the Dutch word, ‘Giet’, meaning, to pour) (Sanskrit huta, see hotṛ), or from a root *ǵʰau̯- (*ǵʰeu̯h2—) «to call, to invoke» (Sanskrit hūta). Sanskrit hutá = «having been sacrificed», from the verb root hu = «sacrifice», but a slight shift in translation gives the meaning «one to whom sacrifices are made.»

Depending on which possibility is preferred, the pre-Christian meaning of the Germanic term may either have been (in the «pouring» case) «libation» or «that which is libated upon, idol» — or, as Watkins[1] opines in the light of Greek χυτη γαια «poured earth» meaning «tumulus», «the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound» — or (in the «invoke» case) «invocation, prayer» (compare the meanings of Sanskrit brahman) or «that which is invoked».

Gaut[edit]

A significant number of scholars have connected this root with the names of three related Germanic tribes: the Geats, the Goths and the Gutar. These names may be derived from an eponymous chieftain Gaut, who was subsequently deified.[citation needed] He also sometimes appears in early Medieval sagas as a name of Odin or one of his descendants, a former king of the Geats (Gaut(i)), an ancestor of the Gutar (Guti), of the Goths (Gothus) and of the royal line of Wessex (Geats) and as a previous hero of the Goths (Gapt).

Wōdanaz[edit]

Some variant forms of the name Odin such as the Lombardic Godan may point in the direction that the Lombardic form actually comes from Proto-Germanic *ǥuđánaz. Wōdanaz or Wōđinaz is the reconstructed Proto-Germanic name of a god of Germanic paganism, known as Odin in Norse mythology, Wōden in Old English, Wodan or Wotan in Old High German and Godan in the Lombardic language. Godan was shortened to God over time and was adopted/retained by the Germanic peoples of the British isles as the name of their deity, in lieu of the Latin word Deus used by the Latin speaking Christian church, after conversion to Christianity.

During the complex christianization of the Germanic tribes of Europe, there were many linguistic influences upon the Christian missionaries. One example post downfall of the western Roman Empire are the missionaries from Rome led by Augustine of Canterbury. Augustine’s mission to the Saxons in southern Britain was conducted at a time when the city of Rome was a part of a Lombardic kingdom. The translated Bibles which they brought on their mission were greatly influenced by the Germanic tribes they were in contact with, chief among them being the Lombards and Franks. The translation for the word deus of the Latin Bible was influenced by the then current usage by the tribes for their highest deity, namely Wodan by Angles, Saxons, and Franks of north-central and western Europe, and Godan by the Lombards of south-central Europe around Rome. There are many instances where the name Godan and Wodan are contracted to God and Wod.[2] One instance is the wild hunt (a.k.a. Wodan’s wild hunt) where Wod is used.[3][4]

The earliest uses of the word God in Germanic writing is often cited to be in the Gothic Bible or Wulfila Bible, which is the Christian Bible as translated by Ulfilas into the Gothic language spoken by the Eastern Germanic, or Gothic, tribes. The oldest parts of the Gothic Bible, contained in the Codex Argenteus, are estimated to be from the fourth century. During the fourth century, the Goths were converted to Christianity, largely through the efforts of Bishop Ulfilas, who translated the Bible into the Gothic language in Nicopolis ad Istrum in today’s northern Bulgaria. The words guda and guþ were used for God in the Gothic Bible.

Influence of Christianity[edit]

God entered English when the language still had a system of grammatical gender. The word and its cognates were initially neuter but underwent transition when their speakers converted to Christianity, «as a means of distinguishing the personal God of the Christians from the impersonal divine powers acknowledged by pagans.»[5]: 15  However, traces of the neuter endured. While these words became syntactically masculine, so that determiners and adjectives connected to them took masculine endings, they sometimes remained morphologically neuter, which could be seen in their inflections: In the phrase, guþ meins, «my God,» from the Gothic Bible, for example, guþ inflects as if it were still a neuter because it lacks a final -s, but the possessive adjective meins takes the final -s that it would with other masculine nouns.[5]: 15 

God and its cognates likely had a general, predominantly plural or collective sense prior to conversion to Christianity. After conversion, the word was commonly used in the singular to refer to the Christian deity, and also took on characteristics of a name.[5]: 15–16 [6]

Translations[edit]

The word god was used to represent Greek theos and Latin deus in Bible translations, first in the Gothic translation of the New Testament by Ulfilas. For the etymology of deus, see *dyēus.

Greek «θεός » (theos) means god in English. It is often connected with Greek «θέω» (theō), «run»,[7][8] and «θεωρέω» (theoreō), «to look at, to see, to observe»,[9][10] Latin feriae «holidays», fanum «temple», and also Armenian di-k` «gods». Alternative suggestions (e.g. by De Saussure) connect *dhu̯es- «smoke, spirit», attested in Baltic and Germanic words for «spook» and ultimately cognate with Latin fumus «smoke.» The earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek te-o[11] (plural te-o-i[12]), written in Linear B syllabic script.

Capitalization[edit]

KJV of 1611 (Psalms 23:1,2): Occurrence of «LORD» (and «God» in the heading)

The development of English orthography was dominated by Christian texts. Capitalized, «God» was first used to refer to the Abrahamic God and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the Arabic Allāh, Persian Khuda, Indic Ishvara and the Maasai Ngai.

In the English language, capitalization is used for names by which a god is known, including ‘God’. Consequently, its capitalized form is not used for multiple gods or when referring to the generic idea of a deity.[13][14]

Pronouns referring to a god are also often capitalized by adherents to a religion as an indication of reverence, and are traditionally in the masculine gender («He», «Him», «His» etc) unless specifically referring to a goddess.[15][16]

See also[edit]

  • Anglo-Saxon paganism
  • Allah (Arabic word)
  • Bhagavan (Hindi word)
  • El (deity) (Semitic word)
  • Elohim
  • Goddess
  • Jumala (Finnish word)
  • Khuda (Persian word)
  • Names of God
  • Tanri (Turkish word)
  • Yahweh
  • YHWH

References[edit]

  1. ^ Watkins, Calvert, ed., The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000.
  2. ^ A New System of Geography, Or a General Description of the World by Daniel Fenning, Joseph Collyer 1765
  3. ^ See the chant in the Medieval and Early Modern folklore section of the Wikipedia entry for Wōden.
  4. ^ Northern Mythology, Comprising the Principal Popular Traditions and Superstitions of Scandinavia, North Germany and the Netherlands: Compiled from Original and Other Sources. In Three Volumes. North German and Netherlandish Popular Traditions and Superstitions, Volume 3, 1852
  5. ^ a b c Green, D. H. (1998). Language and History in the Early Germanic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521794237.
  6. ^ «god». Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  7. ^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  8. ^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  9. ^ θεωρέω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  10. ^ Dermot Moran, The Philosophy of John Scottus Eriugena: A Study of Idealism in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press
  11. ^ Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages
  12. ^ Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages
  13. ^ Webster’s New World Dictionary; «God n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * ĝhau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty»
  14. ^ Dictionary.com; «God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony.»
  15. ^ The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge. The New York Times. 25 October 2011. ISBN 9780312643027. Retrieved 27 December 2011. Pronoun references to a deity worshiped by people in the present are sometimes capitalized, although some writers use capitals only to prevent confusion: God helped Abraham carry out His law.
  16. ^ Alcoholic Thinking: language, culture, and belief in Alcoholics Anonymous. Greenwood Publishing Group. 1998. ISBN 9780275960490. Retrieved 27 December 2011. Traditional biblical translations that always capitalize the word «God» and the pronouns, «He,» «Him,» and «His» in reference to God itself and the use of archaic forms such as «Thee,» «Thou,» and «Thy» are familiar.

External links[edit]

Look up God in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

  • Use of guþ n the Gothic Bible.
  • Use of guda n the Gothic Bible.
  • Gothic language and its relation to other Germanic languages such as Anglish (English) and Saxon
Источник

This article is about the belief in a supreme being in monotheistic thought. For the general faith in a supreme being, see Deity. For God in specific religions, see Conceptions of God. For other uses, see God (disambiguation).

In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith.[1] In non-monotheistic thought, a god is «a spirit or being believed to control some part of the universe or life and often worshipped for doing so, or something that represents this spirit or being».[2][3]

Views regarding God vary considerably. Many notable theologians and philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.[4] Atheism rejects the belief in any deity. Agnosticism is the belief that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable. Among theists, some view knowledge concerning God as something derived from faith and God is often conceived as the greatest existent.[1] God is often believed to be the cause of all things and so is seen as the creator and sustainer and the ruler of the universe. God is often thought of as incorporeal and independent of the material creation[1][5][6] while pantheism holds God is the universe itself. God is sometimes seen as the most benevolent, while deism holds that God is not involved in humanity apart from creation.

Some traditions attach spiritual significance to the relationship with God and see God as the source of all moral obligation, with acts such as worship and prayer.[1] God is sometimes described without reference to gender, while others use terminology that is gender-specific. God is referred to by different names depending on the language and cultural tradition with titles also used to refer to different attributes.

Etymology and usage

The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh.

The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic *ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form *ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root *ǵhau(ə)-, which meant either «to call» or «to invoke».[7] The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—applying to both genders—but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.[8] In the English language, capitalization is used when the word is used as a proper noun, as well as for other names by which a god is known.[9] Consequently, the capitalized form of god is not used for multiple gods or when used to refer to the generic idea of a deity.[10][11]
The English word God and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all.

El means God in Hebrew, but in Judaism and in Christianity, God is also given a personal name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin possibly the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh.[12] In many English translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.[13] Jah or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh, and often sees usage by Jews and Christians in the interjection «Hallelujah», meaning «Praise Jah», which is used to give God glory.[14] In Judaism some of the Hebrew titles of God are considered holy names.

Allāh (Arabic: الله) is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning «The God», while ʾilāh (Arabic: إِلَٰه plural `āliha آلِهَة) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[15][16][17] Muslims also use a multitude of other titles for God.

In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic concept of God.[18] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[19] Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa is the term used in Balinese Hinduism.[20]

In Chinese religion, Shangdi is conceived as the progenitor (first ancestor) of the universe, intrinsic to it and constantly bringing order to it.

Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. «Mazda», or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh (female). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means «intelligence» or «wisdom». Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning «placing (dʰeh1) one’s mind (*mn̩-s)», hence «wise».[21] Meanwhile 101 other names are also in use.[22]

Waheguru (Punjabi: vāhigurū) is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God.[23] It means «Wonderful Teacher» in the Punjabi language. Vāhi (a Middle Persian borrowing) means «wonderful» and guru (Sanskrit: guru) is a term denoting «teacher». Waheguru is also described by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all descriptions. The most common usage of the word «Waheguru» is in the greeting Sikhs use with each other — Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh «Wonderful Lord’s Khalsa, Victory is to the Wonderful Lord.»

Baha, the «greatest» name for God in the Baháʼí Faith, is Arabic for «All-Glorious».[24]

Other names for God include Aten[25] in ancient Egyptian Atenism where Aten was proclaimed to be the one «true» supreme being and creator of the universe,[26] Chukwu in Igbo,[27] and Hayyi Rabbi in Mandaeism.[28][29]

General conceptions

Existence

Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities.[30][31] Agnosticism is the view that the truth values of certain claims—especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist—are unknown and perhaps unknowable.[32][33][34][35] Theism generally holds that God exists objectively and independently of human thought and is sometimes used to refer to any belief in God or gods.[36][37]

Some view the existence of God as an empirical question. Richard Dawkins states that «a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference.»[38] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator (not necessarily a God) would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old.[39] Some theologians, such as Alister McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[40][41] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argued that science and religion are not in conflict and proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called «non-overlapping magisteria» (NOMA).[42] In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world.[43] Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their 2010 book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.[44][45]

Ontological arguments refer to any argument for the existence of God that is based on a priori reasoning.[46] Notable ontological arguments were formulated by Anselm and René Descartes.[47] Cosmological arguments, such as those described below, utilizes concepts around the origin of the universe to argue for the existence of God.

The Teleological argument, also called the ‘’argument from design’’, utilizes the complexity within the universe as a proof of the existence of God.[48] It is countered that the fine tuning required for a stable universe with life on earth is illusionary as humans are only able to observe the small part of this universe that succeeded in making such observation possible, called the anthropic principle, and so would not learn of, for example, life on other planets or of universes that did not occur because of different laws of physics.[49] Non-theists have argued that complex processes that have natural explanations yet to be discovered are referred to the supernatural, called god of the gaps. Other theists, such as John Henry Newman who believed theistic evolution was acceptable, have also argued against versions of the teleological argument and held that it is limiting of God to view him having to only intervene specially in some instances rather than having complex processes designed to create order.[50]

The Argument from beauty states that this universe happens to contain special beauty in it and that there would be no particular reason for this over aesthetically neutrality other than God.[51] This has been countered by pointing to the existence of ugliness in the universe.[52] This has also been countered by arguing that beauty has no objective reality and so the Universe could be seen as ugly or that humans have made what is more beautiful than nature.[53]

The Argument from morality argues for the existence of God given the assumption of the objective existence of morals.[54] While prominent non-theistic philosophers such as the atheist J. L. Mackie agreed that the argument is valid, they disagreed with its premises. Concerning the assumption of objective morals, David Hume argued that there is no basis to believe in objective moral truths while biologist E. O. Wilson theorized that the feelings of morality is a by product of natural selection in humans and would not exist independent of the mind.[55] Philosopher Michael Lou Martin argued that a subjective account for morality can be acceptable and also opposed the premise that objective morality entails God pointing out that the argument can similarly entail the existence of polytheistic deities instead. Similar to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience which argues for the existence of God given the existence of a conscience that informs of right and wrong. Philosopher John Locke argued that conscience is a social construct and thus would lead to contradicting morals.[56]

Oneness

Trinitarians believe that God is composed of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

A deity, or «god» (with lowercase g), refers to a supernatural being.[57] Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, referred to as ‘’God’’ (with uppercase g). Monotheistic traditions view God as incomparable and idolatry, equating others to God in some way, is often strongly condemned. Judaism includes some of the oldest monotheistic traditions in the world.[58] Islam’s most fundamental concept is tawhid meaning «oneness» or «uniqueness».[59] The first pillar of Islam is an oath that forms the basis of the religion and which non-Muslims wishing to convert must recite, declares that «I testify that there is no deity except God.»[60]

In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God as one God in Father, Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit.[61] In the past centuries, this fundamental mystery of the Christian faith was also summarized by the Latin formula Sancta Trinitas, Unus Deus (Holy Trinity, Unique God), reported in the Litanias Lauretanas. God in Hinduism is viewed differently by diverse strands of the religion with most Hindus having faith in a supreme reality (Brahman) who can be manifested in numerous chosen deities. Thus, the religion is sometimes characterized as Polymorphic Monotheism.[62] Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god at a time while accepting the validity of worshiping other deities.[63] Monolatry is the belief in only a single deity worthy of worship while accepting the existence of other dieties.[64]

Transcendence

Transcendence is the aspect of God’s nature that is completely independent of the material universe and its physical laws. Many supposed characteristics of God are described in human terms. Anselm thought that God did not feel emotions such as anger or love, but appeared to do so through our imperfect understanding. The incongruity of judging «being» against something that might not exist, led many medieval philosophers approach to knowledge of God through negative attributes, called Negative theology. For example, one should not say that God is wise, but can say that God is not ignorant (i.e. in some way God has some properties of knowledge). Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that one has to understand a «personal god» as an analogy. «To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe.»[65]

Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God and denies that God transcends the Universe.[66] For famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[67][68] Pantheism is sometimes objected to as not providing any meaningful explanation of God with the German philosopher Schopenhauer stating “Pantheism is only a euphemism for atheism”.[69] Pandeism holds that God was a separate entity but then became the Universe.[70][71] Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.[72][73]

Creator

God Blessing the Seventh Day, 1805 watercolor painting by William Blake

God is often viewed as the cause of all that exists. For Pythagoreans, Monad variously referred to divinity, the first being or an indivisible origin.[74] The philosophy of Plato and Plotinus refers to “The One” which is the first principle of reality that is ‘’beyond’’ being[75] and is both the source of the Universe and the teleological purpose of all things.[76] Aristotle theorized a first uncaused cause for all motion in the universe and viewed it as perfectly beautiful, immaterial, unchanging and indivisible. Aseity is the property of not depending on any cause other than itself for its existence. Avicenna held that there must be a necessarily existent guaranteed to exist by its essence- it cannot ‘’not’’ exist – and that humans identify this as God.[77] Secondary causation refers to God creating the laws of the Universe which then can change themselves within the framework of those laws. In addition to the initial creation, occasionalism refers to the idea that the Universe would not by default continue to exist from one instant to the next and so would need to rely on God as a sustainer. While divine providence refers to any intervention by God it is usually used to refer to «special providence» where there is an extraordinary intervention by God, such as miracles.[78][79]

Benevolence

Deism holds that God exists but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it,[80] such as answering prayers or producing miracles. Deists sometimes attribute this to God having no interest in or not being aware of humanity. Pandeists would hold that God does not intervene because God is the Universe.[81]

Of those theists who hold that God has an interest in humanity, most hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent. This belief raises questions about God’s responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil.

Omniscience and omnipotence

Omnipotence (all-powerful) is an attribute often ascribed to God. The omnipotence paradox is most often framed with the example «Could God create a stone so heavy that even he could not lift it?» as God could either be unable to create that stone or lift that stone and so could not be omnipotent. This is often countered with variations of the argument that omnipotence, like any other attribute ascribed to God, only applies as far as it is noble enough to befit God and thus God cannot lie, or do what is contradictory as that would entail opposing himself.[82]

Omniscience (all-knowing) is an attribute often ascribed to
God. This implies that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, either their free will might be illusory or foreknowledge does not imply predestination, and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.[83] Open Theism limits God’s omniscience by contending that, due to the nature of time, God’s omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future and process theology holds that God does not have immutability, so is affected by his creation.

Other concepts

Classical theists (such as ancient Greco-Medieval philosophers, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, many Jews and Muslims, and some Protestants)[a] speak of God as a divinely simple ‘nothing’ that is completely transcendent (totally independent of all else), and having attributes such as immutability, impassibility, and timelessness.[86] Theologians of theistic personalism (the view held by Rene Descartes, Isaac Newton, Alvin Plantinga, Richard Swinburne, William Lane Craig, and most modern evangelicals) argue that God is most generally the ground of all being, immanent in and transcendent over the whole world of reality, with immanence and transcendence being the contrapletes of personality.[87]

God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the «greatest conceivable existent».[1] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[84] Augustine of Hippo,[84] and Al-Ghazali,[4] respectively.

Non-theistic views

Religious traditions

Jainism has generally rejected creationism, holding that soul substances (Jīva) are uncreated and that time is beginningless.[88] Some interpretations and traditions of Buddhism can be conceived as being non-theistic. Buddhism has generally rejected the specific monotheistic view of a Creator God. The Buddha criticizes the theory of creationism in the early Buddhist texts.[89][90] Also, major Indian Buddhist philosophers, such as Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, Dharmakirti and Buddhaghosa, consistently critiqued Creator God views put forth by Hindu thinkers.[91][92][93]

Anthropology

Some atheists have argued that a single, omniscient God who is imagined to have created the universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of humans has been imagined, embellished and promulgated in a trans-generational manner.[94]

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[95]Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer’s explanatory model matches physics’ epistemology in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.[96]Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one’s father.[97]

Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[98]

Neuroscience and psychology

Sam Harris has interpreted some findings in neuroscience to argue that God is an imaginary entity only, with no basis in reality.[99]

Johns Hopkins researchers studying the effects of the “spirit molecule” DMT, which is both an endogenous molecule in the human brain and the active molecule in the psychedelic ayahuasca, found that a large majority of respondents said DMT brought them into contact with a «conscious, intelligent, benevolent, and sacred entity,» and describe interactions that oozed joy, trust, love, and kindness. More than half of those who had previously self-identified as atheists described some type of belief in a higher power or God after the experience.[100]

About a quarter of those afflicted by temporal lobe seizures experience what is described as a religious experience[101] and may become preoccupied by thoughts of God even if they were not previously. Neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran hypothesizes that seizures in the temporal lobe, which is closely connected to the emotional center of the brain, the limbic system, may lead to those afflicted to view even banal objects with heightened meaning.[102]

Psychologists studying feelings of awe found that participants feeling awe after watching scenes of natural wonders become more likely to believe in a supernatural being and to see events as the result of design, even when given randomly generated numbers.[103]

Relationship with creation

Worship

Theistic religious traditions often require worship of God and sometimes hold that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[104][105] To address the issue of an all-powerful being demanding to be worshipped, it is held that God does not need or benefit from worship but that worship is for the benefit of the worshipper.[106] Gandhi expressed the view that God does not need his supplication and that «Prayer is not an asking. It is a longing of the soul. It is a daily admission of one’s weakness».[107] Invoking God in prayer plays a significant role among many believers. Depending on the tradition, God can be viewed as a personal God who is only to be invoked directly while other traditions allow praying to intermediaries, such as saints, to intercede on their behalf. Prayer often also includes supplication such as asking forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[108] Sacrifice for the sake of God is another act of devotion that includes fasting and almsgiving. Remembrance of God in daily life include mentioning interjections thanking God when feeling gratitude or phrases of adoration such as repeating chants while performing other activities.

Salvation

Transtheistic religious traditions may believe in the existence of deities but deny any spiritual significance to them. The term has been used to describe certain strands of Buddhism,[109] Jainism and Stoicism.[110]

Among religions that do attach spirituality to the relationship with God disagree as how to best worship God and what is God’s plan for mankind. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in the Baháʼí Faith, Hinduism[111] and Sikhism.[112] The Baháʼí Faith preaches that divine manifestations include great prophets and teachers of many of the major religious traditions such as Krishna, Buddha, Jesus, Zoroaster, Muhammad, Bahá’ú’lláh and also preaches the unity of all religions and focuses on these multiple epiphanies as necessary for meeting the needs of humanity at different points in history and for different cultures, and as part of a scheme of progressive revelation and education of humanity. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one’s religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.

Epistemology

Faith

As opposed to the evidentialist position taken by those such as Richard Swinburne, faith in God is also sometimes held to be «properly basic».[113] Some theists agree that only some of the arguments for God’s existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God’s existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by Pascal as «the heart has reasons of which reason does not know.»[114] Inherent intuition about God is referred to in Islam as fitra, or “innate nature”.[115] In Confucian tradition, Confucius and Mencius promoted that the only justification for right conduct, called the Way, is what is dictated by Heaven, a more or less anthropomorphic higher power, and is implanted in humans and thus there is only one universal foundation for the Way.[116]

Revelation

Revelation refers to some form of message communicated by God. This is usually proposed to occur through the use of prophets or angels. Al-Maturidi argued for the need for revelation because even though humans are intellectually capable of realizing God, human desire can divert the intellect and because certain knowledge cannot be known except for been specially given to prophets.[117] The term General revelation is used to refer to knowledge revealed about God outside of direct or special revelation such as scriptures. Notably, this includes studying nature, sometimes seen as the Book of Nature.[118] An idiom in Arabic states, «The Qur’an is a Universe that speaks. The Universe is a silent Qur’an».[119]

Reason

Traditionalist theology holds that one should not opinionate beyond revelation to understand God’s nature and frown upon rationalizations such as speculative theology.[120] Notably, for anthropomorphic descriptions such as the “Hand of God” and attributes of God, they neither nullify such texts nor accept a literal hand but leave any ambiguity to God, called tafwid, without asking how.[121][122] Prima scriptura is the doctrine that biblical canon is the primary guide over other sources such as reason or expert opinion while Sola scriptura is the doctrine that the Bible is the only source of authority for the Christian faith and practice.[123]

Specific characteristics

Titles

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, «the Bible has been the principal source of the conceptions of God». That the Bible «includes many different images, concepts, and ways of thinking about» God has resulted in perpetual «disagreements about how God is to be conceived and understood».[124] Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are titles for God, who revealed his personal name as YHWH (often vocalized as Yahweh or Jehovah).[12] One of them is Elohim. Another one is El Shaddai, translated «God Almighty».[125] A third notable title is El Elyon, which means «The High God».[126] Also noted in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles is the name «I Am that I Am».[127][12]

God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning «Most Compassionate» and Al-Rahim, meaning «Most Merciful».[128] Many of these names are also used in the scriptures of the Baháʼí Faith.

Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has a list of titles and names of Krishna.

Gender

The gender of God may be viewed as either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a deity who, in classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[129][130] Polytheistic religions commonly attribute to each of the gods a gender, allowing each to interact with any of the others, and perhaps with humans, sexually. In most monotheistic religions, God has no counterpart with which to relate sexually. Thus, in classical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to the receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[131]

Biblical sources usually refer to God using male or paternal words and symbolism, except Genesis 1:26–27,[132][133] Psalm 123:2–3, and Luke 15:8–10 (female); Hosea 11:3–4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2 (a mother); Deuteronomy 32:11–12 (a mother eagle); and Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34 (a mother hen).

Depiction

Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE)

In Zoroastrianism, during the early Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was visually represented for worship. This practice ended during the beginning of the Sasanian Empire. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda continued to be symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback, which is found in Sassanian investiture.[134]

Deities from Near Eastern cultures are often thought of as anthropomorphic entities who have a human like body which is, however, not equal to a human body. Such bodies were often thought to be radiant or fiery, of superhuman size or extreme beauty. The ancient deity of the Israelites (Yahweh) too was imagined as a transcendent but still anthropomorphic deity.[135] Humans could not see him, because of their impurity in contrast to Yahweh’s holiness, Yahweh being described as radiating fire and light which could kill a human if looking at him. Further, more religious or spiritual people tend to have less anthropomorphic depictions of God.[136] In Judaism, the Torah often ascribes human features to God, however, many other passages describe God as formless and otherworldly. Judaism is aniconic, meaning it overly lacks material, physical representations of both the natural and supernatural worlds. Furthermore, the worship of idols is strictly forbidden. The traditional view, elaborated by figures such as Maimonides, reckons that God is wholly incomprehensible and therefore impossible to envision, resulting in a historical tradition of «divine incorporeality». As such, attempting to describe God’s «appearance» in practical terms is considered disrespectful to the deity and thus is deeply taboo, and arguably heretical.[citation needed]

Gnostic cosmogony often depicts the creator god of the Old Testament as an evil lesser deity or Demiurge, while the higher benevolent god or Monad is thought of as something beyond comprehension having immeasurable light and not in time or among things that exist, but rather is greater than them in a sense. All people are said to have a piece of God or divine spark within them which has fallen from the immaterial world into the corrupt material world and is trapped unless gnosis is attained.[137][138][139]

Early Christians believed that the words of the Gospel of John 1:18: «No man has seen God at any time» and numerous other statements were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts at the depiction of God.[140] However, later depictions of God are found. Some, like the Hand of God, are depiction borrowed from Jewish art. Prior to the 10th century no attempt was made to use a human to symbolize God the Father in Western art.[140] Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century AD. A rationale for the use of a human is the belief that God created the soul of man in the image of his own (thus allowing human to transcend the other animals). It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.[141] By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French illuminated manuscripts, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in stained glass church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the Baptism of Christ on the famous baptismal font in Liège of Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in Giotto’s fresco of c. 1305 in Padua.[142] In the 14th century the Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the Father in the Burning bush. By the early 15th century, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the Garden of Eden, which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The «Gates of Paradise» of the Florence Baptistry by Lorenzo Ghiberti, begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of Hours of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis altarpiece by the Hamburg painter Meister Bertram, continued to use the old depiction of Christ as Logos in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ. In a Trinitarian Pietà, God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms.[143] In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the Great Moscow Council specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,[144][145] mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the «Ancient of Days» was Christ, as Logos, not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as Greece, Romania, and other Orthodox countries.

In Islam, Muslims believe that God (Allah) is beyond all comprehension and equal, and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Muslims tend to use the least anthropomorphism among monotheists.[136] They are not iconodules and have religious calligraphy of titles of God instead of pictures.[146]

See also

  • All pages with titles beginning with God
  • Absolute (philosophy)
  • Apeiron (cosmology)
  • Deity
  • Demigod
  • God complex
  • God (disambiguation)
  • God (word)
  • Relationship between religion and science

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ The attributes of the God of classical theism[clarification needed] were all claimed to varying degrees by early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including Maimonides,[84] St Augustine,[84] and Al-Ghazali.[85]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e Swinburne, R.G. «God» in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995.
  2. ^ «god». Cambridge Dictionary.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  3. ^ «Definition of GOD». www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  4. ^ a b Plantinga, Alvin. «God, Arguments for the Existence of», Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
  5. ^ David Bordwell (2002). Catechism of the Catholic Church, Continuum International Publishing ISBN 978-0-86012-324-8 p. 84
  6. ^ «Catechism of the Catholic Church – IntraText». Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
  7. ^ The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. «ghuba» implies as its preTeut-type either «*ghodho-m» or «*ghodto-m». The former does not appear to admit of explanation; but the latter would represent the neut. pple. of a root «gheu-«. There are two Aryan roots of the required form («*g,heu-» with palatal aspirate) one with meaning ‘to invoke’ (Skr. «hu») the other ‘to pour, to offer sacrifice’ (Skr «hu», Gr. χεηi;ν, OE «geotàn» Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267
  8. ^ Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words, p. 323. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7
  9. ^ «‘God’ in Merriam-Webster (online)». Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
  10. ^ Webster’s New World Dictionary; «God n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base *ĝhau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty»
  11. ^ Dictionary.com Archived 19 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine; «God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony.»
  12. ^ a b c Parke-Taylor, G. H. (1 January 2006). Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-88920-652-6. The Old Testament contains various titles and surrogates for God, such as El Shaddai, El Elyon, Haqqadosh (The Holy One), and Adonai. In chapter three, consideration will be given to names ascribed to God in the patriarchal period. Gerhard von Rad reminds us that these names became secondary after the name YHWH had been known to Israel, for «these rudimentary names which derive from old traditions, and from the oldest of them, never had the function of extending the name so as to stand alongside the name Jahweh to serve as fuller forms of address; rather, they were occasionally made use of in place of the name Jahweh.» In this respect YHWH stands in contrast to the principal deities of the Babylonians and the Egyptians. «Jahweh had only one name; Marduk had fifty with which his praises as victor over Tiamat were sung in hymns. Similarly, the Egyptian god Re is the god with many names.
  13. ^ Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social and Religious. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4286-1575-5.
  14. ^ Loewen, Jacob A. (1 June 2020). The Bible in Cross Cultural Perspective (Revised ed.). William Carey Publishing. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-64508-304-7. Shorter forms of Yahweh: The name Yahweh also appears in a shortened form, transliterated Jah (pronounced Yah) in the Revised Version and the American Standard Version, either in the text or footnote: «my song is Jah» (Ex 15:2); «by Jah, his name» (Ps 68:4); «I shall not see Jah in Jah’s land (Is 38:11). It is common also in such often untranslated compounds as hallelujah ‘praise Jah’ (Ps 135:3; 146:10, 148:14), and in proper names like Elijah, ‘my God is Jah,’ Adonijah, ‘my Lord is Jah,’ Isaiah, ‘Jah has saved.’
  15. ^ «God». Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
  16. ^ «Islam and Christianity», Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
  17. ^ L. Gardet. «Allah». Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
  18. ^ Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity – p. 136, Michael P. Levine – 2002
  19. ^ Hastings 2003, p. 540
  20. ^ McDaniel, June (2013), A Modern Hindu Monotheism: Indonesian Hindus as ‘People of the Book’. The Journal of Hindu Studies, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/jhs/hit030
  21. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 685.
  22. ^ The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam confidently with the cultured class, David S. Kidder, Noah D. Oppenheim, p. 364
  23. ^ Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism – p. ix, Kartar Singh Duggal – 1988
  24. ^ A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God : … – p. x, Baháʾuʾlláh, Joyce Watanabe – 2006
  25. ^ Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies, Stanford University Press 2005, p. 59
  26. ^ M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol. 2, 1980, p. 96
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  30. ^ Nielsen 2013: «Instead of saying that an atheist is someone who believes that it is false or probably false that there is a God, a more adequate characterization of atheism consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist is to be someone who rejects belief in God for the following reasons … : for an anthropomorphic God, the atheist rejects belief in God because it is false or probably false that there is a God; for a nonanthropomorphic God … because the concept of such a God is either meaningless, unintelligible, contradictory, incomprehensible, or incoherent; for the God portrayed by some modern or contemporary theologians or philosophers … because the concept of God in question is such that it merely masks an atheistic substance—e.g., «God» is just another name for love, or … a symbolic term for moral ideals.»
  31. ^ Edwards 2005: «On our definition, an ‘atheist’ is a person who rejects belief in God, regardless of whether or not his reason for the rejection is the claim that ‘God exists’ expresses a false proposition. People frequently adopt an attitude of rejection toward a position for reasons other than that it is a false proposition. It is common among contemporary philosophers, and indeed it was not uncommon in earlier centuries, to reject positions on the ground that they are meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is rejected on such grounds as that it is sterile or redundant or capricious, and there are many other considerations which in certain contexts are generally agreed to constitute good grounds for rejecting an assertion.»
  32. ^ Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist, was the first to come up with the word agnostic in 1869 Dixon, Thomas (2008). Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-929551-7. However, earlier authors and published works have promoted an agnostic points of view. They include Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher. «The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Protagoras (c. 490 – c. 420 BCE)». Archived from the original on 14 October 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2008. While the pious might wish to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment, that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and immorality of the conventional epic accounts of the gods. Protagoras’ prose treatise about the gods began ‘Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life.’
  33. ^ Hepburn, Ronald W. (2005) [1967]. «Agnosticism». In Donald M. Borchert (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA (Gale). p. 92. ISBN 978-0-02-865780-6. In the most general use of the term, agnosticism is the view that we do not know whether there is a God or not. (p. 56 in 1967 edition)
  34. ^ Rowe, William L. (1998). «Agnosticism». In Edward Craig (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. In the popular sense, an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God. In the strict sense, however, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist. In so far as one holds that our beliefs are rational only if they are sufficiently supported by human reason, the person who accepts the philosophical position of agnosticism will hold that neither the belief that God exists nor the belief that God does not exist is rational.
  35. ^ «agnostic, agnosticism». OED Online, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press. 2012. agnostic. : A. n[oun]. :# A person who believes that nothing is known or can be known of immaterial things, especially of the existence or nature of God. :# In extended use: a person who is not persuaded by or committed to a particular point of view; a sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate ideology or conviction; an equivocator. : B. adj[ective]. :# Of or relating to the belief that the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena is unknown and (as far as can be judged) unknowable. Also: holding this belief. :# a. In extended use: not committed to or persuaded by a particular point of view; sceptical. Also: politically or ideologically unaligned; non-partisan, equivocal. agnosticism n. The doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard to the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena or to knowledge of a First Cause or God.
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  70. ^ Alan H. Dawe (2011). The God Franchise: A Theory of Everything. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-473-20114-2. Pandeism: This is the belief that God created the universe, is now one with it, and so, is no longer a separate conscious entity. This is a combination of pantheism (God is identical to the universe) and deism (God created the universe and then withdrew Himself).
  71. ^ Paul Bradley (2011). This Strange Eventful History: A Philosophy of Meaning. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-87586-876-9. Pandeism combines the concepts of Deism and Pantheism with a god who creates the universe and then becomes it.
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  73. ^ Peter C. Rogers (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-4389-7968-7. As with Panentheism, Pantheism is derived from the Greek: ‘pan’= all and ‘theos’ = God, it literally means «God is All» and «All is God.» Pantheist purports that everything is part of an all-inclusive, indwelling, intangible God; or that the Universe, or nature, and God are the same. Further review helps to accentuate the idea that natural law, existence, and the Universe which is the sum total of all that is, was, and shall be, is represented in the theological principle of an abstract ‘god’ rather than an individual, creative Divine Being or Beings of any kind. This is the key element that distinguishes them from Panentheists and Pandeists. As such, although many religions may claim to hold Pantheistic elements, they are more commonly Panentheistic or Pandeistic in nature.
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  77. ^ Adamson, Peter (4 July 2013). «From the necessary existent to God». In Adamson, Peter (ed.). Interpreting Avicenna: Critical Essays. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-521-19073-2.
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  81. ^ Allan R. Fuller (2010). Thought: The Only Reality. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-60844-590-5. Pandeism is another belief that states that God is identical to the universe, but God no longer exists in a way where He can be contacted; therefore, this theory can only be proven to exist by reason. Pandeism views the entire universe as being from God and now the universe is the entirety of God, but the universe at some point in time will fold back into one single being which is God Himself that created all. Pandeism raises the question as to why would God create a universe and then abandon it? As this relates to pantheism, it raises the question of how did the universe come about what is its aim and purpose?
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  84. ^ a b c d Edwards, Paul. «God and the philosophers» in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-1-61592-446-2.
  85. ^ Plantinga, Alvin. «God, Arguments for the Existence of», Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
  86. ^ 1998, God, concepts of, Edward Craig, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor & Francis, [1]
  87. ^ «www.ditext.com». Archived from the original on 4 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  88. ^ Nayanar, Prof. A. Chakravarti (2005). Samayasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda. p.190, Gāthā 10.310, New Delhi: Today & Tomorrows Printer and Publisher.
  89. ^ Narada Thera (2006) «The Buddha and His Teachings,» pp. 268-269, Jaico Publishing House.
  90. ^ Hayes, Richard P., «Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition», Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar) p. 2.
  91. ^ Hsueh-Li Cheng. «Nāgārjuna’s Approach to the Problem of the Existence of God» in Religious Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Jun., 1976), pp. 207-216 (10 pages), Cambridge University Press.
  92. ^ Hayes, Richard P., «Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition», Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar.).
  93. ^ Harvey, Peter (2019). «Buddhism and Monotheism», p. 1. Cambridge University Press.
  94. ^ Culotta, E (2009). «The origins of religion». Science. 326 (5954): 784–87. Bibcode:2009Sci…326..784C. doi:10.1126/science.326_784. PMID 19892955.
  95. ^ Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained. New York: Basic Books. pp. 142–243. ISBN 978-0-465-00696-0. boyer modern soap opera.
  96. ^ du Castel, Bertrand; Jurgensen, Timothy M. (2008). Computer Theology. Austin, Texas: Midori Press. pp. 221–22. ISBN 978-0-9801821-1-8.
  97. ^ Barrett, Justin (1996). «Conceptualizing a Nonnatural Entity: Anthropomorphism in God Concepts» (PDF). Cognitive Psychology. 31 (3): 219–47. doi:10.1006/cogp.1996.0017. PMID 8975683. S2CID 7646340.
  98. ^ Rossano, Matt (2007). «Supernaturalizing Social Life: Religion and the Evolution of Human Cooperation» (PDF). Human Nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.). 18 (3): 272–94. doi:10.1007/s12110-007-9002-4. PMID 26181064. S2CID 1585551. Retrieved 25 June 2009.
  99. ^ Harris, S. The end of faith. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 2005. ISBN 0-393-03515-8
  100. ^ «A spiritual experience». 17 September 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  101. ^ Sample, Ian (23 February 2005). «Tests of faith». The Guardian. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  102. ^ Ramachandran, Vilayanur; Blakeslee, Sandra (1998). Phantoms in the brain. New York: HarperCollins. p. 174-187. ISBN 0-688-15247-3.
  103. ^ Kluger, Jeffrey (27 November 2013). «Why There Are No Atheists at the Grand Canyon». Time. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  104. ^ «Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence». Patheos.com. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  105. ^ Quran 51:56
  106. ^ «Salat: daily prayers». BBC. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  107. ^ Richards, Glyn (2005). The Philosophy of Gandhi: A Study of his Basic Ideas. Routledge. ISBN 1135799342.
  108. ^ «Allah would replace you with a people who sin». islamtoday.net. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  109. ^ Antonio Rigopoulos, The Life and Teachings of Sai Baba of Shirdi (1993), p. 372; J. L. (Ed) Houlden, Jesus: The Complete Guide (2005), p. 390
  110. ^ Writings on Religion, Walter de Gruyter (1988), p. 145.
  111. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1
  112. ^ «Sri Guru Granth Sahib». Sri Granth. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
  113. ^ Beaty, Michael (1991). «God Among the Philosophers». The Christian Century. Archived from the original on 9 January 2007. Retrieved 20 February 2007.
  114. ^ Pascal, Blaise. Pensées, 1669.
  115. ^ Jon Hoover, «Fiṭra» Archived 28 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine, EI3.
  116. ^ «The Second Sage». Aeon. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  117. ^ Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] ABC-CLIO 2017 ISBN 978-1-610-69217-5 page 1014
  118. ^ Hutchinson, Ian (14 January 1996). «Michael Faraday: Scientist and Nonconformist». Retrieved 30 November 2022. Faraday believed that in his scientific researches he was reading the book of nature, which pointed to its creator, and he delighted in it: `for the book of nature, which we have to read is written by the finger of God’.
  119. ^ Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur’an. Amana publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-59008-047-4.
  120. ^ Halverson (2010, p. 36).
  121. ^ Hoover, John (2020). «Early Mamlūk Ashʿarism against Ibn Taymiyya on the Nonliteral Reinterpretation (taʾwīl) of God’s Attributes». In Shihadeh, Ayman; Thiele, Jan (eds.). Philosophical Theology in Islam: Later Ashʿarism East and West. Islamicate Intellectual History. Vol. 5. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 195–230. doi:10.1163/9789004426610_009. ISBN 978-90-04-42661-0. ISSN 2212-8662. LCCN 2020008682. S2CID 219026357.
  122. ^ Halverson (2010, pp. 36–37).
  123. ^ Wisse, Maarten (2017). «PART I: Systematic Perspectives – Contra et Pro Sola Scriptura«. In Burger, Hans; Huijgen, Arnold; Peels, Eric (eds.). Sola Scriptura: Biblical and Theological Perspectives on Scripture, Authority, and Hermeneutics. Studies in Reformed Theology. Vol. 32. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 19–37. doi:10.1163/9789004356436_003. ISBN 978-90-04-35643-6. ISSN 1571-4799.
  124. ^ Francis Schüssler Fiorenza and Gordon D. Kaufman, «God», Ch 6, in Mark C. Taylor, ed, Critical Terms for Religious Studies (University of Chicago, 1998/2008), 136–40.
  125. ^ Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2
  126. ^ Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25
  127. ^ Exodus 3:13-15
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  129. ^ Aquinas, Thomas. «First part: Question 3: The simplicity of God: Article 1: Whether God is a body?». Summa Theologica. New Advent.
  130. ^ William G. T. Shedd, ed. (1885). «The Seventh». The Confessions of Augustine. Warren F. Draper.
  131. ^ Lang, David; Kreeft, Peter (2002). «Why Male Priests?». Why Matter Matters: Philosophical and Scriptural Reflections on the Sacraments. Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 978-1-931709-34-7.
  132. ^ Elaine H. Pagels «What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity» Archived 23 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine Signs, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976), pp. 293–303
  133. ^ Coogan, Michael (2010). «6. Fire in Divine Loins: God’s Wives in Myth and Metaphor». God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. Retrieved 5 May 2011. humans are modeled on elohim, specifically in their sexual differences.
  134. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 686.
  135. ^ Williams, Wesley. “A Body Unlike Bodies: Transcendent Anthropomorphism in Ancient Semitic Tradition and Early Islam.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 129, no. 1, 2009, pp. 19–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40593866 Archived 18 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 18 Nov. 2022.
  136. ^ a b Shaman, Nicholas J., Anondah R. Saide, and Rebekah A. Richert. «Dimensional structure of and variation in anthropomorphic concepts of God.» Frontiers in psychology 9 (2018): 1425.
  137. ^ Bataille, Georges (1930). «Base Materialism and Gnosticism». Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927-1939: 47.
  138. ^ Marvin Meyer; Willis Barnstone (30 June 2009). «The Secret Book of John». The Gnostic Bible. Shambhala. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  139. ^ Denova, Rebecca (9 April 2021). «Gnosticism». World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  140. ^ a b James Cornwell, 2009 Saints, Signs, and Symbols: The Symbolic Language of Christian Art ISBN 0-8192-2345-X p. 2
  141. ^ Adolphe Napoléon Didron, 2003 Christian iconography: or The history of Christian art in the middle ages ISBN 0-7661-4075-X p. 169
  142. ^ Arena Chapel, at the top of the triumphal arch, God sending out the angel of the Annunciation. See Schiller, I, fig 15
  143. ^ Irene Earls, 1987 Renaissance art: a topical dictionary ISBN 0-313-24658-0 pp. 8, 283
  144. ^ Oleg Tarasov, 2004 Icon and devotion: sacred spaces in Imperial Russia ISBN 1-86189-118-0 p. 185
  145. ^ «Council of Moscow – 1666–1667». Retrieved 30 December 2016.
  146. ^ Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity…Can There Be Common Ground?. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-4627-1262-5.

Bibliography

  • Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2008). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Blackwells. ISBN 9780470997215.
  • Pickover, Cliff, The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience, Palgrave/St Martin’s Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4039-6457-2
  • Collins, Francis, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, Free Press, 2006. ISBN 0-7432-8639-1
  • Miles, Jack, God: A Biography, Vintage, 1996. ISBN 0-679-74368-5
  • Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Ballantine Books, 1994. ISBN 0-434-02456-2
  • Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951). ISBN 0-226-80337-6
  • Hastings, James Rodney (1925–2003) [1908–26]. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. John A Selbie (Volume 4 of 24 (Behistun (continued) to Bunyan.) ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 476. ISBN 978-0-7661-3673-1. The encyclopedia will contain articles on all the religions of the world and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at containing articles on every religious belief or custom, and on every ethical movement, every philosophical idea, every moral practice.

External links

This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 6 January 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits.

  • Concept of God in Christianity
  • Concept of God in Islam Archived 21 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  • God Christian perspective
  • Hindu Concept of God
  • Jewish Literacy Archived 19 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
Источник

English[edit]

Etymology[edit]

A statue depicting Zeus, a Greek god (sense 1).

From Middle English god, from Old English god, originally neuter, then changed to masculine to reflect the change in religion to Christianity, from Proto-West Germanic *god n, from Proto-Germanic *gudą, from *ǵʰutóm, neuter/inanimate of Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰutós (“invoked (one)”), from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰewH- (“to call, to invoke”) or *ǵʰew- (“to pour”). Not related to the word good or Persian خدا‎ (xodâ, “god”).

Cognates include Russian звать (zvatʹ, “to call”), Sanskrit होत्र (hotra, “calling, oblation, sacrifice”) and Latin fūtilis (“easily pours out, leaky”) (whence English futile). Doublet of futile.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ɡɒd/, /ɡɔːd/
  • (General American, Ireland) IPA(key): /ɡɑd/
  • (General Australian, New Zealand) IPA(key): /ɡɔd/, /ɡɔːd/
  • (Canada, Wales) IPA(key): /ɡɒːd/
  • (Scotland) IPA(key): /ɡɔd/
  • enPR: gŏd
  • Homophone: gaud (in accents with the cot-caught merger)
  • Rhymes: -ɒd

Noun[edit]

god (plural gods)

  1. A deity or supreme being; a supernatural, typically immortal, being with superior powers, to which personhood is attributed.
    Synonyms: see Thesaurus:god

    The most frequently used name for the Islamic god is Allah.

    • 2002, Chuck Palahniuk, Lullaby:

      When ancient Greeks had a thought, it occurred to them as a god or goddess giving an order. Apollo was telling them to be brave. Athena was telling them to fall in love.

  2. Alternative letter-case form of God.
  3. An idol.

    Leo Messi is my god!

    1. A representation of a deity, especially a statue or statuette.
    2. Something or someone particularly revered, worshipped, idealized, admired and/or followed.
      • whose god is their belly
  4. (figurative, slang) A person who is exceptionally skilled in a particular activity.

    He is the god of soccer!

  5. (figurative) A person in a high position of authority, importance or influence.
  6. (figurative) A powerful ruler or tyrant.
  7. (colloquial) An exceedingly handsome man.

    Lounging on the beach were several Greek gods.

    • a. 1918, Wilfred Owen, Disabled
      Someone had said he’d look a god in kilts.
  8. (Internet, role-playing games) The person who owns and runs a multi-user dungeon.

    • 1996, Andy Eddy, Internet after hours:

      The gods usually have several wizards, or «immortals,» to assist them in building the MUD.

    • 2003, David Lojek, Emote to the Max, page 11:

      The wizzes are only the junior grade of the MUD illuminati. The people who attain the senior grade of MUD freemasonry by starting their own MUD, with all due hubris, are known as gods.

Usage notes[edit]

The word god is often applied both to males and to females. The word was originally neuter in Proto-Germanic; monotheistic – notably Judeo-Christian – usage completely shifted the gender to masculine, necessitating the development of a feminine form, goddess. (In Old English the feminine gyden, as well as a more explicitly marked masculine goda, existed.)

Alternative forms[edit]

  • gawd, Gawd, God

Derived terms[edit]

  • bell curve god
  • belly-god
  • bow down before the porcelain god
  • demi-god
  • demigod
  • door god
  • ex-god
  • gift from the gods
  • GOD
  • God
  • god awful
  • god dammit
  • god damn
  • god draw
  • God forbid
  • god forsaken
  • god game
  • god hand
  • god mic
  • god mode
  • God of the gaps
  • god tier
  • god willing
  • god-awful
  • god-child, godchild
  • god-emperor
  • god-fearing
  • god-forsaken, godforsaken
  • God-given
  • god-king, god king
  • god-like
  • god-modding
  • god-sibling
  • goddam, goddamn
  • goddaughter
  • godded
  • goddess
  • Goddess
  • godding
  • goddish
  • godfather
  • godhead
  • godhood
  • godkiller
  • godless
  • godlike
  • godliness
  • godling
  • godlore
  • godly
  • godmother
  • godness
  • godparent
  • gods bless you
  • gods damn
  • gods willing
  • gods-fearing
  • godsend
  • godship
  • godsibling
  • godslaughter
  • godson
  • Godspeed
  • Godward
  • half-god
  • halfgod
  • honest to gods
  • honest-to-gods
  • household god
  • in the lap of the gods
  • momentary god
  • momentary god
  • muscle god
  • oh my god
  • oh my gods
  • personal god
  • porcelain god
  • pray to the porcelain god
  • random number god
  • river god
  • sex god
  • thank god
  • thank gods
  • the mills of the gods grind slowly
  • thunder god
  • thunder god vine
  • time spent laughing is time spent with the gods
  • tin god
  • ungodly
  • worship the porcelain god
  • ye gods
  • ye gods and little fishes

Descendants[edit]

  • Sranan Tongo: gado

Translations[edit]

Proper noun[edit]

god

  1. (very rare) Alternative form of God
    • 1530, William Tyndall, An aunſwere vnto Syr Thomas Mores Dialogue in The whole workes of W. Tyndall, Iohn Frith, and Doct. Barnes, three worthy Martyrs, and principall teachers of this Churche of England, collected and compiled in one Tome togither, beyng before ſcattered, & now in Print here exhibited to the Church (1573), page 271/2:
      And ſuch is to beare yͤ names of god with croſſes betwene ech name about them.
    • 1900, Gilbert Keith Chesterton, «The Happy Man» in The Wild Knight and Other Poems:
      Golgotha’s ghastly trinity—
      Three persons and one god.

Verb[edit]

god (third-person singular simple present gods, present participle godding, simple past and past participle godded)

  1. (transitive) To idolize.
    • a. 1866, Edward Bulwer Lytton, «Death and Sisyphus».
      To men the first necessity is gods; / And if the gods were not, / » Man would invent them, tho’ they godded stones.
    • 2001, Conrad C. Fink, Sportswriting: The Lively Game, page 78
      «Godded him up» … It’s the fear of discerning journalists: Does coverage of athletic stars, on field and off, approach beatification of the living?
  2. (transitive) To deify.
    • 1595, Edmund Spenser, Colin Clouts Come Home Againe.
      Then got he bow and fhafts of gold and lead, / In which fo fell and puiflant he grew, / That Jove himfelfe his powre began to dread, / And, taking up to heaven, him godded new.
    • 1951, Eric Voegelin, Dante Germino ed., The New Science of Politics: An Introduction (1987), page 125
      The superman marks the end of a road on which we find such figures as the «godded man» of English Reformation mystics
    • 1956, C. S. Lewis, Fritz Eichenberg, Till We Have Faces: A Myth Retold, page 241
      «She is so lately godded that she is still a rather poor goddess, Stranger.

Translations[edit]

See also[edit]

  • agnosticism
  • apatheism
  • atheism
  • deism
  • divine
  • henotheism
  • kathenotheism
  • gnosticism
  • monolatrism
  • monotheism
  • pandeism
  • pantheism
  • polytheism
  • Tetragrammaton
  • theism

References[edit]

  • Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, Springfield, Massachusetts, G.&C. Merriam Co., 1967
  • Bosworth, Toller, «An Anglo Saxon Dictionary»: http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/017298

Further reading[edit]

Anagrams[edit]

  • DOG, Dog, dog

Danish[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Old Danish gōþær, gothær, from Old Norse góðr (“good”), from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz. Cognate with English good and German gut.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): [ˈɡ̊oˀð], [ˈɡ̊oðˀ], [ˈɡ̊oˀ]
  • Rhymes: -oð

Adjective[edit]

god (neuter godt, plural and definite singular attributive gode, comparative bedre, superlative (predicative) bedst, superlative (attributive) bedste)

  1. good

References[edit]

  • “god” in Den Danske Ordbog

Dutch[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Middle Dutch god, from Old Dutch got, from Proto-West Germanic *god, from Proto-Germanic *gudą, from the Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰutós (“invoked (one)”). Compare English and West Frisian god, German Gott, Danish gud.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɣɔt/
  • Rhymes: -ɔt
  • (Belgium) IPA(key): [ʝɔt] help
  • (Netherlands) IPA(key): [xɔt] help

Noun[edit]

god m (plural goden, diminutive godje n, feminine godin)

  1. god, deity

Derived terms[edit]

  • afgod
  • berggod
  • God
  • godbevinding
  • godenbeeld
  • godenbrood
  • godendienst
  • godendochter
  • godendom
  • godendrank
  • godenkind
  • godenleer
  • godenspijs
  • godenzoon
  • godgeleerdheid
  • godgezang
  • godheid
  • godin
  • godsakker
  • godschalk
  • godsdienst
  • godsgebied
  • godsgeheim
  • godshuis
  • godskind
  • godslastering
  • godsloochening
  • godsnaam
  • godvormig
  • gut
  • krijgsgod
  • minnegod
  • ongodisme
  • vruchtbaarheidsgod

Descendants[edit]

  • Negerhollands: god, got, godt

Gothic[edit]

Romanization[edit]

gōd

  1. Romanization of 𐌲𐍉𐌳

Low German[edit]

Alternative forms[edit]

  • good, goot, got
  • (in other dialects) gaud (comparative bäter, beter)
  • (in other dialects) gut (comparative bȩter)
  • (in other dialects) gud (comparative biäter), gutt (inflected gudd-)

Etymology[edit]

From Middle Low German gôt, from Old Saxon gōd, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡoʊt/, /ɣɔʊt/, /ɣoʊt/

Adjective[edit]

god

  1. (in some dialects) good (alternative spelling of goot)

Usage notes[edit]

  • The comparative is bäter and the superlative is best.

Lower Sorbian[edit]

Noun[edit]

god

  1. Superseded spelling of gód.

Middle Dutch[edit]

Noun[edit]

god m

  1. Alternative spelling of got

Middle English[edit]

Etymology 1[edit]

From Old English god, from Proto-West Germanic *god, from Proto-Germanic *gudą, from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰutós.

Alternative forms[edit]

  • God, godd, godde

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡɔd/

Noun[edit]

god (plural goddes, genitive goddes)

  1. A god or deity; a divine individual.
  2. A person worshipped as a divinity.
Descendants[edit]
  • English: god
  • Scots: god
  • Yola: gud, Gud, God

Proper noun[edit]

god (genitive goddes, uncountable)

  1. God (the deity of Abrahamic religions, especially the Christian God, considered to be Jesus Christ)

    • c. 1395, John Wycliffe, John Purvey [et al.], transl., Bible (Wycliffite Bible (later version), MS Lich 10.)‎[1], published c. 1410, Apocalips 4:5, page 118v, column 1; republished as Wycliffe’s translation of the New Testament, Lichfield: Bill Endres, 2010:

      ⁊ leıtıs ⁊ voıces ⁊ þundꝛıngıs camen out of þe troone. ⁊ ſeuene lau[m]pıs bꝛe[n]nynge bıfoꝛe þe troone.· whıche ben þe ſeuene ſpırıtıs of god

      And lightning, sounds, and thunder came out of the throne, and seven lamps were burning in front of the throne, which are the seven spirits of God.
[edit]
  • godfader
  • godmoder
  • godsone
Descendants[edit]
  • English: God
  • Scots: God
  • Yola: Gud

References[edit]

  • “god”, in The Century Dictionary […], New York, N.Y.: The Century Co., 1911, →OCLC.
  • “god, god, n.(1).”, in MED Online, Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, 2007, retrieved 2019-02-23.

Etymology 2[edit]

From Old English gōd (“good”).

Adjective[edit]

god

  1. Alternative form of good

Middle Low German[edit]

Adjective[edit]

god

  1. Alternative spelling of gôt.

Noun[edit]

god

  1. Alternative spelling of got.
  2. Alternative spelling of gôt.

Navajo[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Proto-Athabaskan *-ɢᴜ̓t’.

Cognates:

  • Apachean: Western Apache -god, Chiricahua -go’
  • Others: Hupa -ɢot’, Mattole -goʔł, Galice -gʷay’, Chilcotin -gʷə́d, Slavey -gó’, Dogrib -gò, Chipewyan -gór, Sekani -gʷə̀de’, Beaver -gʷəd, Lower Tanana -gᴜd, Hän -gòd, Ahtna -ɢo’d, Dena’ina -ɢət’, Eyak -ɢuʰd

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): [kòt], [kɣʷòt]

Noun[edit]

-god (inalienable)

  1. knee

Derived terms[edit]

  • agod (“someone’s knee”)
  • hagod (“one’s knee”)
  • bigod (“his/her/their knee”)
  • shigod (“my knee”)

Norwegian Bokmål[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Old Norse góðr, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ- (“to join, to unite”).

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡuː/, [ɡɯᵝː]

Adjective[edit]

god (neuter singular godt, definite singular and plural gode, comparative bedre, indefinite superlative best, definite superlative beste)

  1. good

Derived terms[edit]

  • godartet
  • god dag
  • god jul
  • god natt
  • godta
  • godt nytt år, godt nyttår
  • ingen nyheter er gode nyheter
  • selvgod
  • så langt, så godt

References[edit]

  • “god” in The Bokmål Dictionary.

Norwegian Nynorsk[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Old Norse góðr, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ- (“to join, to unite”). Akin to English good.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡuː/

Adjective[edit]

god (masculine and feminine god, neuter godt, definite singular and plural gode, comparative betre, indefinite superlative best, definite superlative beste)

  1. good

Derived terms[edit]

  • god dag
  • god jol, god jul
  • god natt
  • godt nytt år, godt nyttår
  • så langt, så godt

References[edit]

  • “god” in The Nynorsk Dictionary.

Old English[edit]

Etymology 1[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *gōd, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡoːd/

Adjective[edit]

gōd (comparative betera, superlative betest, adverb wel)

  1. good
Declension[edit]

Declension of gōd — Strong

Derived terms[edit]
  • gōdnes
Descendants[edit]
  • Middle English: good, god, gode, goed, gude
    • English: good
    • Scots: guid
    • Yola: gooude, gude, gayde

Noun[edit]

gōd n

  1. good (something good or good things collectively)
Declension[edit]

Declension of god (strong a-stem)

Etymology 2[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *god, from Proto-Germanic *gudą. Originally neuter, then changed to masculine to reflect the change in religion to Christianity.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡod/

Noun[edit]

god n or m

  1. a god
Declension[edit]
neuter

Declension of god (strong a-stem)

masculine

Declension of god (strong a-stem)

Synonyms[edit]
  • ōs
Derived terms[edit]
  • godcund (“divine, godlike”)
  • gyden (“goddess”)

Proper noun[edit]

god m

  1. Alternative letter-case form of God.
Declension[edit]

Declension of god (strong a-stem)

Descendants[edit]
  • Middle English: god, God, godd, godde
    • English: god
    • Scots: god
    • Yola: gud, Gud, God

Old Frisian[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *gōd, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz.

Adjective[edit]

gōd

  1. good

Inflection[edit]

Declension of god — Strong

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative gōd gōde gōd
Accusative gōdne, -ene, -en gōde gōd
Genitive gōdes gōdere gōdes
Dative gōda, -e gōdere gōda, -e
Instrumental gōda, -e gōdere gōda, -e
Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative gōda, -e gōda, -e gōda, -e
Accusative gōda, -e gōda, -e gōda, -e
Genitive gōdera gōdera gōdera
Dative gōda, -e gōda, -e gōda, -e
Instrumental gōda, -e gōda, -e gōda, -e

Descendants[edit]

  • North Frisian:
    Föhr-Amrum: gud
  • Saterland Frisian: goud
  • West Frisian: goed

Old Saxon[edit]

Etymology 1[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *gōd, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ- (“to join, to unite”).

Compare Old English gōd, Old Frisian gōd, Old High German guot, Old Dutch guot, Old Norse góðr.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɣoːd/
  • IPA(key): /ɡoːd/

Adjective[edit]

gōd (comparative betiro, superlative betst)

  1. good
    • Heliand, verse 363

      Davides thes gōdon

      David the Good
Declension[edit]

Comparative forms of gōd (weak only)

Descendants[edit]
  • Middle Low German: gôt
    • German Low German: good
    • Low German: goot

Etymology 2[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *gōd, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɣoːd/
  • IPA(key): /ɡoːd/

Noun[edit]

gōd n

  1. goodness, benefit
    • Heliand, verse 1456

      dōt im gōdes filu

      They gave to them loads of goods
Declension[edit]

Declension of gōd (neuter a-stem)

Descendants[edit]
  • Middle Low German: gôt
    • German Low German: Good
    • Low German: Goot

Etymology 3[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *god, from Proto-Germanic *gudą, from the Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰutós (“invoked (one)”). Compare Old English god, Old Frisian god, Old High German got, Old Norse guð.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɣɔd/
  • IPA(key): /ɡoːd/

Noun[edit]

god n

  2. god
    • Heliand, verse 326

      godes ēgan barn

      God’s own child
Declension[edit]

Declension of god (neuter a-stem)

Descendants[edit]
  • Middle Low German: got

Etymology 4[edit]

From Proto-West Germanic *god, from Proto-Germanic *gudą.

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɣɔd/
  • IPA(key): /ɡoːd/

Noun[edit]

god m

  1. God, the Christian god
    • Heliand, verse 11

      thia habdon maht godes helpa fan himila

      They had the power by the help of God in the heavens
Declension[edit]

Declension of god (masculine a-stem)

Descendants[edit]
  • Middle Low German: got

Romansch[edit]

Alternative forms[edit]

  • guaud (Rumantsch Grischun)
  • uaul, gòld (Sutsilvan)
  • gôt (Surmiran)

Etymology[edit]

Of probable Germanic origin (compare German Wald, Dutch woud, English wold).

Noun[edit]

god m (plural gods)

  1. (Puter, Vallader) forest

Serbo-Croatian[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Proto-Slavic *godъ, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *gadás, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ-. Cognate with Slovene god, Old Church Slavonic годъ (godŭ), Russian год (god).

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡôːd/

Noun[edit]

gȏd m (Cyrillic spelling го̑д)

  1. name day
  2. anniversary, holiday
  3. ring (on a tree)

Declension[edit]

Derived terms[edit]

  • godimice
  • godinama
  • godinica

Particle[edit]

god (Cyrillic spelling год)

  1. generalization particle
    (t)ko god ― whoever
    što god ― whatever
    gdje god ― wherever
    koji god ― whichever

    Uzmi koji god hoćeš! ― Take whichever you want!
    kad god ― whenever
    čiji god ― whoever’s
    kako god ― in whichever way
    kakav god ― of whatever kind
    koliki god ― of whichever size
    koliko god ― no matter how much/many

Slovene[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Proto-Slavic *godъ, from Proto-Balto-Slavic *gadás, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ-. Cognate with Serbo-Croatian god, Old Church Slavonic годъ (godŭ).

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡóːt/

Noun[edit]

gọ̑d m inan

  1. name day

Inflection[edit]

Masculine inan., hard o-stem, mobile accent, plural in -ôv-
nom. sing. gód
gen. sing. godú
singular dual plural
nominative
(imenovȃlnik) 		gód godôva godôvi
genitive
(rodȋlnik) 		godú godôv godôv
dative
(dajȃlnik) 		gódu godôvoma godôvom
accusative
(tožȋlnik) 		gód godôva godôve
locative
(mẹ̑stnik) 		gódu godôvih godôvih
instrumental
(orọ̑dnik) 		gódom godôvoma godôvi
Masculine inan., hard o-stem, plural in -ôv-
nom. sing. gód
gen. sing. góda
singular dual plural
nominative
(imenovȃlnik) 		gód godôva godôvi
genitive
(rodȋlnik) 		góda godôv godôv
dative
(dajȃlnik) 		gódu godôvoma godôvom
accusative
(tožȋlnik) 		gód godôva godôve
locative
(mẹ̑stnik) 		gódu godôvih godôvih
instrumental
(orọ̑dnik) 		gódom godôvoma godôvi

Further reading[edit]

  • “god”, in Slovarji Inštituta za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša ZRC SAZU, portal Fran

Swedish[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Old Swedish gōþer, from Old Norse góðr, from Proto-Germanic *gōdaz, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰedʰ- (“to join, to unite”).

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /ɡuːd/, (colloquial) /ɡuː/

Adjective[edit]

god (comparative godare or bättre, superlative godast or bäst)

  1. good (not evil), kind
  2. good (in taste)

    Är maten god?

    Is the food good?
    Synonym: (colloquial) go
  3. (somewhat dated) good (not bad), fine, useful

Declension[edit]

Inflection of god
Indefinite Positive Comparative Superlative2
Common singular god godare godast
Neuter singular gott godare godast
Plural goda godare godast
Masculine plural3 gode godare godast
Definite Positive Comparative Superlative
Masculine singular1 gode godare godaste
All goda godare godaste
1) Only used, optionally, to refer to things whose natural gender is masculine.
2) The indefinite superlative forms are only used in the predicative.
3) Dated or archaic
Inflection of god
Indefinite Positive Comparative Superlative2
Common singular god bättre bäst
Neuter singular gott bättre bäst
Plural goda bättre bäst
Masculine plural3 goda bättre bäst
Definite Positive Comparative Superlative
Masculine singular1 gode bättre bäste
All goda bättre bästa
1) Only used, optionally, to refer to things whose natural gender is masculine.
2) The indefinite superlative forms are only used in the predicative.
3) Dated or archaic

Antonyms[edit]

  • (not evil): elak, ond
  • (tasting): äcklig, illasmakande
  • (not bad): dålig

Derived terms[edit]

See also[edit]

  • go

References[edit]

  • god in Svensk ordbok (SO)
  • god in Svenska Akademiens ordlista (SAOL)
  • god in Svenska Akademiens ordbok (SAOB)

Anagrams[edit]

  • dog

West Frisian[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Old Frisian god, from Proto-West Germanic *god, from Proto-Germanic *gudą, from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰutós.

Noun[edit]

god c (plural goaden, diminutive godsje)

  1. god, deity

Further reading[edit]

  • “God”, in Wurdboek fan de Fryske taal (in Dutch), 2011
Источник

What is the true meaning of the word God?

God He is the supreme being whom monotheistic religions consider to be the creator of the universe. It is a deity that various religions worship and praise.

The word «God» did not come through the Latin «Deus», but God passed directly from the Greek (where it is the genitive case, that is, god means “De Zeus”) into Spanish. … Reviewing the New Testament written in ancient Greek, we find the word “theos«To describe God, not the word» God. «

What is the word of God for us?

The Bible as a book it is «Word of God«, Because before life has been»Word of God«. About Us Christians believe with Jesus and his apostles, with the Church, that Bible integer is «Word of God«. … Something like the faith we have in Jesus, which is true God and true man.

What does the word of God mean?

The Bible as a book it is «Word of God«, Because before life has been»Word of God«. Something like faith which we have in Jesus, which it’s true God and true man. …

Where is the accent of the word God?

Monosyllables are never accented: was, saw, God. Note the difference between saw, which is monosyllable, and laughed, which is acute bisyllable, then It has accent.

What does God and God mean?

In monotheistic religions, God it is the supreme, divine and unique being. God comes from the Indo-European root dyeu- meaning “divine light”, later translated as “being of light”. … God in Judeo-Christian monotheistic religions it receives various names. Among them are Adonai, Yahweh and Jehovah.

What is the meaning of Elohim?

We mean the name hebreo, Elohim, usually translated as God, although important nuances are lost. «The term Elohim it has been explained as the plural derived from Him, or a plural form of Eloah. … Elohim it is found in the Old Testament about 2.500 times, while Yahweh just over 6.000 thousand times.

What is the word of God?

We read in Hebrews 4:12 what does it say «Because the God’s word it is lively and effective, and sharper than any two-edged sword; and penetrates to the breaking point of the soul and the spirit, the joints and the marrow, and discerns the thoughts and intentions of the heart ”.

What does the word of God mean in my life?

La Word of God does to the wise man for salvation.

The Scriptures make to the wise man «for salvation», indicating that they reveal the way of salvation from God in Christ and the path that leads to salvation through faith. It is through His Word that we know how to be saved.

What way does God speak to us?

God speaks to us to the heart. … And at night speaks to us through the brightness of the moon, the immensity of the stars or the light of fireflies. He speaks to us with infinite love in everything our surrounds. Psalm 19 says: “The heavens proclaim the glory of God and the firmament proclaims the work of his hands.

Источник

What is the meaning of the word god

What is the meaning of the word god

What is the meaning of the word God? Many people pray calling God by the name ‘God’ but what is the meaning of the word?  

The word means;

  1. Supernatural being: – one of the group of supernatural male beings in some religion, each of which is worshiped as the personification or controller of some of the universe
  2. Figure or image: – a representation of a god, used as an object of worship
  3. Something that dominates: – Something that is so important that it takes over somebody’s life
  4. Somebody admired: – a man who is widely admired or imitated; an idol.

Therefore, when a person uses the word ‘God’, s/he may be referring to something else and not what you’re getting, thinking or understanding.

The word ‘God’

The word is a: –

  • Universal group name

God is a universal name, a group name and a title. Like the word ‘human being’ which refers to all humans, the word ‘god’ also refers to all gods.

There are many gods and all are referred by one universal name ‘god’. The bible identifies many gods but there is only one true living God.

The bible says that Satan is the prince of the world meaning a god of the world.

If a person says calls ‘ god’, h/she may be referring to Satan, a tree, a fellow man, an animal (like the birds, snakes etc), heavenly bodies, an image or the so many gods present.

  • Has a plural form

Since it’s a group name which does not refer to someone or something specifically, it has a plural form, ‘gods’, meaning the entire group of supernatural beings viewed as deciding human fate.

Is there a plural form to your name like Brians, Joshuas, Esthers, Ruths? No. Why? Because it refers directly and specifically to you; identifying and defining you personally.

The word ‘God’ refers to who He is, like the word ‘human being’. Human being is what you are not your name, thus the name God is what He is not His name.

  • A title

It is also a title like the word ‘Mr. President’. Mr. President is a title not someone’s name. Barrack Obama is referred to as ‘Mr. President’ now but when he retires this title ceases to exist to him.

It is a title for whoever is the president at that particular time. Also the name god is a title for someone or something that is god for that particular time and as long as it/he/she remains to be.

In writing, we denote the name of the true living God with a capital ‘G’ while other gods with a small ‘g’. In pronunciation, their is no difference.

Therefore the name of the true living God is not the name ‘God’. He gave us, Christians,  a name to be calling Him. See the name of the true living God.

Источник

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