The word theory mean

A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may be scientific, belong to a non-scientific discipline, or no discipline at all. Depending on the context, a theory’s assertions might, for example, include generalized explanations of how nature works. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several related meanings.

In modern science, the term «theory» refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with the scientific method, and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for it, or empirical contradiction («falsify») of it. Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge,^[1] in contrast to more common uses of the word «theory» that imply that something is unproven or speculative (which in formal terms is better characterized by the word hypothesis).^[2] Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable conjectures, and from scientific laws, which are descriptive accounts of the way nature behaves under certain conditions.

Theories guide the enterprise of finding facts rather than of reaching goals, and are neutral concerning alternatives among values.^[3]: 131 A theory can be a body of knowledge, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models. To theorize is to develop this body of knowledge.^[4]: 46

The word theory or «in theory» is sometimes used erroneously by people to explain something which they individually did not experience or test before.^[5] In those instances, semantically, it is being substituted for another concept, a hypothesis. Instead of using the word «hypothetically», it is replaced by a phrase: «in theory». In some instances the theory’s credibility could be contested by calling it «just a theory» (implying that the idea has not even been tested).^[6] Hence, that word «theory» is very often contrasted to «practice» (from Greek praxis, πρᾶξις) a Greek term for doing, which is opposed to theory.^[6] A «classical example» of the distinction between «theoretical» and «practical» uses the discipline of medicine: medical theory involves trying to understand the causes and nature of health and sickness, while the practical side of medicine is trying to make people healthy. These two things are related but can be independent, because it is possible to research health and sickness without curing specific patients, and it is possible to cure a patient without knowing how the cure worked.^[a]

Ancient usage[edit]

The English word theory derives from a technical term in philosophy in Ancient Greek. As an everyday word, theoria, θεωρία, meant «looking at, viewing, beholding», but in more technical contexts it came to refer to contemplative or speculative understandings of natural things, such as those of natural philosophers, as opposed to more practical ways of knowing things, like that of skilled orators or artisans.^[b] English-speakers have used the word theory since at least the late 16th century.^[7] Modern uses of the word theory derive from the original definition, but have taken on new shades of meaning, still based on the idea of a theory as a thoughtful and rational explanation of the general nature of things.

Although it has more mundane meanings in Greek, the word θεωρία apparently developed special uses early in the recorded history of the Greek language. In the book From Religion to Philosophy, Francis Cornford suggests that the Orphics used the word theoria to mean «passionate sympathetic contemplation».^[8] Pythagoras changed the word to mean «the passionless contemplation of rational, unchanging truth» of mathematical knowledge, because he considered this intellectual pursuit the way to reach the highest plane of existence.^[9] Pythagoras emphasized subduing emotions and bodily desires to help the intellect function at the higher plane of theory. Thus, it was Pythagoras who gave the word theory the specific meaning that led to the classical and modern concept of a distinction between theory (as uninvolved, neutral thinking) and practice.^[10]

Aristotle’s terminology, as already mentioned, contrasts theory with praxis or practice, and this contrast exists till today. For Aristotle, both practice and theory involve thinking, but the aims are different. Theoretical contemplation considers things humans do not move or change, such as nature, so it has no human aim apart from itself and the knowledge it helps create. On the other hand, praxis involves thinking, but always with an aim to desired actions, whereby humans cause change or movement themselves for their own ends. Any human movement that involves no conscious choice and thinking could not be an example of praxis or doing.^[c]

Formality[edit]

Theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining, and making predictions about a given subject matter. There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including the arts and sciences. A formal theory is syntactic in nature and is only meaningful when given a semantic component by applying it to some content (e.g., facts and relationships of the actual historical world as it is unfolding). Theories in various fields of study are expressed in natural language, but are always constructed in such a way that their general form is identical to a theory as it is expressed in the formal language of mathematical logic. Theories may be expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally expected to follow principles of rational thought or logic.

Theory is constructed of a set of sentences that are entirely true statements about the subject under consideration. However, the truth of any one of these statements is always relative to the whole theory. Therefore, the same statement may be true with respect to one theory, and not true with respect to another. This is, in ordinary language, where statements such as «He is a terrible person» cannot be judged as true or false without reference to some interpretation of who «He» is and for that matter what a «terrible person» is under the theory.^[11]

Sometimes two theories have exactly the same explanatory power because they make the same predictions. A pair of such theories is called indistinguishable or observationally equivalent, and the choice between them reduces to convenience or philosophical preference.

The form of theories is studied formally in mathematical logic, especially in model theory. When theories are studied in mathematics, they are usually expressed in some formal language and their statements are closed under application of certain procedures called rules of inference. A special case of this, an axiomatic theory, consists of axioms (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference. A theorem is a statement that can be derived from those axioms by application of these rules of inference. Theories used in applications are abstractions of observed phenomena and the resulting theorems provide solutions to real-world problems. Obvious examples include arithmetic (abstracting concepts of number), geometry (concepts of space), and probability (concepts of randomness and likelihood).

Gödel’s incompleteness theorem shows that no consistent, recursively enumerable theory (that is, one whose theorems form a recursively enumerable set) in which the concept of natural numbers can be expressed, can include all true statements about them. As a result, some domains of knowledge cannot be formalized, accurately and completely, as mathematical theories. (Here, formalizing accurately and completely means that all true propositions—and only true propositions—are derivable within the mathematical system.) This limitation, however, in no way precludes the construction of mathematical theories that formalize large bodies of scientific knowledge.

Underdetermination[edit]

A theory is underdetermined (also called indeterminacy of data to theory) if a rival, inconsistent theory is at least as consistent with the evidence. Underdetermination is an epistemological issue about the relation of evidence to conclusions.

A theory that lacks supporting evidence is generally, more properly, referred to as a hypothesis.

Intertheoretic reduction and elimination[edit]

If a new theory better explains and predicts a phenomenon than an old theory (i.e., it has more explanatory power), we are justified in believing that the newer theory describes reality more correctly. This is called an intertheoretic reduction because the terms of the old theory can be reduced to the terms of the new one. For instance, our historical understanding about sound, «light» and heat have been reduced to wave compressions and rarefactions, electromagnetic waves, and molecular kinetic energy, respectively. These terms, which are identified with each other, are called intertheoretic identities. When an old and new theory are parallel in this way, we can conclude that the new one describes the same reality, only more completely.

When a new theory uses new terms that do not reduce to terms of an older theory, but rather replace them because they misrepresent reality, it is called an intertheoretic elimination. For instance, the obsolete scientific theory that put forward an understanding of heat transfer in terms of the movement of caloric fluid was eliminated when a theory of heat as energy replaced it. Also, the theory that phlogiston is a substance released from burning and rusting material was eliminated with the new understanding of the reactivity of oxygen.

Versus theorems[edit]

Theories are distinct from theorems. A theorem is derived deductively from axioms (basic assumptions) according to a formal system of rules, sometimes as an end in itself and sometimes as a first step toward being tested or applied in a concrete situation; theorems are said to be true in the sense that the conclusions of a theorem are logical consequences of the axioms. Theories are abstract and conceptual, and are supported or challenged by observations in the world. They are ‘rigorously tentative’, meaning that they are proposed as true and expected to satisfy careful examination to account for the possibility of faulty inference or incorrect observation. Sometimes theories are incorrect, meaning that an explicit set of observations contradicts some fundamental objection or application of the theory, but more often theories are corrected to conform to new observations, by restricting the class of phenomena the theory applies to or changing the assertions made. An example of the former is the restriction of classical mechanics to phenomena involving macroscopic length scales and particle speeds much lower than the speed of light.

The theory–practice gap[edit]

Theory is often distinguished from practice. The question of whether theoretical models of work are relevant to work itself is of interest to scholars of professions such as medicine, engineering, and law, and management.^[12]: 802

This gap between theory and practice has been framed as a knowledge transfer where there is a task of translating research knowledge to be application in practice, and ensuring that practitioners are made aware of it academics have been criticized for not attempting to transfer the knowledge they produce to practitioners.^{[12]: 804 [13]} Another framing supposes that theory and knowledge seek to understand different problems and model the world in different words (using different ontologies and epistemologies) . Another framing says that research does not produce theory that is relevant to practice.^[12]: 803

In the context of management, Van de Van and Johnson propose a form of engaged scholarship where scholars examine problems that occur in practice, in an interdisciplinary fashion, producing results that create both new practical results as well as new theoretical models, but targeting theoretical results shared in an academic fashion.^[12]: 815 They use a metaphor of «arbitrage» of ideas between disciplines, distinguishing it from collaboration.^[12]: 803

Scientific[edit]

In science, the term «theory» refers to «a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.»^[14][15] Theories must also meet further requirements, such as the ability to make falsifiable predictions with consistent accuracy across a broad area of scientific inquiry, and production of strong evidence in favor of the theory from multiple independent sources (consilience).

The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, which is measured by its ability to make falsifiable predictions with respect to those phenomena. Theories are improved (or replaced by better theories) as more evidence is gathered, so that accuracy in prediction improves over time; this increased accuracy corresponds to an increase in scientific knowledge. Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing diseases.

Definitions from scientific organizations[edit]

The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as follows:

The formal scientific definition of «theory» is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things are not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is not composed of atoms, or that the surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over geological timescales (the theory of plate tectonics) … One of the most useful properties of scientific theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not yet been observed.^[16]

From the American Association for the Advancement of Science:

A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not «guesses» but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than «just a theory.» It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact.^[15]

The term theory is not appropriate for describing scientific models or untested, but intricate hypotheses.

Philosophical views[edit]

The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as deductive theories—that a theory’s content is based on some formal system of logic and on basic axioms. In a deductive theory, any sentence which is a logical consequence of one or more of the axioms is also a sentence of that theory.^[11] This is called the received view of theories.

In the semantic view of theories, which has largely replaced the received view,^[17][18] theories are viewed as scientific models. A model is a logical framework intended to represent reality (a «model of reality»), similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country. In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria. (See Theories as models for further discussion.)

In physics[edit]

In physics the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries, like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—which is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. One good example is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell’s equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed «laws of electromagnetism», reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situations. Many of these hypotheses are already considered adequately tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps untested.

Regarding the term «theoretical»[edit]

Certain tests may be infeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not been confirmed or proven incorrect. These predictions may be described informally as «theoretical». They can be tested later, and if they are incorrect, this may lead to revision, invalidation, or rejection of the theory.
^[19]

Mathematical[edit]

In mathematics the use of the term theory is different, necessarily so, since mathematics contains no explanations of natural phenomena, per se, even though it may help provide insight into natural systems or be inspired by them. In the general sense, a mathematical theory is a branch of or topic in mathematics, such as Set theory, Number theory, Group theory, Probability theory, Game theory, Control theory, Perturbation theory, etc., such as might be appropriate for a single textbook.

In the same sense, but more specifically, the word theory is an extensive, structured collection of theorems, organized so that the proof of each theorem only requires the theorems and axioms that preceded it (no circular proofs), occurs as early as feasible in sequence (no postponed proofs), and the whole is as succinct as possible (no redundant proofs).^[d] Ideally, the sequence in which the theorems are presented is as easy to understand as possible, although illuminating a branch of mathematics is the purpose of textbooks, rather than the mathematical theory they might be written to cover.

Philosophical[edit]

A theory can be either descriptive as in science, or prescriptive (normative) as in philosophy.^[20] The latter are those whose subject matter consists not of empirical data, but rather of ideas. At least some of the elementary theorems of a philosophical theory are statements whose truth cannot necessarily be scientifically tested through empirical observation.

A field of study is sometimes named a «theory» because its basis is some initial set of assumptions describing the field’s approach to the subject. These assumptions are the elementary theorems of the particular theory, and can be thought of as the axioms of that field. Some commonly known examples include set theory and number theory; however literary theory, critical theory, and music theory are also of the same form.

Metatheory[edit]

One form of philosophical theory is a metatheory or meta-theory. A metatheory is a theory whose subject matter is some other theory or set of theories. In other words, it is a theory about theories. Statements made in the metatheory about the theory are called metatheorems.

Political[edit]

A political theory is an ethical theory about the law and government. Often the term «political theory» refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, thought about politics.

Jurisprudential[edit]

In social science, jurisprudence is the philosophical theory of law. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems, and problems of law as a particular social institution.

Examples[edit]

Most of the following are scientific theories. Some are not, but rather encompass a body of knowledge or art, such as Music theory and Visual Arts Theories.

• Anthropology: Carneiro’s circumscription theory
• Astronomy: Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory — B²FH Theory — Copernican theory — Newton’s theory of gravitation — Hubble’s law — Kepler’s laws of planetary motion Ptolemaic theory
• Biology: Cell theory — Chemiosmotic theory — Evolution — Germ theory — Symbiogenesis
• Chemistry: Molecular theory — Kinetic theory of gases — Molecular orbital theory — Valence bond theory — Transition state theory — RRKM theory — Chemical graph theory — Flory–Huggins solution theory — Marcus theory — Lewis theory (successor to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory) — HSAB theory — Debye–Hückel theory — Thermodynamic theory of polymer elasticity — Reptation theory — Polymer field theory — Møller–Plesset perturbation theory — density functional theory — Frontier molecular orbital theory — Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory — Baeyer strain theory — Quantum theory of atoms in molecules — Collision theory — Ligand field theory (successor to Crystal field theory) — Variational transition-state theory — Benson group increment theory — Specific ion interaction theory
• Climatology: Climate change theory (general study of climate changes) and anthropogenic climate change (ACC)/ global warming (AGW) theories (due to human activity)
• Computer Science: Automata theory — Queueing theory
• Cosmology: Big Bang Theory — Cosmic inflation — Loop quantum gravity — Superstring theory — Supergravity — Supersymmetric theory — Multiverse theory — Holographic principle — Quantum gravity — M-theory
• Economics: Macroeconomic theory — Microeconomic theory — Law of Supply and demand
• Education: Constructivist theory — Critical pedagogy theory — Education theory — Multiple intelligence theory — Progressive education theory
• Engineering: Circuit theory — Control theory — Signal theory — Systems theory — Information theory
• Film: Film theory
• Geology: Plate tectonics
• Humanities: Critical theory
• Jurisprudence or ‘Legal theory’: Natural law — Legal positivism — Legal realism — Critical legal studies
• Law: see Jurisprudence; also Case theory
• Linguistics: X-bar theory — Government and Binding — Principles and parameters — Universal grammar
• Literature: Literary theory
• Mathematics: Approximation theory — Arakelov theory — Asymptotic theory — Bifurcation theory — Catastrophe theory — Category theory — Chaos theory — Choquet theory — Coding theory — Combinatorial game theory — Computability theory — Computational complexity theory — Deformation theory — Dimension theory — Ergodic theory — Field theory — Galois theory — Game theory — Gauge theory — Graph theory — Group theory — Hodge theory — Homology theory — Homotopy theory — Ideal theory — Intersection theory — Invariant theory — Iwasawa theory — K-theory — KK-theory — Knot theory — L-theory — Lie theory — Littlewood–Paley theory — Matrix theory — Measure theory — Model theory — Module theory — Morse theory — Nevanlinna theory — Number theory — Obstruction theory — Operator theory — Order theory — PCF theory — Perturbation theory — Potential theory — Probability theory — Ramsey theory — Rational choice theory — Representation theory — Ring theory — Set theory — Shape theory — Small cancellation theory — Spectral theory — Stability theory — Stable theory — Sturm–Liouville theory — Surgery theory — Twistor theory — Yang–Mills theory
• Music: Music theory
• Philosophy: Proof theory — Speculative reason — Theory of truth — Type theory — Value theory — Virtue theory
• Physics: Acoustic theory — Antenna theory — Atomic theory — BCS theory — Conformal field theory — Dirac hole theory — Dynamo theory — Landau theory — M-theory — Perturbation theory — Theory of relativity (successor to classical mechanics) — Gauge theory — Quantum field theory — Scattering theory — String theory — Quantum information theory
• Psychology: Theory of mind — Cognitive dissonance theory — Attachment theory — Object permanence — Poverty of stimulus — Attribution theory — Self-fulfilling prophecy — Stockholm syndrome
• Public Budgeting: Incrementalism — Zero-based budgeting
• Public Administration: Organizational theory
• Semiotics: Intertheoricity – Transferogenesis
• Sociology: Critical theory — Engaged theory — Social theory — Sociological theory – Social capital theory
• Statistics: Extreme value theory
• Theatre: Performance theory
• Visual Arts: Aesthetics — Art educational theory — Architecture — Composition — Anatomy — Color theory — Perspective — Visual perception — Geometry — Manifolds
• Other: Obsolete scientific theories

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

• «How science works: Even theories change», Understanding Science by the University of California Museum of Paleontology.
• What is a Theory?

Science

Mary McMahon

Last Modified Date: April 12, 2023

The word “theory” means a number of different things, depending on the context. In the maths and sciences, for example, it is a tested and testable concept that is used to explain an occurrence. For students of the arts, the term refers to the non-practical aspect of their work, while laypeople refer to unproven ideas and speculation as theories. The multitude of meanings for this word can get confusing, but the intent is usually clear from the context; a mathematical paper talking about a theory, for example, is probably referring to it in the scientific sense.

In English, the word dates back to 1592, when it was used to mean a concept or scheme. By the 1630s, scientists had co-opted the term, using it to describe an explanation or thought that was based on observation and testing. “To theorize” also emerged at around the same time.

In the sciences, theories are created after observation and testing. They are designed to rationally and clearly explain a phenomenon. For example, Isaac Newton came up with a theory about gravity in the 17th century, and it proved to be both testable and correct. Scientific theories are not quite the same thing as facts, but they are often very similar; scientists usually test their theories extensively before airing them, looking for obvious problems which could cause them to be challenged.

In mathematics, theories are bodies of knowledge about specific types of mathematics. Mathematicians use things like set theory in the course of their work. Theoretical mathematics can get quite complex and abstract, making it sometimes difficult for laypeople to understand, but it helps to explain everything from the movement of crowds to the origins of the universe.

In the arts, many artists refer to their non-practical work as theoretical. For example, a musician who plays the tuba would use the term to refer to the study of music history, the math of music, and other related material. Art criticism is also a field of theory, since critics discuss artwork, rather than actively producing it, and through their discussions, they contribute to the overall field.

For laypeople, a theory is simply an idea. Some people use the word like they would “hypothesis,” positing an idea that needs to be tested. At other times, an idea may be dismissed as “just a theory,” with the implication that it cannot be proven and it is only a rough idea, not a firm fact or opinion.

Mary McMahon

Ever since she began contributing to the site several years ago, Mary has embraced the
exciting challenge of being a AllTheScience researcher and writer. Mary has a liberal arts degree from Goddard College and
spends her free time reading, cooking, and exploring the great outdoors.

Mary McMahon

Ever since she began contributing to the site several years ago, Mary has embraced the
exciting challenge of being a AllTheScience researcher and writer. Mary has a liberal arts degree from Goddard College and
spends her free time reading, cooking, and exploring the great outdoors.

You might also Like

Recommended

All modern science has developed from assumptions that initially seemed mythical and implausible. But over time, having accumulated reasoned evidence, these assumptions have become publicly accepted truth. And so the theories arose on which all scientific knowledge of mankind is based. But what is the meaning of the word «theory»? You will learn the answer to this question from our article.

Definition of the concept

There are many definitions of this term. But the optimal ones are those that are used by the scientific environment. Such definitions are taken as a basis.

Theory is a kind of system of ideas in a given area of knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the existing patterns associated with reality.

There is also a more complex definition. A theory is a complex of ideas that are closed in relation to rational following. It is precisely this abstract definition of the term «theory» that logic gives. From the standpoint of this science, any idea can be called a theory.

Typology of scientific theories

For a more accurate understanding of the essence of scientific theories, one should refer to their classification. Methodologists and philosophers of science distinguish between three main types of scientific theories. Let’s consider them separately.

Empirical theories

The first type is traditionally considered to be empirical theories. Examples are Pavlov’s physiological theory, Darwin’s evolutionary theory, developmental theory, psychological and linguistic theories. They are based on a huge mass of experimental facts and explain a certain group of phenomena.

On the basis of these phenomena, generalizations are formulated, and as a result — laws that become the basis on which the theory is built. This is true for other types of theories as well. But a theory of an empirical type is formulated as a result of a descriptive and generalized nature, without observing all logical rules.

Mathematical theories

Mathematical scientific theories constitute the second type of theories in this classification. Their characteristic feature is the use of mathematical apparatus and mathematical models. In such theories, a special mathematical model is created, which is a kind of ideal object that can replace a real object. A striking example of this type are logical theories, theories of elementary particle physics, control theory and many others. As a rule, they are based on the axiomatic method. That is, on the derivation of the main provisions of the theory from several basic axioms. The fundamental axioms must necessarily meet the criteria of objectivity and not contradict each other.

Deductive theoretical systems

The third type of scientific theories is deductive theoretical systems. They appeared due to the task of rationally comprehending and substantiating mathematics. The first deductive theory is considered to be the geometry of Euclid, which was built using the axiomatic method. Deductive theories are built on the basis of the formulation of the main provisions and the subsequent inclusion in the theory of those statements that can be obtained as a result of logical conclusions from the initial provisions. All logical conclusions and means that are used in theory are clearly recorded to form an evidence base.

As a rule, deductive theories are very general and abstract, so the question of their interpretation often arises. A striking example is the theory of natural law. This is a theory that does not lend itself to unambiguous assessment, therefore, it is interpreted in different ways.

Philosophy and Scientific Theory: How Do They Relate?

In scientific knowledge, a special, but at the same time a specific role is assigned to philosophy. It is said that scientists, formulating and comprehending certain theories, rise to the level of not only understanding a specific scientific problem, but also comprehending life and the very essence of knowledge. And this is, of course, philosophy.

Thus, the question arises. How does philosophy influence the construction of a scientific theory? The answer is quite simple, since these processes are inextricably linked. Philosophy is present in scientific theory in the form of logical laws, methodology, in the form of a general picture of the world and its understanding, a scientist’s worldview and all fundamental scientific foundations. In this context, philosophy is both the source and the ultimate goal of constructing most scientific theories. Even not scientific, but organizational theories (for example, management theory) are not devoid of a philosophical basis.

Theory and experiment

The most important method of empirical confirmation of a theory is experiment, which must necessarily include measurement and observation, as well as many other methods of influencing the object or group of objects under study.

An experiment is a certain material impact on the object under study or on the conditions that surround it, which are produced with the aim of further studying this object. Theory is what precedes the experiment.

In a scientific experiment, it is customary to distinguish several elements;

• the ultimate goal of the experiment;
• the object to be studied;
• the conditions in which this object is located;
• means for the conduct of the experiment;
• material impact on the studied object.

With the help of each individual element, you can build a classification of experiments. According to this statement, one can distinguish between physical, biological, chemical experiments, depending on the object on which it is carried out. You can also classify experiments according to the goals that are pursued in their conduct.

The purpose of the experiment is to discover and comprehend some patterns or facts. This type of experiment is called exploratory. The result of this experience can be considered the expansion of data on the object under study. But in most cases, such an experiment is carried out to confirm a separate hypothesis or the basis of a theory. This type of experiment is called a verification experiment. As you know, it is impossible to draw a fairly clear line between these two species. One and the same experiment can be set up in the framework of two types of experiment, or with the help of one it is possible to find out the data that are characteristic of the other. Modern science is based on these two principles.

Experiment is always a kind of question for nature. But it must always be meaningful and based on prior knowledge in order to get a decent answer. It is this knowledge that theory gives, it is she who raises questions. Initially, a theory exists in the form of abstract, idealized objects, and then there is a process of testing it for reliability.

Thus, we examined the meaning of the word «theory», its typologies, related links with sciences and practice. It is safe to say that there is nothing more practical than a good theory.

A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true.

In the scientific method, the hypothesis is constructed before any applicable research has been done, apart from a basic background review. You ask a question, read up on what has been studied before, and then form a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is usually tentative; it’s an assumption or suggestion made strictly for the objective of being tested.

A theory, in contrast, is a principle that has been formed as an attempt to explain things that have already been substantiated by data. It is used in the names of a number of principles accepted in the scientific community, such as the Big Bang Theory. Because of the rigors of experimentation and control, it is understood to be more likely to be true than a hypothesis is.

In non-scientific use, however, hypothesis and theory are often used interchangeably to mean simply an idea, speculation, or hunch, with theory being the more common choice.

Since this casual use does away with the distinctions upheld by the scientific community, hypothesis and theory are prone to being wrongly interpreted even when they are encountered in scientific contexts—or at least, contexts that allude to scientific study without making the critical distinction that scientists employ when weighing hypotheses and theories.

The most common occurrence is when theory is interpreted—and sometimes even gleefully seized upon—to mean something having less truth value than other scientific principles. (The word law applies to principles so firmly established that they are almost never questioned, such as the law of gravity.)

This mistake is one of projection: since we use theory in general to mean something lightly speculated, then it’s implied that scientists must be talking about the same level of uncertainty when they use theory to refer to their well-tested and reasoned principles.

The distinction has come to the forefront particularly on occasions when the content of science curricula in schools has been challenged—notably, when a school board in Georgia put stickers on textbooks stating that evolution was «a theory, not a fact, regarding the origin of living things.» As Kenneth R. Miller, a cell biologist at Brown University, has said, a theory «doesn’t mean a hunch or a guess. A theory is a system of explanations that ties together a whole bunch of facts. It not only explains those facts, but predicts what you ought to find from other observations and experiments.”

While theories are never completely infallible, they form the basis of scientific reasoning because, as Miller said «to the best of our ability, we’ve tested them, and they’ve held up.»

English[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Middle French théorie, from Late Latin theōria, from Ancient Greek θεωρία (theōría, “contemplation, speculation, a looking at, things looked at”), from θεωρέω (theōréō, “I look at, view, consider, examine”), from θεωρός (theōrós, “spectator”), from θέα (théa, “view”) + ὁράω (horáō, “I see, look”) [i. e. θέαν ὁράω (théan horáō, “see, look at a view; survey + genitive”)].

Pronunciation[edit]

• (Received Pronunciation, General Australian) IPA^(key): /ˈθɪə.ɹi/, /ˈθiː.ə.ɹi/, /ˈθɪɹ.i/
• (General American) IPA^(key): /ˈθɪɚ.i/, /ˈθi.ə.ɹi/

• Rhymes: -ɪəɹi, -iːəɹi

Noun[edit]

theory (countable and uncountable, plural theories)

1. A description of an event or system that is considered to be accurate.
   • 1646, Thomas Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, VII.19:

     As they encrease the hatred of vice in some, so doe they enlarge the theory of wickednesse in all.

2. (sciences) A coherent statement or set of ideas that explains observed facts or phenomena and correctly predicts new facts or phenomena not previously observed, or which sets out the laws and principles of something known or observed; a hypothesis confirmed by observation, experiment etc. [from 17th c.]
   • 1843, John Stuart Mill, «»A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, …, Bk V, Ch 7:

     In its most proper acceptation, theory means the completed result of philosophical induction from experience.

   • 1990, Tony Bennett, Outside Literature, page 139:

     Does this mean, then, that there can be no such thing as a theory of literature?

   • 2002, Duncan Steel, The Guardian, 23 May 2002:

     It was only when Einstein’s theory of relativity was published in 1915 that physicists could show that Mercury’s «anomaly» was actually because Newton’s gravitational theory was incomplete.

   • 2003, Bill Bryson, A Short History of Nearly Everything, BCA, p. 118:

     The world would need additional decades […] before the Big Bang would begin to move from interesting idea to established theory.

   • 2009, Richard Dawkins, The Greatest Show On Earth: The Evidence for Evolution, Bantam, p. 10:

     Scientists and creationists are understanding the word «theory» in two very different senses. Evolution is a theory in the same sense as the heliocentric theory. In neither case should the word «only» be used, as in «only a theory«.

   • 2012 January 1, Michael Riordan, “Tackling Infinity”, in American Scientist‎^[1], volume 100, number 1, archived from the original on 30 April 2013, page 86:

     Some of the most beautiful and thus appealing physical theories, including quantum electrodynamics and quantum gravity, have been dogged for decades by infinities that erupt when theorists try to prod their calculations into new domains. Getting rid of these nagging infinities has probably occupied far more effort than was spent in originating the theories.

3. (uncountable) The underlying principles or methods of a given technical skill, art etc., as opposed to its practice. [from 17th c.]

   • 1998, Elizabeth Souritz, The Great History of Russian Ballet:

     Lopukhov wrote a number of books and articles on ballet theory, as well as his memoirs.

4. (mathematics) A field of study attempting to exhaustively describe a particular class of constructs. [from 18th c.]

   Knot theory classifies the mappings of a circle into 3-space.

5. A hypothesis or conjecture. [from 18th c.]

   • 1999, Wes DeMott, Vapors:

     It’s just a theory I have, and I wonder if women would agree. But don’t men say a lot about themselves when a short-skirted woman slides out of a car or chair?

   • 2003, Sean Coughlan, The Guardian, 21 Jun 2003:

     The theory is that by stripping costs to the bone, they are able to offer ludicrously low fares.

6. (countable, logic) A set of axioms together with all statements derivable from them; or, a set of statements which are deductively closed. Equivalently, a formal language plus a set of axioms (from which can then be derived theorems). The statements may be required to all be bound (i.e., to have no free variables).

   A theory is consistent if it has a model.

7. (obsolete) Mental conception; reflection, consideration. [16th–18th c.]

Usage notes[edit]

In scientific discourse, the sense “unproven conjecture” is discouraged (with hypothesis or conjecture preferred), due to unintentional ambiguity and intentional equivocation with the sense “well-developed statement or structure”.

Synonyms[edit]

• See also Thesaurus:supposition

Meronyms[edit]

• (in logic): axioms

Holonyms[edit]

• (in logic): formal system

Derived terms[edit]

[edit]

Translations[edit]

See also[edit]

• axiom
• postulate
• proposition

References[edit]

• theory at OneLook Dictionary Search
• theory in Keywords for Today: A 21st Century Vocabulary, edited by The Keywords Project, Colin MacCabe, Holly Yanacek, 2018.
• «theory» in Raymond Williams, Keywords (revised), 1983, Fontana Press, page 316.
• “theory”, in The Century Dictionary […], New York, N.Y.: The Century Co., 1911, →OCLC.

Anagrams[edit]

• Yother, thyreo-