The word woman derived from

English[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Middle English womman, wimman, wifman, from Old English wīfmann (“woman”, literally “female person”), a compound of wīf (“woman, female”, whence English wife) +‎ mann (“person, human being”, whence English man). For details on the pronunciation and spelling history, see the usage notes below.

Cognate with Scots woman, weman (“woman”), Saterland Frisian Wieuwmoanske (“female person, female human, woman”). Similar constructions can be found in West Frisian frommes (“woman, girl”) (from frou and minske, literally «woman human»).

A few alternative spellings (see below) respell the term so as not to contain man.

Pronunciation[edit]

• (Received Pronunciation, US) IPA^(key): /ˈwʊm.ən/
• (US, dialectal) IPA^(key): /ˈwoʊ.mən/, [ˈwo.mɪn]
• (New Zealand) IPA^(key): /ˈwʊm.ɘn/
• Hyphenation: wom‧an
• Rhymes: -ʊmən
• Homophone: women (some dialects, common in New Zealand and South Africa)

Noun[edit]

woman (plural women)

1. An adult female human.

   • 1887, Helen Campbell, Prisoners of poverty: their trades and their lives, page 120:

     But this woman is a nice German woman that fell on the ice and sprained her ankle last winter, and we saw to her well as we could till she got better.

   • 1888 September 6, Michigan School Moderator, page 402, column 3:

     Dr. J. H. Vincent, the great lecturer, says that a man’s greatness consists in his courage; his inherent nobleness; his noble deeds, great exploits, and benefits to the world; but that behind every great man is a great woman — his mother.

   • 1978, Ashford & Simpson (lyrics and music), “I’m Every Woman”, in Chaka, performed by Chaka Khan:

     Cause I’m every woman / It’s all in me

   • 1979, Muriel Lederer, Blue-collar jobs for women, page 59:

     During World War II, many women worked as blacksmiths in the shipbuilding industry and found they liked the challenging, independent work.

   • 2012, Kate Welsh, Substitute Daddy, →ISBN:

     «There is nothing wrong with Melissa or the way she was raised. She is a sweet, kind, intelligent woman with a generous heart and more love for her child than you and Mother ever showed for either of your children.»

   • For more quotations using this term, see Citations:woman.
2. (collective) All female humans collectively; womankind.

   • 1886 October – 1887 January, H[enry] Rider Haggard, She: A History of Adventure, London: Longmans, Green, and Co., published 1887, →OCLC:

     `Listen, Holly. Thou art a good and honest man, and I fain would spare thee; but, oh! it is so hard for woman to be merciful.’

   • 1910, Emerson Hough, chapter I, in The Purchase Price: Or The Cause of Compromise, Indianapolis, Ind.: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, →OCLC:

     “ […] it is not fair of you to bring against mankind double weapons ! Dangerous enough you are as woman alone, without bringing to your aid those gifts of mind suited to problems which men have been accustomed to arrogate to themselves.”

   • 1972, Helen Reddy, «I Am Woman,» first line:

     I am Woman, hear me roar / In numbers too big to ignore

   • 1997, Bob Grant, Let’s Be Heard, page 42:

     For if modern woman is so intent on keeping her surname alive, why not demand it be passed along to her children?

   • 2011, Eileen Gray and the Design of Sapphic Modernity: Staying In, page 109:

     Unsurprisingly, if modern man is a sort of camera, modern woman is a picture.

3. A female person, usually an adult; a (generally adult) female sentient being, whether human, supernatural, elf, alien, etc.

   • 2003, Amelia Jones, The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader, Psychology Press, →ISBN, page 37:

     To be born a woman has been to be born, within an allotted and confined space, into the keeping of men.

   • 2007, Clifford B. Bowyer, The Siege of Zoldex, Silver Leaf Books, LLC, →ISBN, page 307:

     One of the elves, a woman with long auburn hair, was garbed identically to the two dwarves.

   • 2008, Christopher Paolini, Brisingr: Or The Seven Promises of Eragon Shadeslayer and Saphira Bjartskular — Inheritance Book Three, →ISBN, page 549:

     Clearing a space between the tables, the men tested their prowess against one another with feats of wrestling and archery and bouts with quarterstaves. Two of the elves, a man and a woman, demonstrated their skill with swordplay— […]

   • 2012, Merlin Stone, When God Was A Woman:

     At the very dawn of religion, God was a woman.

   • 2014, Oisin McGann, Kings of the Realm: Cruel Salvation, Penguin UK, →ISBN:

     There was a pair of burly dwarves – a woman and a man – bearing the markings of the formidable Thane Guards.

4. A wife (or sometimes a fiancée or girlfriend).
   • 1914, D. H. Lawrence, Study of Thomas Hardy and Other Essays, chapter 7: «Of Being and Not-Being»:

     And then, when he lies with his woman, the man may concurrently be with God, and so get increase of his soul.

5. A female person who is extremely fond of or devoted to a specified type of thing. (Used as the last element of a compound.)
   • 2004, Hyveth Williams, Secrets of a Happy Heart: A Fresh Look at the Sermon on the Mount, page 70:

     Perhaps my problem is that I am a cat woman. I can’t imagine any finicky feline (and they all are that at one time or another) slobbering over anyone, even a beloved owner, the way a dog does.

6. A female attendant or servant.

   • 1613 (date written), William Shakespeare; [John Fletcher], “The Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eight”, in Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies […] (First Folio), London: […] Isaac Iaggard, and Ed[ward] Blount, published 1623, →OCLC, [Act V, scene ii]:

     By her woman I sent your message.

Usage notes[edit]

The current pronunciation of the first vowel of the singular began to appear in western England in the 13th century under the rounding influence of the w, though the older pronunciation with /i/ (→ modern /ɪ/) remained in use into the 15th century. Although the vowel of the plural was sometimes also altered to /u/ (→ modern /ʊ/) beginning in the 14th century, the pronunciation with /ɪ/ ultimately won out there, possibly under the influence of pairs like foot—feet. However, many speakers (especially of New Zealand English or South African English) have either retained or reinnovated the pronunciation of the plural with /ʊ/. The modern spelling women for the plural is due to influence of the singular; it is attested from the 15th century.

For a time in the 16th and 17th centuries, the pronunciation of the singular sometimes drifted even further back towards /uː/ or /ɔː~oː/ (→ modern /oʊ~əʊ/) and the plural sometimes drifted even further forward towards /iː/, leading to comparisons of the words to «woe man» or «we men».)^[1][2][3][4]

Alternative forms[edit]

• (feminist spellings; very rare:) (singular:) womxn, womyn, (plural:) womxn, womyn, wymyn
• (eye dialect, sometimes also used as feminist spellings:) (singular:) womin, wommon (also obsolete), womon (plural:) wimin, wimmin, wimmen, wymmyn
• (obsolete, 17th c.) weoman
• (obsolete) whoman
• (plural, informal or obsolete) wimen
• (plural, nonstandard, proscribed) womans
• (plural, nonstandard, African-American Vernacular) womens

Synonyms[edit]

• lady; female; see more at Thesaurus:woman

Hypernyms[edit]

• man (broad sense), human

Hyponyms[edit]

Coordinate terms[edit]

• (gender): man
• (age): girl

Derived terms[edit]

[edit]

Descendants[edit]

• Antigua and Barbuda Creole English: uman
• Aukan: uman
• Krio: uman
• Sranan Tongo: uma; oema (superseded)
• Torres Strait Creole: oman
• → Japanese: ウーマン (ūman)
• → Korean: 우먼 (umeon)
• → Volapük: vom

Translations[edit]

References[edit]

Verb[edit]

woman (third-person singular simple present womans, present participle womaning or womanning, simple past and past participle womaned or womanned)

1. To staff with female labor.

   • 1813, “Yorkshire Assizes. May a woman be deemed a sailor sufficient in manning a vessel? Case of Insurance.—Cook v. Thompson.”, in The Literary Panorama, […], volume XIV, London: […] Cox and Baylis, […] for C[harles] Taylor, […], page 683:

     […] he should prove, from the testimony of the most experienced seamen, that the vessel was, if not, strictly speaking, sufficiently manned, yet that she was sufficiently manned and womanned. The Gypsey was a vessel of 43 tons burden, and there were on board two able seamen and the Captain’s wife, who was a very good sailor;

   • 1956, Rex Stout, Three Witnesses, The Viking Press, page 54:

     Apparently the Sixty-ninth Street office of Bagby Answers, Inc., was being womaned for the day from other offices.

   • 1990, Stephen King, The stand: the complete & uncut edition:

     Gus Dinsmore, the public beach parking lot attendent, said he guessed that so many cars must be just stopped dead along the road that even those manned (or womaned) by able drivers would be unable to move.

   • 2010, Julia Glass, The Widower’s Tale, page 77

     The information desk is now manned (womaned) by someone whose main job is to help you reserve time slots for the computers or guide you through the arduous process of “logging on.”

2. (transitive) To make effeminate or womanish.

   • c. 1604–1605 (date written), William Shakespeare, “All’s VVell, that Ends VVell”, in Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies […] (First Folio), London: […] Isaac Iaggard, and Ed[ward] Blount, published 1623, →OCLC, [Act III, scene ii], line 50:

     I have felt so many quirks of joy and grief / That the first face of neither on the start / Can woman me unto’t.

3. (transitive) To furnish with, or unite to, a woman.

   • c. 1603–1604 (date written), William Shakespeare, “The Tragedie of Othello, the Moore of Venice”, in Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies […] (First Folio), London: […] Isaac Iaggard, and Ed[ward] Blount, published 1623, →OCLC, [Act III, scene iv], line 191:

     And think it no addition, nor my wish, / To have him see me woman’d.

4. (transitive) To call (a person) «woman» in a disrespectful fashion.

Translations[edit]

See also[edit]

Adjective[edit]

woman (not comparable)

1. (particularly Nigeria, India, sometimes proscribed) Of or relating to a woman/women; female.

   • 1985, Anthony King, The British Prime Minister, Duke University Press, →ISBN:

     But of course Britain since 1979 has had a woman prime minister, while no woman has ever come near to being president of the United States.

   • 2020 August 18, Veronica Chambers; The Staff of The New York Times, Finish The Fight!: The Brave and Revolutionary Women Who Fought for the Right to Vote, HarperCollins, →ISBN:

     You can’t spend months studying the history of the suffrage movement without gaining a new appreciation for the grit and gumption it takes to be a powerful woman leader.

Usage notes[edit]

In the United States, since the use of «female» as a noun is perceived as dehumanizing by a significant portion of people (too clinical and zoological), American grammarians and style guides often proscribe/reject its use in this manner.^[5][6][7][8]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• woman at OneLook Dictionary Search
• woman in Britannica Dictionary
• woman in Ozdic collocation dictionary
• woman in WordReference English Collocations
• “New definitions for «man» and «woman»” by Victor Mair in Language Log (2022-11-13)

Czech[edit]

Pronunciation[edit]

• IPA^(key): [ˈvoman]

Noun[edit]

woman m

1. obsolete form of oman (“elecampane”), obsolete spelling of voman (“elecampane”)

   • 1820, Bedřich Všemír hrabě z Berchtoldu, O přirozenosti rostlin, aneb rostlinâř‎^[5], volume 1, Prague: Jos. Krause, page 142:

     Škrobu welmi podobná hmota zdá se býti womanina (inulinum), kterauž P. Vauquelin w kořenu Womanu lekařského (Inula helenium) nalezl.

     A substance similar to starch seems to be the elecampine (inulinum) which already P. Vauquelin has found in the root of the officinal inula (Inula helenium).

Declension[edit]

Middle English[edit]

Noun[edit]

woman (plural women)

1. Alternative form of womman

Upper Sorbian[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Proto-Slavic *omanъ.

Pronunciation[edit]

• IPA^(key): [ˈu̯oman]

Noun[edit]

woman m

1. inula, elecampane (Inula spp., especially Inula helenium)

Declension[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• “woman” in Soblex

A woman is an adult female human.^[1][2] Prior to adulthood, a female human is referred to as a girl (a female child or adolescent).^[3] The plural women is sometimes used in certain phrases such as «women’s rights» to denote female humans regardless of age.

Typically, women inherit a pair of X chromosomes, one from each parent, and are capable of pregnancy and giving birth from puberty until menopause. More generally, sex differentiation of the female fetus is governed by the lack of a present, or functioning, SRY-gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes.^[4] Female anatomy is distinguished from male anatomy by the female reproductive system, which includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva. An adult woman generally has a wider pelvis, broader hips, and larger breasts than an adult man. Women have significantly less facial and other body hair, have a higher body fat composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men.

Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined and limited women’s activities and opportunities, resulting in gender inequality; many religious doctrines and legal systems stipulate certain rules for women. With restrictions loosening during the 20th century in many societies, women have gained access to careers beyond the traditional homemaker, and the ability to pursue higher education. Violence against women, whether within families or in communities, has a long history and is primarily committed by men. Some women are denied reproductive rights. The movements and ideologies of feminism have a shared goal of achieving gender equality.

Trans women have a gender identity that does not align with their male sex assignment at birth, while intersex women may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of female biology.

Etymology

The spelling of «woman» in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann^[5] to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman.^[6] In Old English, wīfmann meant «woman» (literally «woman-person»), whereas wermann meant «man». Mann had a gender-neutral meaning of «human», corresponding to Modern English «person» or «someone»; however, subsequent to the Norman Conquest, man began to be used more in reference to «male human», and by the late 13th century it had begun to eclipse usage of the older term wer.^[7] The medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form «woman», while the initial element wīf, which had also meant «woman», underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman («wife»).

It is a popular misconception that the term «woman» is etymologically connected to «womb».^[8] «Womb» derives from the Old English word wamb meaning «belly, uterus»^[9] (cognate to the modern German colloquial term «Wamme» from Old High German wamba for «belly, paunch, lap»).^[10][11]

Terminology

Womanhood is defined as the period in a human female’s life after she has passed through childhood, puberty, and adolescence.^{[12][better source needed]} Different countries have different laws, but age 18 is frequently considered the age of majority (the age at which a person is legally considered an adult).

The word woman can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with girl. The word girl originally meant «young person of either sex» in English;^[13] it was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a female child.^[14] The term girl is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman; however, during the early 1970s, feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offense. In particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honor with female virginity, the word girl (or its equivalent in other languages) is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the more-or-less obsolete English maid or maiden.

There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman. The term «womanhood» merely means the state of being a woman; «femininity» is used to refer to a set of typical female qualities associated with a certain attitude to gender roles; «womanliness» is like «femininity», but is usually associated with a different view of gender roles. «Distaff» is an archaic adjective derived from women’s conventional role as a spinner, now used only as a deliberate archaism.

Menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12–13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize a girl’s coming of age, such as confirmation in some branches of Christianity,^[15] bat mitzvah in Judaism, or a custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the quinceañera of Latin America.

Trans women had a male sex assignment at birth that does not align with their gender identity, while intersex women may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of female biology.^[16][17]

Biology

Genetic characteristics

Typically, the cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes, while the cells of male humans have an X and a Y chromosome.^[18] During early fetal development, all embryos have phenotypically female genitalia up until week 6 or 7, when a male embryo’s gonads differentiate into testes due to the action of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome.^[19] Sex differentiation proceeds in female humans in a way that is independent of gonadal hormones.^[19] Because humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from the mother’s ovum, genealogical researchers can trace maternal lineage far back in time.

Hormonal characteristics, menstruation and menopause

Female puberty triggers bodily changes that enable sexual reproduction via fertilization. In response to chemical signals from the pituitary gland, the ovaries secrete hormones that stimulate maturation of the body, including increased height and weight, body hair growth, breast development and menarche (the onset of menstruation).^[20]

Most girls go through menarche between ages 12–13,^[21][22] and are then capable of becoming pregnant and bearing children. Pregnancy generally requires internal fertilization of the eggs with sperm, via either sexual intercourse or artificial insemination, though in vitro fertilization allows fertilization to occur outside the human body.^[23] Humans are similar to other large mammals in that they usually give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy, but are unusual in being altricial compared to most other large mammals, meaning young are undeveloped at time of birth and require the aid of their parents or guardians to fully mature.^[24][25] Sometimes humans have multiple births, most commonly twins.^[26]

Usually between ages 49–52, a woman reaches menopause, the time when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children.^[27][28][29] Unlike most other mammals, the human lifespan usually extends many years after menopause.^[30] Many women become grandmothers and contribute to the care of grandchildren and other family members.^[31] Many biologists believe that the extended human lifespan is evolutionarily driven by kin selection, though other theories have also been proposed.^{[32][33][34][35]}

Morphological and physiological characteristics

In terms of biology, the female sex organs are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the secondary sex characteristics are involved in breastfeeding children and attracting a mate.^[36] Humans are placental mammals, which means the mother carries the fetus in the uterus and the placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus.^[37][38]

The ovaries, in addition to their regulatory function of producing hormones, produce female gametes called ova which, when fertilized by male gametes (sperm), form new genetic individuals. The uterus is an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing fetus and muscle to expel it when giving birth. The vagina is used in copulation and birthing, although the term vagina is often colloquially and incorrectly used in the English language for the vulva (or external female genitalia),^[39][40] which consists of (in addition to the vaginal opening) the labia, the clitoris, and the female urethra. The mammary glands are hypothesized to have evolved from apocrine-like glands to produce milk, a nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth.^[41] In mature women, the breast is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is thought to be at least partially the result of sexual selection.^{[36][page needed]}

Estrogens, which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female’s body shape. They are produced in both men and women, but their levels are significantly higher in women, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, estrogens promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breasts and hips.^[42][43][44] As a result of estrogens, during puberty, girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against estrogen, the presence of testosterone in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development.^[45][46]

Gender distribution and life expectancy

Although girls are born slightly less frequently than boys (the ratio is around 1:1.05), newborn girls are more likely to reach their first birthday than are boys, and women typically have a longer life expectancy by six to eight years, although in some areas discrimination against women has lowered female life expectancy to less than or equal to that of men. Out of the total human population in 2015, there were 1018 men for every 1000 women.^[47] The differences in life expectancy are partly due to inherent biological advantages, but also reflect behavioral differences between men and women.^{[citation needed]} The gap is narrowing to some extent in some developed countries, possibly due to increased smoking among women and declining rates of cardiovascular disease among men.^{[citation needed]} The World Health Organization (WHO) writes that it is «important to note that the extra years of life for women are not always lived in good health.»^[48][49]

Health

Factors that specifically affect the health of women vs. men are most evident in those related to reproduction, but sex differences have been identified from the molecular to the behavioral scale. Some of these differences are subtle and difficult to explain, partly due to the fact that it is difficult to separate the health effects of inherent biological factors from the effects of the surrounding environment they exist in. Sex chromosomes and hormones, as well as sex-specific lifestyles, metabolism, immune system function, and sensitivity to environmental factors are believed to contribute to sex differences in health at the levels of physiology, perception, and cognition. Women can have distinct responses to drugs and thresholds for diagnostic parameters.^{[50][page needed]}

Some diseases primarily affect or are exclusively found in women, such as lupus, breast cancer, cervical cancer, or ovarian cancer.^[51] The medical practice dealing with female reproduction and reproductive organs is called gynaecology («science of women»).^{[52][53][better source needed]}

Maternal mortality

Maternal mortality or maternal death is defined by WHO as «the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.»^[54] In 2008, noting that each year more than 500,000 women die of complications of pregnancy and childbirth and at least seven million experience serious health problems while 50 million more have adverse health consequences after childbirth, the World Health Organization urged midwife training to strengthen maternal and newborn health services. To support the upgrading of midwifery skills the WHO established a midwife training program, Action for Safe Motherhood.^[55]

In 2017, 94% of maternal deaths occur in low and lower middle-income countries. Approximately 86% of maternal deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, with sub-Saharan Africa accounting for around 66% and Southern Asia accounting for around 20%. The main causes of maternal mortality include pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, unsafe abortion, pregnancy complications from malaria and HIV/AIDS, and severe bleeding and infections following childbirth.^[56] Most European countries, Australia, Japan, and Singapore are very safe in regard to childbirth.^{[57][improper synthesis][better source needed]}

In 1990, the US ranked 12th of the 14 developed countries that were analyzed and since that time the death rates of every country have steadily improved while the US rate has spiked dramatically. While the others that were analyzed in 1990 show a 2017 death rate of fewer than 10 deaths per every 100,000 live births, the U.S. rate rose to 26.4. Furthermore, for every one of the 700 to 900 women who die in the U.S. each year during pregnancy or childbirth, 70 experience significant complications, totaling more than one percent of all births.^[58][59]

Reproductive rights and freedom

Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics has stated that:^[60]

… the human rights of women include their right to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. Equal relationships between women and men in matters of sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the integrity of the person, require mutual respect, consent and shared responsibility for sexual behavior and its consequences.

The World Health Organization reports that based on data from 2010 to 2014, 56 million induced abortions occurred worldwide each year (25% of all pregnancies). Of those, about 25 million were considered as unsafe. The WHO reports that in developed regions about 30 women die for every 100,000 unsafe abortions and that number rises to 220 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in developing regions and 520 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO ascribes these deaths to:

• restrictive laws
• poor availability of services
• high cost
• stigma
• conscientious objection of health-care providers
• unnecessary requirements, such as mandatory waiting periods, mandatory counseling, provision of misleading information, third-party authorization, and medically unnecessary tests that delay care.^[61]

Culture and gender roles

In recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. At some earlier points in history, children’s occupational aspirations starting at a young age differed according to gender.^[62] Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, especially working class women, although this often remained an ideal,^[specify] economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men.^{[citation needed]}

As changes in the labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only «dirty», long hour factory jobs to «cleaner», more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded. Women’s participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 6% in 1900 to 23% in 1923. These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes towards women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented.^{[citation needed]}

In the 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. Throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalize conditions for men and women in the workplace. Even so, the inequalities at home hampered women’s opportunities: professional women were still generally considered responsible for domestic labor and child care, which limited the time and energy they could devote to their careers. Until the early 20th century, U.S. women’s colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, «Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career.» (p. 93).^[63]

Movements advocate equality of opportunity for both sexes and equal rights irrespective of gender. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement, in recent decades women in many societies have gained access to careers beyond the traditional homemaker. Despite these advances, modern women in Western society still face challenges in the workplace as well as with the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and motherhood, and others. Sexism can be a main concern and barrier for women almost anywhere, though its forms, perception, and gravity vary between societies and social classes. There has been an increase in the endorsement of egalitarian gender roles in the home by both women and men.^{[64][failed verification]}

Although a greater number of women are seeking higher education, their salaries are often less than those of men. CBS News said in 2005 that in the United States women who are ages 30 to 44 and hold a university degree make 62% of what similarly qualified men do, a lower rate than in all but three of the 19 countries for which numbers are available. Some Western nations with greater inequality in pay are Germany, New Zealand and Switzerland.^[65]

Violence against women

The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines «violence against women» as:^[66]

any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.

It identifies three forms of such violence: that which occurs in the family, that which occurs within the general community, and that which is perpetrated or condoned by the State. It also states that «violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women».^[67]

Violence against women remains a widespread problem, fueled, especially outside the West, by patriarchal social values, lack of adequate laws, and lack of enforcement of existing laws. Social norms that exist in many parts of the world hinder progress towards protecting women from violence. For example, according to surveys by UNICEF, the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, and 80% in the Central African Republic.^[68] A 2010 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that stoning as a punishment for adultery was supported by 82% of respondents in Egypt and Pakistan, 70% in Jordan, 56% Nigeria, and 42% in Indonesia.^[69]

Specific forms of violence that affect women include female genital mutilation, sex trafficking, forced prostitution, forced marriage, rape, sexual harassment, honor killings, acid throwing, and dowry related violence. Governments can be complicit in violence against women, such as when stoning is used as a legal punishment, mostly for women accused of adultery.^[70]

There have also been many forms of violence against women which have been prevalent historically, notably the burning of witches, the sacrifice of widows (such as sati) and foot binding. The prosecution of women accused of witchcraft has a long tradition; for example, during the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries), witch trials were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.^[71][72][73] In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In Saudi Arabia, witchcraft remains a crime punishable by death, and in 2011 the country beheaded a woman for ‘witchcraft and sorcery’.^[74][75]

It is also the case that certain forms of violence against women have been recognized as criminal offenses only during recent decades, and are not universally prohibited, in that many countries continue to allow them. This is especially the case with marital rape.^[76][77] In the Western World, there has been a trend towards ensuring gender equality within marriage and prosecuting domestic violence, but in many parts of the world women still lose significant legal rights when entering a marriage.^[78]

Sexual violence against women greatly increases during times of war and armed conflict, during military occupation, or ethnic conflicts; most often in the form of war rape and sexual slavery. Contemporary examples of sexual violence during war include rape during the Armenian Genocide, rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War, rape in the Bosnian War, rape during the Rwandan genocide, and rape during Second Congo War. In Colombia, the armed conflict has also resulted in increased sexual violence against women.^[79] The most recent case was the sexual jihad done by ISIL where 5000–7000 Yazidi and Christian girls and children were sold into sexual slavery during the genocide and rape of Yazidi and Christian women, some of whom jumped to their death from Mount Sinjar, as described in a witness statement.^[80]

Laws and policies on violence against women vary by jurisdiction. In the European Union, sexual harassment and human trafficking are subject to directives.^[81][82]

History

The earliest women whose names are known include:

• Neithhotep (c. 3200 BCE), the wife of Narmer and the first queen of ancient Egypt.^[83][84]
• Merneith (c. 3000 BCE), consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right.^[85][86]
• Peseshet (c. 2600 BCE), a physician in Ancient Egypt.^[87][88]
• Puabi (c. 2600 BCE), or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur (royal wives) include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, and Gansamannu.^[89]
• Kugbau (circa 2,500 BCE), a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as «Kubaba».
• Tashlultum (c. 2400 BCE), Akkadian queen, wife of Sargon of Akkad and mother of Enheduanna.^[90][91]
• Baranamtarra (c. 2384 BCE), prominent and influential queen of Lugalanda of Lagash. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of the first Lagash dynasty include Menbara-abzu, Ashume’eren, Ninkhilisug, Dimtur, and Shagshag, and the names of several princesses are also known.
• Enheduanna (c. 2285 BCE),^[92][93] the high priestess of the temple of the Moon God in the Sumerian city-state of Ur and possibly the first known poet and first named author of either gender.^[94]
• Shibtu (c. 1775 BCE), king Zimrilim’s consort and queen of the Syrian city-state of Mari. During her husband’s absence, she ruled as regent of Mari and enjoyed extensive administrative powers as queen.^[95]

Clothing, fashion and dress codes

Women in different parts of the world dress in different ways, with their choices of clothing being influenced by local culture, religious tenets, traditions, social norms, and fashion trends, amongst other factors. Different societies have different ideas about modesty. However, in many jurisdictions, women’s choices in regard to dress are not always free, with laws limiting what they may or may not wear. This is especially the case in regard to Islamic dress. While certain jurisdictions legally mandate such clothing (the wearing of the headscarf), other countries forbid or restrict the wearing of certain hijab attire (such as burqa/covering the face) in public places (one such country is France – see French ban on face covering). These laws – both those mandating and those prohibiting certain articles of dress – are highly controversial.^[96]

Fertility and family life

Further information: Mother

The total fertility rate (TFR) – the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime – differs significantly between different regions of the world. In 2016, the highest estimated TFR was in Niger (6.62 children born per woman) and the lowest in Singapore (0.82 children/woman).^[98] While most Sub-Saharan African countries have a high TFR, which creates problems due to lack of resources and contributes to overpopulation, most Western countries currently experience a sub replacement fertility rate which may lead to population ageing and population decline.

In many parts of the world, there has been a change in family structure over the past few decades. For instance, in the West, there has been a trend of moving away from living arrangements that include the extended family to those which only consist of the nuclear family. There has also been a trend to move from marital fertility to non-marital fertility. Children born outside marriage may be born to cohabiting couples or to single women. While births outside marriage are common and fully accepted in some parts of the world, in other places they are highly stigmatized, with unmarried mothers facing ostracism, including violence from family members, and in extreme cases even honor killings.^[99][100] In addition, sex outside marriage remains illegal in many countries (such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,^[101] Afghanistan,^[102][103] Iran,^[103] Kuwait,^[104] Maldives,^[105] Morocco,^[106] Oman,^[107] Mauritania,^[108] United Arab Emirates,^[109][110] Sudan,^[111] and Yemen^[112]).

The social role of the mother differs between cultures. In many parts of the world, women with dependent children are expected to stay at home and dedicate all their energy to child raising, while in other places mothers most often return to paid work (see working mother and stay-at-home mother).

Religion

Particular religious doctrines have specific stipulations relating to gender roles, social and private interaction between the sexes, appropriate dressing attire for women, and various other issues affecting women and their position in society. In many countries, these religious teachings influence the criminal law, or the family law of those jurisdictions (see Sharia law, for example). The relation between religion, law and gender equality has been discussed by international organizations.^[113]

Education

Single-sex education has traditionally been dominant and is still highly relevant. Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education. For example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelor’s degrees, 60% of master’s degrees, and 50% of doctorates.^[114][115]

The educational gender gap in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries has been reduced over the last 30 years. Younger women today are far more likely to have completed a tertiary qualification: in 19 of the 30 OECD countries, more than twice as many women aged 25 to 34 have completed tertiary education than have women aged 55 to 64. In 21 of 27 OECD countries with comparable data, the number of women graduating from university-level programs is equal to or exceeds that of men. 15-year-old girls tend to show much higher expectations for their careers than boys of the same age.^[116]
While women account for more than half of university graduates in several OECD countries, they receive only 30% of tertiary degrees granted in science and engineering fields, and women account for only 25% to 35% of researchers in most OECD countries.^[117]

Research shows that while women are studying at prestigious universities at the same rate as men they are not being given the same chance to join the faculty. Sociologist Harriet Zuckerman has observed that the more prestigious an institute is, the more difficult and time-consuming it will be for women to obtain a faculty position there. In 1989, Harvard University tenured its first woman in chemistry, Cynthia Friend, and in 1992 its first woman in physics, Melissa Franklin. She also observed that women were more likely to hold their first professional positions as instructors and lecturers while men are more likely to work first in tenure positions. According to Smith and Tang, as of 1989, 65% of men and only 40% of women held tenured positions and only 29% of all scientists and engineers employed as assistant professors in four-year colleges and universities were women.^[118]

In 1992, women earned 9% of the PhDs awarded in engineering, but only one percent of those women became professors. In 1995, 11% of professors in science and engineering were women. In relation, only 311 deans of engineering schools were women, which is less than 1% of the total. Even in psychology, a degree in which women earn the majority of PhDs, they hold a significant amount of fewer tenured positions, roughly 19% in 1994.^[119]

Literacy

World literacy is lower for women than for men. In 2020, 87% of the world’s women were literate, compared to 90% of men. But sub-Saharan Africa and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 59% of women in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.^[120]

Women in politics

Women are underrepresented in government in most countries. In January 2019, the global average of women in national assemblies was 24.3%.^[121] Suffrage is the civil right to vote, and women’s suffrage movements have a long historic timeline. For example, women’s suffrage in the United States was achieved gradually, first at state and local levels in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, then in 1920 when women in the US received universal suffrage with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Some Western countries were slow to allow women to vote, notably Switzerland, where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971, and in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women were granted the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland;^[122][123] and Liechtenstein, in 1984, through a women’s suffrage referendum.

Science, literature and art

Women have, throughout history, made contributions to science, literature and art. One area where women have been permitted most access historically was that of obstetrics and gynecology (prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women in Europe was undertaken by women; from the mid 18th century onwards, medical monitoring of pregnant women started to require rigorous formal education, to which women did not generally have access, and thus the practice was largely transferred to men).^[124][125]

Writing was generally also considered acceptable for upper-class women, although achieving success as a female writer in a male-dominated world could be very difficult; as a result of several women writers adopted a male pen name (e.g. George Sand, George Eliot).^{[citation needed]}

Women have been composers, songwriters, instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music educators, music critics/music journalists and other musical professions. There are music movements,^{[clarification needed]} events and genres related to women, women’s issues and feminism.^{[citation needed]} In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, rock critics and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of women composers in classical music, from the Medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for example, in the Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Schumann is one of the only female composers who is mentioned.

Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and all-female bands. Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres.^[127] Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women became involved in music education «… to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century.»^[128]

According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London’s The Independent, women musicians in classical music are «… too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent» and they face pressure «… to look sexy onstage and in photos.»^[129] Duchen states that while «[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks, … the ones who do tend to be more materially successful.»^[129]

According to the UK’s Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the classical music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the leader of an orchestra.^[130] In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.^[131]

Gender symbol

The glyph (♀) for the planet and Roman goddess Venus, or Aphrodite in Greek, is the symbol used in biology for the female sex.^{[134][135][136]} In ancient alchemy, the Venus symbol stood for copper and was associated with femininity.^[136]

Femininity

Femininity (also called womanliness or girlishness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Although femininity is socially constructed,^[137] some behaviors considered feminine are biologically influenced.^{[137][138][139][140]} The extent to which femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.^{[139][138][140]} It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,^[141][142] as both men and women can exhibit feminine traits.

See also

References

Further reading

• Chafe, William H. Archived 2009-01-13 at the Wayback Machine, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, And Political Roles, 1920–1970, Oxford University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-19-501785-4
• Rosalie Maggio, ed. (1996). The New Beacon Book of Quotations by Women (1st ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-6783-0.
• Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women, 4 vls., ed. by Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender, Routledge 2000
• Women in World History : a biographical encyclopedia, 17 vls., ed. by Anne Commire, Waterford, Conn. [etc.] : Yorkin Publ. [etc.], 1999–2002
• Woman In all ages and in all countries in 10 volumes. Illustrated edition deluxe limited to 1,000 numbered copies with an index by Rénald Lévesque

External links

The inspiration for this article came from a colleague and friend of mine who works at the Irish Language Unit of the European Parliament, whose obsession for etymology has soon infected me too.

Starting with the Irish I set out to collect the etymologies of the word ‘woman’ and its equivalents in other European languages, a concept that nowadays defines almost four billions human beings.

What I immediately noticed is that ‘woman’, being such a fundamental word, does not show interlinguistic similarity across the Indo-European language family unlike, for instance, ‘mother’ (μητέρα in Greek, Mutter in Greek, matha in Sanskrit, madre in Italian and Spanish, mère in French, мать in Russian or máthair in Irish).

Before diving into the etymology of ‘woman’ in different languages, let us look at some Irish vocabulary to understand how words travel through time and from one language community to another.

In his Irish-English Dictionary published in 1832, John O’Brien includes some etymological information in the entry for ben or bean:

“Ben, or Bean,  a woman. […] Note this celtic word Ben is the celtic origin of the latin Venus, which means a woman[…]”

John O’Brien also attributes the origin of the word beine (evening) to the same Latin root:

“So called from the bright appearance of the planet Venus at the setting of the sun” .

Interestingly, the goddess Freyja in Norse mythology – treated as a counterpart to the Roman goddess Venus –, is believed to have given rise to ‘Friday’ (the day of Venus) and its equivalents in the Germanic languages.

It may be worth pointing out now that the name of the greatest God of the greek Pantheon, Zeus, (from Vedic Sanskrit Dyaus, which immediately leads to the latin Deus) stands as the root of the word “day”, as you can read in this excerpt from Michiel de Vaan’s  Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the Other Italic Languages:

The Latin forms Diespiter, Dispiter, U. di, dei together with the word diēs ‘day’ point to the generalization of a stem *dijē-, whereas Iūpiter, Iovis reflect PIt. *djow-. These can be derived from a single PIE paradigm for ‘(god of the) sky, day-light’, which phonetically split in two in PIt. and yielded two new stems with semantic specialization. Syllabic *dij- in the nom.acc.sg. can stem from the oblique cases (gen.sg. *diwos, etc.), in which syllabic *di- occurred. The acc.sg. *dijēm led to the creation of a new nom.sg. *dijēs and a separate paradigm meaning ‘day’ […]

All these considerations lead to the conclusion that for some reason the duality day-night seems to arise, to a certain extent,  from the duality God-Goddess. Maybe pitifully maybe not it is not possible to explore further along these traces in the present context.
In the conclusion, taking into account the Hebrew language, we will try again to follow this semantic approach, which assigns to a given concept not a conventional but very meaningful sequence of letters winking explicitly to its ontological derivation.

THE ETYMOLOGY OF ‘WOMAN’ IN SOME EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

Those who tend to reflect on the English language have most likely noticed the prefixed nature of the word in question. In its entry for ‘woman’, the Online Etymology Dictionary traces the origin of the word back to late Old English.

woman (n.)
“adult female human,” late Old English wimman, wiman (plural wimmen), literally “woman-man,” alteration of wifman (plural wifmen) “woman, female servant” (8c.), a compound of wif “woman” (see wife) + man “human being” (in Old English used in reference to both sexes; see man (n.)). Compare Dutch vrouwmens “wife,” literally “woman-man.”

It is no surprise that the Century Dictionary comments on the word formation of ‘woman-man’.

It is notable that it was thought necessary to join wif, a neuter noun, representing a female person, to man, a masc. noun representing either a male or female person, to form a word denoting a female person exclusively.

Polysemy may compel speakers to create new words to disambiguate concepts. Meaning both ‘wife’ and ‘woman’, the Old English wīf was combined to simply designate a female human. It should not shock the reader that the German Weib is a cognate with ‘wife’. However, for Frau we need to look somewhere else.

In Italian its origin seems to be pretty straightforward: donna derived from the Latin domina, which means ‘lady’ or ‘mistress of the house’.

The French language shows the women as a femme (from Latin femina), an “être humain du sexe féminin”, which is  mainly used as wife (compagne de l’homme unie par les liens du mariage).

In its Dictionary of the Spanish language, the Royal Spanish Academy points at the Latin mulier as a very transparent ancestor of the Spanish mujer. Both still meaning ‘woman’ and ‘wife’ (as in Italian, where moglie means exclusively ‘wife’), the Spanish mujer seems to have undergone a very light phonetic change, while staying semantically frozen in time. The origin of the Latin mullier remains uncertain, although it has been proposed that it might derive from the Latin adjective mollis for ‘soft’, while others suggest it might derive from the verb mulgere, which means ‘to breastfeed’.

Conclusion

The origin of a word, which as observed is linked to a peculiar point of view on the reality, does not set in stone the real meaning of a concept.
The concept never changes. It is the representation of a concept, whose real nature is meant to be conventional and intersubjective, which can change even heavily during the centuries. Pitifully, the word can only change slightly, and anyway not at the same speed of the representation related to her.
A word prefers to die, or to start defining something else, instead of changing and at the same time continuing to be linked to the same concept.

The attempt of historical semantics we mentioned in the foreword and we are now performing seems to be even bolder in its purposes than the etymological one.

As foretold,  let’s give a try to this methodology with the Hebrew language, with the hope to unveil some surprising treats.

The Bible tells us that in principle the Lord created the man ( איש) and the woman (אשה).

As you can see these two words have some letters in common and some different ones.

What does come out if a man and a woman put together their differences (e.g. the letters they do not share, ‘ and ה)?

יה , which means God.

What happens if we remove all differences between them (therefore removing the aforementioned letters)?

אש , which means “fire”.

WOW, MAN!

This kind of considerations, even if not genuinely scientific, gives an idea on how a culture influences its language, not only by modifying but also by creating it.
This kind of ontological complementarity and equality  between the sexes, moreover backed from the further verse “So God created man in his own image,  in the image of God he created him; male and female He created them”, totally demystify the “religious argument” given for centuries as main reason for gender disparity.

On the other hand, given the conventional and contextual basic nature of the language, it should not represent an issue to eventually continue using words whose origin may seem wretched to sensitive philologists, but indeed plays no role in shaping the awareness of common people, may be even on a mere subconscious level.

References

John O’Brien, Focalóir Gaoidhilge-sax-bhéarla Or an Irish-English Dictionary, Books Google, Accessed date: 26/06/2019

Woman, Online Etimology Dictionary, Accessed date: 26/06/2019

Donna, Dizionario Etimologico Online, Accessed date: 26/06/2019

Mulier, Wiktionary, Accessed date: 30/07/2019

Femme, Centre Nationale de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales, Accessed date: 26/06/2019

Etimología de Mujer, Etimologías Latin Chistes Refranes Ciudades de Chile, de California, de Rusía, Last Update: Aril 2019, Accessed date: 26/06/2019

Frau, Wahrig Herkunftswörterbuch, Accessed date: 26/06/2019

Michiel de Vaan, Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the Other Italic Languages, Brill, 2008, Accessed date: 26/07/2019

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Written by Cosimo Palma

I studied philosophy, historical philosophy, philosophical history and history in the redundant Naples, computational linguistics and informatics in the city of Marx.
Language enthusiast and chess player in the free time, until the end of August I will spend my busy time in the Tower A of the European Parliament in Luxembourg, trying to do my best in the communication as well as in the operational department of the Terminology unit.

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Woman

Left to right from top: Sappho  • Venus  • Joan of Arc  • Eva Perón  • Marie Curie  • Indira Gandhi  • Venus of Willendorf  • Wangari Maathai  • Mother Teresa  • Grace Hopper  • Mamechiho, a Geisha  • a Tibetian farmer  • Marilyn Monroe  • Oprah Winfrey  • Aung San Suu Kyi  • Mata Hari  • Isis  • the Queen of Sheba  • Elizabeth I  • Florence Owens Thompson

A woman (/ˈwʊmən/), pl: women (/ˈwɪmɨn/) is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the term girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. However, the term woman is also sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age, as in phrases such as «Women’s rights».

Etymology

The Old English wifman meant «female human» (werman meant «male human». Man or mann had a gender neutral meaning of «human», corresponding to Modern English «one» or «someone». However in around 1000AD «man» started to be used more to refer to «male human», and in the late 1200s began to inevitably displace and eradicate the original word «werman»).^[1] The medial labial consonants coalesced to create the modern form «woman»; the initial element, which meant «female,» underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman («wife»).

A very common Indo-European root for woman, *g^wen-, is the source of English queen (Old English cwēn primarily meant woman, highborn or not; this is still the case in Danish, with the modern spelling kvinde, as well as in Swedish kvinna), as well as gynaecology (from Greek γυνή gynē), banshee fairy woman (from Irish bean woman, sí fairy) and zenana (from Persian زن zan). The Latin fēmina, whence female, is likely from the root in fellāre (to suck), referring to breastfeeding.^[2][3]

The symbol for the planet Venus is the sign also used in biology for the female sex. It is a stylized representation of the goddess Venus’s hand mirror or an abstract symbol for the goddess: a circle with a small equilateral cross underneath (Unicode: ♀). The Venus symbol also represented femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper. Alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle (representing spirit) above an equilateral cross (representing matter).

Terminology

Womanhood is the period in a female’s life after she has transitioned through childhood and adolescence, generally age 18. Puberty generally begins at about age 10, followed by menarche at age 12 to 13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize a girl’s coming of age, such as confirmation in some branches of Christianity, bat mitzvah in Judaism, or even just the custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the Quinceañera of Latin America. The word woman can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with girl. The word girl originally meant «young person of either sex» in English;^{[citation needed]} it was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a female child. The term girl is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman, however during the early 1970s feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer used.

Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honor with female virginity, the word girl is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the obsolete English maid or maiden. Referring to an unmarried female as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced, which would be an insult to her family.

There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman. The term «womanhood» merely means the state of being a woman, having passed the menarche; «femininity» is used to refer to a set of supposedly typical female qualities associated with a certain attitude to gender roles; «womanliness» is like «femininity», but is usually associated with a different view of gender roles; «femaleness» is a general term, but is often used as shorthand for «human femaleness»; «distaff» is an archaic adjective derived from women’s conventional role as a spinner, now used only as a deliberate archaism; «muliebrity» is a neologism (derived from the Latin) meant to provide a female counterpart of «virility», but used very loosely, sometimes to mean merely «womanhood», sometimes «femininity» and sometimes even as a collective term for women.

History

The earliest women whose names are known were:

• Enheduanna,^[4][5] born c. 2285 BCE, was the high priestess of the temple of the Moon God in the Sumerian city-state of Ur and possibly the first poet and first named author of either gender.^[6]
• Tashlultum, fl. late 24th-early 23rd centuries BCE, Akkadian queen, wife of Sargon of Akkad, and mother of Enheduanna.^[7][8]
• Peseshet, c. 2600 BCE, was a physician in ancient Egypt.^[9][10]
• Merit-Ptah, c. 2700 BCE, also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist.^[11]
• Merneith, c. 3000 BCE was a consort and a regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right.^[12][13]
• Neithhotep, c. 3200 BCE, was the wife of Narmer and the first queen of ancient Egypt.^[14][15]

Biology and gender

In terms of biology, the female sex organs are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the secondary sex characteristics are involved in nurturing children or, in some cultures, attracting a mate. The ovaries, in addition to their regulatory function producing hormones, produce female gametes called eggs which, when fertilized by male gametes (sperm), form new genetic individuals. The uterus is an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing fetus and muscle to expel it when giving birth. The vagina is used in copulation and birthing (although the word vagina is often colloquially and incorrectly used for the vulva or external female genitalia, which also includes the labia, the clitoris, and the female urethra). The breast evolved from the sweat gland to produce milk, a nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth. In mature women, the breast is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is probably at least partially the result of sexual selection. (For other ways in which men commonly differ physically from women, see Man.)

An imbalance of maternal hormonal levels and some chemicals (or drugs) may alter the secondary sexual characteristics of fetuses. Most women have the karyotype 46,XX, but around one in a thousand will be 47,XXX, and one in 2500 will be 45,X. This contrasts with the typical male karotype of 46,XY; thus, the X and Y chromosomes are known as female and male, respectively. Because humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from the mother’s ovum, genetic studies of the female line tend to focus on mitochondrial DNA.

Biological factors are not sufficient determinants of whether a person considers herself a woman or is considered a woman. Intersex individuals, who have mixed physical and/or genetic features, may use other criteria in making a clear determination. There are also transgender or transsexual women, who were born or physically assigned as male at birth, but identify as women; there are varying social, legal and individual definitions with regard to these issues. (See trans woman.)

Although fewer females than males are born (the ratio is around 1:1.05), due to a longer life expectancy there are only 81 men aged 60 or over for every 100 women of the same age. Women typically have a longer life expectancy than men.^[16] This is due to a combination of factors: genetics (redundant and varied genes present on sex chromosomes in women); sociology (such as not being expected in most countries to perform military service); health-impacting choices (such as suicide or the use of cigarettes, and alcohol); the presence of the female hormone estrogen, which has a cardioprotective effect in premenopausal women; and the effect of high levels of androgens in men. Out of the total human population, there are 101.3 men for every 100 women (source: 2001 World Almanac).

Most women go through menarche and are then able to become pregnant and bear children.^[17] This generally requires internal fertilization of her eggs with the sperm of a man through sexual intercourse, though artificial insemination or the surgical implantation of an existing embryo is also possible (see reproductive technology). The study of female reproduction and reproductive organs is called gynaecology.

There are some diseases that primarily affect women, such as lupus. Also, there are some sex-related illnesses that are found more frequently or exclusively in women, e.g., breast cancer, cervical cancer, or ovarian cancer. Women and men may have different symptoms of an illness and may also respond differently to medical treatment. This area of medical research is studied by gender-based medicine.

During early fetal development, embryos of both sexes appear gender-neutral; the release of hormones is what changes physical appearance male or female. As in cases without two sexes, such as species that reproduce asexually, the gender-neutral appearance is closer to female than to male.

Culture and gender roles

In many prehistoric cultures, women assumed a particular cultural role. In hunter-gatherer societies, women were generally the gatherers of plant foods, small animal foods, fish, and learned to use dairy products, while men hunted meat from large animals. These tasks were often given to the women because they were not only seen as safe, but also as easy. Men had a hard time relying on women for food. Because the hunger and survival of the society trumped anything else, men decided that women could not be trusted with feeding an entire society.Other anthropologists however have suggested that women only began to follow this behavior after permanent settlement had been made, thus making these gender roles a result of civilization rather than evolution.^{[citation needed]}

In more recent history, the gender roles of women have changed greatly. Traditionally, middle-class women were typically involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, especially working class women, although this often remained an ideal,^[specify] economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home. The occupations that were available to them were, however, lower in pay than those available to men.

As changes in the labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only «dirty», long houred factory jobs to «cleaner», more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded, women’s participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 6% in 1900 to 23% in 1923. These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes of women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented.

Movements advocate equality of opportunity for both sexes and equal rights irrespective of gender. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement,^[specify] in recent decades women in most societies now have access to careers beyond the traditional homemaker.

Although a greater number of women are seeking higher education, salaries often continue to be less than those of men. In the United States women who are ages 30 to 44 and hold a university degree make only 62 percent of what similarly qualified men do, a lower rate than in all but three of the 19 countries for which numbers are available. The nations with greater inequity in pay are Germany, New Zealand and Switzerland.^[18]

Education

OECD countries

Education

The educational gender gap in Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries has been reduced over the last 30 years. Younger women today are far more likely to have completed a tertiary qualification: in 19 of the 30 OECD countries, more than twice as many women aged 25 to 34 have completed tertiary education than have women aged 55 to 64. In 21 of 27 OECD countries with comparable data, the number of women graduating from university-level programmes is equal to or exceeds that of men. 15-year-old girls tend to show much higher expectations for their careers than boys of the same age.^[19]

While women account for more than half of university graduates in several OECD countries, they receive only 30% of tertiary degrees granted in science and engineering fields, and women account for only 25% to 35% of researchers in most OECD countries.^[20]

See also

• Lady
• Sex assignment
• Trans woman
• Lists of women

Medical:

• Childbirth
• Feminine psychology
• Gender differences
• Obstetrics

Dynamics:

• Femininity
• Feminization (sociology)
• Matriarchy
• Misogyny
• Mitochondrial Eve
• Sexism
• Women in science
• Women in religion

Political:

• Feminism
• Gender studies
• Womyn

References

Further reading

• Chafe, William H., «The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, And Political Roles, 1920–1970», Oxford University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-19-501785-4
• Roget’s II: The New Thesaurus, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003 3rd edition) ISBN 0-618-25414-5
• McWhorter, John. ‘The Uses of Ugliness’, The New Republic Online, January 31, 2002. Retrieved May 11, 2005 [«bitch» as an affectionate term]
• McWhorter, John. Authentically Black: Essays for the Black Silent Majority (New York: Gotham, 2003) ISBN 1-59240-001-9 [casual use of «bitch» in ebonics]
• Routledge international encyclopedia of women, 4 vls., ed. by Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender, Routledge 2000
• Women in world history : a biographical encyclopedia, 17 vls., ed. by Anne Commire, Waterford, Conn. [etc.] : Yorkin Publ. [etc.], 1999–2002

External links

History

• Women’s History in America
• A History of Women’s Entrance into Medicine in France studies and digitized texts by the BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d’odontologie, Paris) see its digital library Medic@.

Religion

• Women and Christianity: representations and practices
• Women in Islam