The word texts consists of

На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать грубую лексику.

На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать разговорную лексику.

In general, translation of legal texts consists of many nuances and it demands high professionalism.

В целом перевод юридических текстов состоит из многих нюансов и требует высокого профессионализма.

On each of the three outer walls of the building you can see the text written in Latin (excerpts from the Vulgate — the Latin translation of the Holy Scriptures), and each of these three texts consists of 33 letters.

На каждой из трех внешних стен здания можно увидеть текст, написанный по-латыни (отрывки из Вульгаты — латинского перевода Священного Писания), и каждый из этих трех текстов состоит из ЗЗ букв.

Другие результаты

The text consists of words with root bases that are artificial constructions.

Созданные тексты состоят из слов, в которых корневые основы представляют собой искусственные языковые конструкции.

The Old Persian text consists of 414 lines of text placed in five columns.

The text consists of many of the speeches delivered at the conference.

В документ вошли многие предложения, прозвучавшие в ходе выступлений на съезде.

The text consists of 16 lines and has remained almost entirely.

The negotiating text consists of articles 3 to 27.

Ninety percent of English text consists of just 1,000 words.

But do not try to make your text consists of short sentences alone.

Но не пытайтесь сделать Ваш текст, состоящим из одних только коротких предложений.

The NSC’s text consists of a preamble and 4 sections.

The text consists of simple, useful words.

The term paper volume… pages of the typewritten text consists of introduction, two main heads and the conclusion.

Дипломная работа объемом… страниц машинописного текста состоит из введения, двух основных глав и заключения.

The quality of the text consists of four main components: clarity of thought, intelligibility, literacy and correctness.

Качество текста складывается из четырех основных компонентов: ясности мысли, внятности, грамотности и корректности.

The text consists of many of the speeches delivered at the conference.

These core texts consist of eschatological biblical commentaries, apocalyptic and liturgical works, and regulations that govern community life.

Это эсхатологические комментарии к Библии, апокалиптические и литургические сочинения, а также свод уставов, регулирующих общинную жизнь.

Typically, the text consists of simple words that ordinary poetry can be perceived as banal, pretentious and unacceptable.

Как правило, текст состоит из простых слов, которые в обычной поэзии могут быть восприняты как банальные, вычурные и недопустимые.

The text consists of two sections, 6 chapters.

The prayer text consists of ninety-nine names of the Lord.

The texts consist of a collection of magical spells assembled in no fixed order.

Они состоят из набора магических заклинаний, собранных без какого либо фиксированного порядка.

The core text consists of 150 songs/psalms.

Ничего не найдено для этого значения.

Результатов: 96984. Точных совпадений: 2. Затраченное время: 442 мс

Documents

Корпоративные решения

Спряжение

Синонимы

Корректор

Справка и о нас

Индекс слова: 1-300, 301-600, 601-900

Индекс выражения: 1-400, 401-800, 801-1200

Индекс фразы: 1-400, 401-800, 801-1200

Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire text. Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text, but also its setting, i. e. the way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an application of discourse analysis^[1] at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word.

Introduction[edit]

Reasons for text linguistics[edit]

Much attention has been given to the sentence as a self-contained unit, and not enough has been given to studying how sentences may be used in connected stretches of language. It is essentially the presentation of language as sets of sentences.

Text is extremely significant in communication because people communicate not by means of individual words or fragments of sentences in languages, but by means of texts. It is also the basis of various disciplines such as law, religion, medicine, science, and politics.^[2]

Definitions[edit]

«A text is an extended structure of syntactic units [i. e. text as super-sentence] such as words, groups, and clauses and textual units that is marked by both coherence among the elements and completion … [Whereas] a non-text consists of random sequences of linguistic units such as sentences, paragraphs, or sections in any temporal and/or spatial extension.» (Werlich, 1976: 23)^[3]

«A naturally occurring manifestation of language, i. e. as a communicative language event in a context. The surface text is the set of expressions actually used; these expressions make some knowledge explicit, while other knowledge remains implicit, though still applied during processing.» (Beaugrande and Dressler, 1981: 63)^[4]

«[A term] used in linguistics to refer to any passage- spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole [….] A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence; and it is not defined by its size [….] A text is best regarded as a semantic unit; a unit not of form but of meaning.» (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 1–2)^[5]

«A text is made up of sentences, but there exist separate principles of text-construction, beyond the rules for making sentences.» (Fowler, 1991: 59)^[6]

«[Text is] a set of mutually relevant communicative functions, structured in such a way as to achieve an overall rhetorical purpose.» (Hatim and Mason, 1990)^[7]

Text linguists generally agree that text is the natural domain of language, but they still differ in their perspectives of what constitutes a text. This variance is mainly due to the different methods of observations of different linguists, and as such, the definition of text is not yet concrete.^[2]

Significance of contexts[edit]

There is a text and there is other text that accompanies it: text that is ‘with’, namely the con-text. This notion of what is ‘with the text’, however, goes beyond what is said and written: it includes other non-verbal signs-on-the total environment in which a text unfolds. (Halliday and Hasan, 1985: 5)^[8]

According to Halliday, text is a sign representation of a socio-cultural event embedded in a context of situation. Context of situation is the semio-socio-cultural environment in which the text unfolds. Text and context are so intimately related that neither concept can be comprehended in the absence of the other.

Three features of context of situation[edit]

The field of discourse – experiential meaning[edit]

This is the meaning that the social actions and the engagements of the participants are giving to the understanding of the text.^[9]

The tenor of discourse – interpersonal meaning[edit]

This is the meaning that the roles of and relationships among participants give to the understanding of the text. These relationships may be permanent or temporary. The contribution to meaning by social statuses of the participants also fall within this feature.^[9]

The mode of discourse – logical meaning[edit]

This is the meaning that the language, written or spoken, gives to the understanding of the text. This includes the symbolic organization of the text, as well as its intended function within the context.^[9]

Texture[edit]

Texture is the basis for unity and semantic interdependence within text. Any text that lacks texture would simply be a bunch of isolated sentences that have no relationship to each other. (Crane, 1994)^[10] A feature of texture is «sequential implicativeness», as suggested by Schegloff and Sacks (1974). This refers to the property of language that each line in a text is linked from or linked to the previous line. As such, language contains a linear sequence, and this linear progression of text creates a context of meaning.^[11] This contextual meaning, at the paragraph level, is referred to as «coherence», while the internal properties of meaning are referred to as «cohesion». (Eggins, 1994: 85)^[12] There are two aspects of coherence, namely, «situational» coherence and «generic» coherence. There is situational coherence when field, tenor, and mode can be identified for a certain group of clauses. On the other hand, there is generic coherence when the text can be recognized as belonging to a certain genre. Thereby, cohesion is the result of «semantic ties», which refers to the dependent links between items within a text. These ties come together to create meaning. Texture is, therefore, created within text when the properties of coherence and cohesion are present.

Text types[edit]

Most linguists agree on the classification into five text-types: narrative, descriptive, argumentative, instructive, and comparison/contrast (also called expositive). Some classifications divide the types of texts according to their function. Others differ because they take into consideration the topic of the texts, the producer and the addressee, or the style. Adam and Petitjean, (1989) proposed analyzing of overlaps of different text types with text sequences. Virtanen (1992) establishes a double classification (discourse type and text type) to be used when the Identification text-text type is not straightforward.^[13]

Structure[edit]

As a science of text, text linguistics describes or explains among different types of text the:

• Shared features
• Distinct features

Text linguistics is the study of how texts function in human interaction. Beaugrande and Dressler define a text as a “communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality” – cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality, without any of which the text will not be communicative. Non-communicative texts are treated as non-texts.^[4]

Cohesion[edit]

Surface texts are the exact words that people see or hear. Cohesion concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text are connected within a sequence. Grammatical forms and conventions are adhered to by surface components and therefore cohesion rests upon grammatical dependencies. The grammatical dependencies in surface texts are major signals for sorting out meanings and uses. Cohesion encompasses all of the functions that can be used to signal relations among surface elements.

SLOW

CARS

HELD UP

Such a text can be divided up into various dependencies. Someone might construe it as a notice about «slow cars» that are «held up», so that conclusions could be drawn about the need to drive fast to avoid being held up. However, it is more likely for one to divide the text into «slow» and «cars held up’, so that drivers will drive slowly to avoid accidents or take alternative routes to avoid being caught in the slow traffic. A science of text should explain how ambiguities such as these are possible, as well as how they are precluded or resolved without much difficulty. For efficient communication to take place there must be interaction between cohesion and other standards of textuality because the surface alone is not decisive.

Coherence[edit]

Coherence concerns the ways in which concepts and relations, which underlie the surface text, are linked, relevant and used, to achieve efficient communication.

• A concept is a cognitive content which can be retrieved or triggered with a high degree of consistency in the mind
• Relations are the links between concepts within a text, with each link identified with the concept that it connects to

Surface texts may not always express relations explicitly therefore people supply as many relations as are needed to make sense out of any particular text. In the example of the road sign «SLOW CARS HELD UP’, «cars» is an object concept and «held up» an action concept, and the «cars» are the link to «held up’. Therefore, «slow» is more likely to be interpreted as a motion than as the speed at which cars are travelling.
Types of relations include:

I. Causality

«Itsy Bitsy spider climbing up the spout. Down came the rain and washed the spider out.»

The event of «raining» causes the event of «washing the spider out» because it creates the necessary conditions for the latter; without the rain, the spider will not be washed out.

II. Enablement

«Humpty Dumpty sat on the wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.»

The action of sitting on the wall created the necessary but not sufficient conditions for the action of falling down. Sitting on a wall makes it possible but not obligatory for falling down to occur.

III. Reason

«Jack shall have but a penny a day because he can’t work any faster.»

In contrast to the rain which causes Itsy Bitsy spider to be washed out, the slow working does not actually cause or enable the low wage. Instead, the low wage is a reasonable outcome; «reason» is used to term actions that occur as a rational response to a previous event.

IV. Purpose

«Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor dog a bone.»

In contrast to Humpty Dumpty’s action of sitting on the wall which enables the action of falling down, there is a plan involved here; Humpty Dumpty did not sit on the wall so that it could fall down but Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard so that she could get a bone. «Purpose» is used to term events that are planned to be made possible via a previous event.

V. Time

«Cause», «enablement» and «reason» have forward directionality with the earlier event causing, enabling or providing reason for the later event. «Purpose’, however, has a backward directionality as the later event provides the purpose for the earlier event.

More than just a feature of texts, coherence is also the outcome of cognitive processes among text users. The nearness and proximity of events in a text will trigger operations which recover or create coherence relations.

«The Queen of Hearts, she made some tarts;
The Knave of Hearts, he stole the tarts;
The King of Hearts, called for the tarts.»

In the explicit text, there is a set of actions (making, stealing and calling); the only relations presented are the agent and the affected entity of each action. However, a text receiver is likely to assume that the locations of all three events are close to one another as well as occur in a continuous and relatively short time frame. One might also assume that the actions are meant to signal the attributes of the agents; the Queen is skilled in cooking, the Knave is dishonest and the King is authoritative. As such, coherence encompasses inferencing based on one’s knowledge.

For a text to make sense, there has to be interaction between one’s accumulated knowledge and the text-presented knowledge. Therefore, a science of texts is probabilistic instead of deterministic, that is, inferences by users of any particular text will be similar most of the time instead of all of the time. Most text users have a common core of cognitive composition, engagement and process such that their interpretations of texts through «sensing» are similar to what text senders intend them to be. Without cohesion and coherence, communication would be slowed down and could break down altogether. Cohesion and coherence are text-centred notions, designating operations directed at the text materials.

Intentionality[edit]

Intentionality concerns the text producer’s attitude and intentions as the text producer uses cohesion and coherence to attain a goal specified in a plan. Without cohesion and coherence, intended goals may not be achieved due to a breakdown of communication. However, depending on the conditions and situations in which the text is used, the goal may still be attained even when cohesion and coherence are not upheld.

«‘Want I carry you on my back?'»

Even though cohesion is not maintained in this example, the text producer still succeeds in achieving the goal of finding out if the text receiver wanted a piggyback.

Acceptability[edit]

Acceptability concerns the text receiver’s attitude that the text should constitute useful or relevant details or information worth accepting. Text type, the desirability of goals and the political and sociocultural setting, as well as cohesion and coherence, are important in influencing the acceptability of a text.

Text producers often speculate on the receiver’s attitude of acceptability and present texts that maximize the probability that the receivers will respond as desired by the producers. For example, texts that are open to a wide range of interpretations, such as «Call us before you dig. You may not be able to afterwards» require more inferences about the related consequences. This is more effective than an explicit version of the message that informs receivers the full consequences of digging without calling, because receivers are left with great uncertainty as to the consequences that could result; this plays to people’s risk aversion.

Informativity[edit]

Informativity concerns the extent to which the contents of a text are already known or expected as compared to unknown or unexpected. No matter how expected or predictable content may be, a text will always be informative at least to a certain degree due to unforeseen variability. The processing of highly informative text demands greater cognitive ability but at the same time is more interesting. The level of informativity should not exceed a point such that the text becomes too complicated and communication is endangered. Conversely, the level of informativity should also not be so low that it results in boredom and the rejection of the text.

Situationality[edit]

Situationality concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a situation of occurrence. The situation in which a text is exchanged influences the comprehension of the text. There may be different interpretations with the road sign

SLOW

CARS

HELD UP

However, the most likely interpretation of the text is obvious because the situation in which the text is presented provides the context which influences how text receivers interpret the text. The group of receivers (motorists) who are required to provide a particular action will find it more reasonable to assume that «slow» requires them to slow down rather than referring to the speed of the cars that are ahead. Pedestrians can tell easily that the text is not directed towards them because varying their speeds is inconsequential and irrelevant to the situation. In this way, the situation decides the sense and use of the text.

Situationality can affect the means of cohesion; less cohesive text may be more appropriate than more cohesive text depending on the situation. If the road sign was «Motorists should reduce their speed and proceed slowly because the vehicles ahead are held up by road works, therefore proceeding at too high a speed may result in an accident’, every possible doubt of intended receivers and intention would be removed. However, motorists only have a very short amount of time and attention to focus on and react to road signs. Therefore, in such a case, economical use of text is much more effective and appropriate than a fully cohesive text.

Intertextuality[edit]

Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered text. If a text receiver does not have prior knowledge of a relevant text, communication may break down because the understanding of the current text is obscured. Texts such as parodies, rebuttals, forums and classes in school, the text producer has to refer to prior texts while the text receivers have to have knowledge of the prior texts for communication to be efficient or even occur. In other text types such as puns, for example «Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana’, there is no need to refer to any other text.

Main contributors[edit]

Robert-Alain de Beaugrande[edit]

Robert-Alain de Beaugrande was a text linguist and a discourse analyst, one of the leading figures of the Continental tradition in the discipline. He was one of the developers of the Vienna School of Textlinguistik (Department of Linguistics at the University of Vienna), and published the seminal Introduction to Text Linguistics in 1981, with Wolfgang U. Dressler. He was also a major figure in the consolidation of critical discourse analysis.^[14]

Application to language learning[edit]

Text linguistics stimulates reading by arousing interest in texts or novels. Increases background knowledge on literature and on different kinds of publications. Writing skills can be improved by familiarizing and duplicating specific text structures and the use of specialized vocabulary.^[13]

See also[edit]

• Linguistics
• History of linguistics
• Text (literary theory)

References[edit]

TYPES OF TEXT IN ENGLISH

1.         NARRATIVE
TEXT

            Narrative text is a piece of writing
that tell about story of imajination, and real incident or Narrative text is a text the telling of
a story; the succession of events is given in chronological order.

a. Examples of Narrative Texts

b. Communicative Purpose

            The
basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers’
interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change
attitudes / social opinions e.g. soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues.
Narratives sequence people/characters in time and
place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set
up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved.

c. The Organization of a Narrative Text

            A
narrative text can have as many paragraphs as you want. However, it mainly
consists of three parts : The orientation, sequence of events / complications
and resolution.

      Presents
the settings of your story and introduces the charaters involved. Example : One
day, once upon a time, last year, long time ago

      Conflict is Crisis of story. The story
continues here. Usually, there will be an event or a sequence of events that
lead the characters into a complication (some form of conflict that disrupts
the normal event). Tension starts to build up to a climax, and this draws
anticipation in the readers. Example : First, Second, Then

                The problem
starts to get resolved. Sometimes the story ends happily or vice versa, and at
other times the resolution (i.e. the ending of the story) is left for the
readers to decide. Example : Finally, Last, The end of the story.

The graphic representation of these story grammar elements is called a
story map. The exact form and complexity of a map depends, of course, upon the
unique structure of each narrative and the personal preference of the teacher
constructing the map.

d. Grammatical features related to narrative
texts

2.         DESCRIPTIVE
TEXT

            Descriptive text is a text that
describes the features of someone, something, or a certain place. Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work,
e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the
reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.

a. Examples of Descriptive Texts

            This type of descriptive are landscape descriptions, description
of a character or setting

within a story.

b.
Communicative Purpose

            Description
is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person,
place, object or event e.g. to:

• describe a special place and explain why it is special
• describe the most important person in your life

c. The Organization
of a Descriptive Text

            A descriptive text is
comprised of general identification and description.

            Identifies/introduction of phenomenon to be describe.

            Describe
the characteristic of phenomenon.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Descriptive Texts

3.         REPORT
TEXT

            A report or account is any informational work (usually of
writing, speech, television, or film) made with the specific intention of
relaying information or recounting certain events in a widely presentable
form. A
report provides factual information about a spesific subject like social
phenomenon (e.g. riot, demonstration, unemployment), nature (e.g. earthquakes,
rain, storm, living things – animals) and man-made. The factual information
provided in the report text is objective.

a. Examples of Report Texts

            Reference books, science reports, weather reports

b. Communicative Purpose

            Reports are often used to display
the result of an experiment, investigation, or inquiry. Also, The  purpose of report is to inform about a
specific subject. The audience may be public or private, an individual or the
public in general. Reports are used in government, business, education,
science, and other fields.

Reports use
features such as graphics, images, voice, or specialized vocabulary in order to
persuade that specific audience to undertake an action.

c. The Organization of a Report Text

            A report text is comprised of general classification and
description.

      Opening statement that introduces the
subject.

      Supporting paragraphs that describe the
subject in detail in order to assist the readers to get more understanding /
more knowledge about the subject (e.g. its qualities, appearances, habits or
behaviors, uses, etc).

d. Grammatical Features Related to Report Texts

4.         RECOUNT
TEXT

            A recount is a piece of writing that
tells events in a chronological sequence. There is no complication among the participants and that differentiates
from narrative. A recount text is like a narrative text in that you have to
write a story, but in a recount the story is real. The story may be an event or
a situasion that took place on a particular day, and you are the narrator of
the whole event. The order of the events is very important.

a. Examples of Recount Texts

            Article,
police report, newspaper reports, historical accounts, letters, journals,
incident reports, diary entries.

b. Communicative Purpose

            Its
purpose is either to inform or to entertain the audience or to record or
provide factual information or to give someone an account of an event happened
in the past.

c. The Organization of a Recount Text

            A
recount test consists of 3 main parts: orientation, events and re-orientation.

            This
part presents the background information on yhe who, when, and where of the
event or Introducing the participants, place and time.

            The
events are presented in chronological order or Describing series of event that
happened in the past.

      The event starts to end, and the writer
may provide an opinion of what has happened.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Recount Texts

5. PROCEDURE TEXT

            A
Procedure is a piece of writing which consists of instruction in the form of
steps to enable the the readers to follow or text that is designed to
describe how something is achieved through a sequence of actions or steps.

a. Examples of Prosedure
text

            Recipe, instruction manual, science
experiment.

b. Communicative Purpose

            it explains how people perform
different processes in a sequence of steps or to tell / record in sequential
order the steps taken in doing or making something.

c. The Organization of a
Procedure text

      Goal
is title of the text. An opening statement with an objective.

      List
of materials or items needed in the process in the steps

      A
series of steps listed in a logical order which will be carried out to achieve
the goal. Steps is ways, methods or what you should do.

d. Grammatical Features
Related to Procedure Texts

6. NEWS ITEM

            News item is a type of the text that has the main function or communicative
purpose to inform readers of listeners or viewer about events of the day that
are considered newsworthy or important.

a. Examples of  News Item Text

            This
type of News Item test is Latest news

b. Communicative Purpose

            To inform readers or listeners about
events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.

c. The Organization of a
News Item text

            The
generic structure of news item has elements as follows.

      The main point to report in reduced clause.

      The summary of main event that is to be reported.

      The explanation about what had
happened (who, what, when, where).

      Someone’s about the event.

d. Grammatical
Features Related to News Item Texts

7. SPOOF

            A spoof is an amusing story that
tells events in a chronological sequence. It is a humorous story with a twist /
unexpected ending.

a. Example of Sppof
Texts

            Short story and dialog writing.

b. Communicative Purpose

            To entertain the readers with an
amusing story.

c. The Organization of a
Spoof Text

      Presents
the background information of the story : who, when, and where the story
happened.

      The
body tells the events that took place in order.

      The
event ends with an unexpected turn.

d. Grammatical Features
Related to Spoof Texts

8. ANALYTICAL EXPOSITION

            An important part of analytical
exposition is the analysis of the text or issue. In this type of text, the
writer tries to convince the readers to agree with the writer’s point of view. Analytical exposition is a type of text that belongs to the type of argumentation
text where the text contains detailed author’s thinking about a phenomenon that
is around.

a. Examples of
Analytical Exposition Texts

            Newspaper
editorials, debates, speeches.

b. Communicative Purpose

            To
put forward a point of view or argument or the opinions that support the idea
or topic.

c. The Organization of an Analytical Exposition Text

            An
anlytical expositon consists of three main parts: thesis, arguments, and
reiteration.

      Intriduces topic and indicates writer’s position. The writer
also outlines the main arguments to be presented.

      Shows a series of arguments that support the thesis. Analytical
exposition have more than two arguments. The more arguments appear, the more
confident the reader.

                  In
this stage, the writer restates his/her point of view. Reiteration contains
rewriting or replacement of ideas that contained in the first paragraph.
Reiteration is also commonly called the conclusion.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Analytical exposition Texts

9. HORTATORY EXPOSITION

            A
hortatory exposition is a piece of writing that persuades the readers to accept
the writer’s point of view. Thw writer has to lead the readers to agree with
his views by showing the information in a logical way. The writer focuses on
his own constuctive response to the issue and draws the readers to agree with
his argument. What makes hortatory different from analytical exposition is the
last finalizing step which analytical exposition is ended by a reiteration while
hortatory exposition is finalized by certain a recommendation

a. Examples of
Hortatory Exposition Texts

            Political speeches, advertisements
and newspaper editorials

b. Communicative Purpose

            To
persuade the readers or listeners that something should or should not be the
case or to persuade the readers to agree with the writer.

c. The Organization of an Hortatory Exposition Text

            Statements or announcement of issue concern

                  Reasons
for concern that will lead to recommendation or presents the reasonable
arguments of the issue to convince and lead the readers to believe writer’s
point of view.

      Statement of what should or
should not happen or be done based on the given arguments.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Hortatory exposition Texts

10. EXPLANATION
TEXT

            Explanation text is a text genre which tries to explain how a thing happens
or why the thing is made. Explanation
textactually is similar to procedure
text, however, explanation text tends to explain. While
the procedure text is intended to instruct how to form or make something.

a. Examples of Explanation
Texts

            The
life cycle of a butterfly, and how gears work

b. Communicative Purpose

            To explain the processes
involved in the formation or working of natural or sociocultural phenomena.

c. The Organization of Explanation Text

      stating
the phenomenon issues which are to be explained.

      stating
a series of steps which explain the phenomena.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Explanation Texts

11. DISCUSSION
TEXT

   Discussion is a text which presents a
problematic discourse. This problem will be discussed from different points of view. It
presents pro
and contra opinion on certain issue.

a. Examples of Discussion
Texts

            This kind of
text is commonly found in philosophical, historic, and social text

b. Communicative Purpose

            To present arguments and information from differing
viewpoints.

c. The Organization of Discussion Text

            contains
of statement and preview about something.

            after stating the issue, it is necessary to present the
argument to support that one point is agreeing.

            beside the supporting argument, discussion text need the
arguments which disagree to the stated issue.

            It is used to tell how to solve issue by
concerning the arguements for and against.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Discussion Texts

12. REVIEW TEXT

            Review text is an evaluation of a publication, such as a movie, video game,
musical composition, book; a piece of hardware like a car, home appliance, or
computer; or an event or performance, such as a live music concert, a play,
musical theatre show or dance show.

a. Examples of
Review Texts

            The
kind of text are commentary on a film, play, book etc

b. Communicative Purpose

            Review
text is used to critic the events or art works for the reader or listener, such
as movies, shows, book, and others

c. The Organization of Review Text

      Background information of the
text

      Concluding statement; judgement,
opinion, or recommendation. It can consist or more than one.

      Summary of an art works
including character and plot.

      The last opinion consisting the
appraisal or the punch line of the art works being criticized.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Review Texts

13. ANECDOTE TEXT

            Anecdote
text is one of the English text of the Narration which retells odd incident or
unusual occurrence either fact or imagination.

a. Examples of
Anecdote Texts

            This
kind of text is Funny story and humor

b. Communicative Purpose

            Actually,
from notion Text anecdote above we can infer the communicative purpose of the
text anecdote recounted the incident odd or unusual events to entertain the
reader.

c. The Organization of Anecdote Text

            There
are 4 linguistic structure (Generic Structure) of anecdote Text, namely:

            The
first linguistic structure of the Abstract Text anecdote. In the Abstract, the
author usually starts introducing odd or unusual events what would
diceritakanya. There are a number of anecdote Text Abstract begins with the use
of interrogative sentence, but not all of anecdote Abstract Text using
interrogative sentence.

            Structure
of the second language of the anecdote Text Orientation. As in Narrative Text,
Text Orientation in anecdote also tells whom, when, and where the incidence of
odd or unusual events occurred.

            The
third linguistic structure of anecdote Text is Crisis. In this section telling
the odd or unusual events occurred. The author described the events in detail.

            The
last linguistic structure of anecdote Text is Coda. In the Coda, the author
tells the story of how the subject (doer) to solve the problem and end on odd
or unusual event such.

d. Grammatical Features Related to Anecdote Texts

KINDS OF TEXT

Based on generic structure and language feature dominantly used, texts are divided into several types. They are narrative, recount, descriptive, report, explanation, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, procedure, discussion, review, anecdote, spoof, and news item. These variations are known as GENRES.

TEXT GENRES:

1. Procedure
   2. Recount
   3.Narrative
   4.Description
   5.News Item
   6.Report
   7.Analytical Exposition
   8.Spoof
   9.Hortatory Exposition
   10.Explanation
   11.Discussion
   12. Review

1). PROCEDURE

Social function: To help us do a task or make something. They can be a set of instructions or directions.
Text organization:
1. Goals ( the final purpose of doing the instruction)
2. Materials ( ingredients, utensils, equipment to do the instructions)
3. Steps ( a set of instruction to achieve the final purpose)
Language features :
ü Use of imperative ( Cut…….., Don’t mix……..)
ü Use of action verbs (turn, put)
ü Use of connectives(first, then, finally)

Example of Procedure Text – How to Make Cheese Omelet

How to Make Cheese Omelet
Ingredients:

• 1 egg, 50 g cheese
• 1 cup milk
• 3 table spoons cooking oil
• A pinch of salt and pepper

Utensils you need:

• Frying pan
• Fork
• Spatula
• Cheese grater
• Bowl
• Plate

How to make it:

1. Crack an egg into a bowl.
2. Whisk the egg with a fork until it is smooth.
3. Add milk and whisk well.
4. Grate the cheese into the bowl and stir.
5. Heat the oil in a frying pan.
6. Pour the mixture into the frying pan.
7. Turn the omelet with a spatula when it browns.
8. Cook both sides.
9. Place on a plate, spread salt and pepper.
10. Eat while warm.

2). RECOUNT

Social function: To tell the readers what happened in the past through a sequence of events.
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation ( who were involved, when and where was it happened)
2. Events ( tell what happened in a chronological order)
3. Re-orientation ( optional – closure of events)
Language features:
ü Use of pronouns and nouns ( David, he, she)
ü Use of action verbs in past (went, studied)
ü Use of past tense ( We went for a trip to the zoo)
ü Use of adverbial phrases
ü Use of adjective ( The smart remarks and a bald head)

Example of Recount Text

Travelling

Mr. and Mrs. Charly were on a tour to Europe. They were travelling on a guided tour to five countries. They were going to travel through The Netherland, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and France for two weeks.

The guide for the tour was a Swiss. On the day of the travel the guide told them to check their passports, their traveler cheques, and their foreign cash. He told them to keep them safely.

They traveled in a comfortable coach with a toilet, music, and video. The guide stopped the coach at many famous places. He explained the cultural importance of the places. They stayed in big hotels for the night and ate in the restaurants.

On the way, they stopped at small inns to eat lunch. In big towns, they went for shopping. They bought many souvenirs for their friends. They enjoyed the two-week tour.

3). NARRATIVE

Social function: To amuse or entertain the readers with actual or imaginary experience in different ways. Narrative always deals with some problems which lead to the climax and then turn into a solution to the problem.
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation ( who was involved, when and where was it happened)
2. Complication ( a problem arises and followed by other problems)
3. Resolution ( provide solution to the problem)
Language features:
1. Use of noun phrases ( a beautiful princess, a huge temple)
2. Use of adverbial phrases of time and place ( in the garden, two days ago)
3. Use of simple past tense ( He walked away from the village)
4. Use of action verbs ( walked, slept)
5. Use of adjectives phrases ( long black hair)

THREE FISH
Once three fish lived in a pond. One evening, some fishermen passed by the pond and saw the fish. “This pond is full of fish”, they told each other excitedly. “we have never fished here before. We must come back tomorrow morning with our nets and catch these fish!” So saying, the fishermen left.
When the eldest of the three fish heard this, he was troubled. He called the other fish together and said, “Did you hear what the fishermen said? W must leave this pond at once. The fishermen will return tomorrow and kill us all!” The second of the three fish agreed. “You are right”, he said. “We must leave the pond.”

But the youngest fish laughed. “You are worrying without reason”, he said. “We have lived in this pond all our lives, and no fisherman has ever come here. Why should these men return? I am not going anywhere – my luck will keep me                          The eldest of the fish left the pond that very evening with his entire family. The second fish saw the fishermen coming in the distance early next morning and left the pond at once with all his family. The third fish refused to leave even then.

The fishermen arrived and caught all the fish left in the pond. The third fish’s luck did not help him – he was caught and killed.

4). DESCRIPTION

Social Function: To describe a particular person, place or thing.
Generic Structure:
1. Identification (identify phenomenon to be described)
2. Description (describe parts, qualities, characteristics)
Language features:
ü Focus on specific participants
ü Use of attributive and identifying processes
ü Frequent use classifiers in nominal groups.
ü Use of the Simple Present Tense

A DESCRIPTIVE TEXT EXAMPLE – MY FAMILY

My family has four members: those are I, my sister, and parents ofcourse.My mother is 47 years old. Her name’s Anisa. She’s thin-faced and she’s got long, blond hair and beautiful green eyes. She is still slim because she always tries to stay in shape. She is very good-looking,alwayswell-dressedandelegant.

My father, Lukman, is 5 years older than my mother. He is 52. In spite of his age he’s still black-haired, with several grey hairs. He has bright blue eyes. He is quite tall, but a bit shorter than me. He’s very hard-working. Besides that he is working in a travel company. He can even make a dinner when my mother is outside. His cooking and his meals are always very tasty as well as my mothers’.
Finally, my sister Nadina. She is 22. She is also red-haired and green-eyed. She has long wavy hair and freckles. She is definitely shorter than me. She is rather introverted. But she is very sensible, smart and co-operative. Right now she is studying English and also knows Arabic and Mandarin. I want
to be as smart as she is.

They all, except me, speak Sundanese very well, because we were living in Bandung for 5 years. My sister have been going to primary school there. Unfortunately I was only 3 when we were leaving to Jakarta, so I can’t speak Sundanese. Now we are happily living in Jakarta.

5) NEWS ITEM

News item is a type of the text that has the main function or communicative purpose to inform readers of listeners or viewer about events of the day that are considered newsworthy or important. The generic structure of news item has elements as follows.

Social function: To inform readers or listeners about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.
Generic structure:
1. News worthy event ( tells the event in a summary form)
2. Background events ( elaborate what happened, tell what caused the incident)
3. Sources ( comments by participants, witnesses, authorities and experts involved in the event)
Language features:
ü Information on the use of head lines.
ü Use of action verbs( hit, attack)
ü Use of saying verbs( said, added, claimed)
ü Use of passive sentences ( Aceh was hit by Tsunami in 2004)
ü Use of adverbs in passive sentences (The victims were badly injured)

 Examples and structures of the text 

Town ‘Contaminated
Newsworthy events	Moscow – A Russian journalist has uncovered evidence of another Soviet nuclear catastrophe, which killed 10 sailors and contaminated an entire town.
Background Events	Yelena Vazrshavskya is the first journalist to speak to people who witnessed the explosion of a nuclear submarine at the naval base of shkotovo – 22 near Vladivostock.
	The accident, which occurred13 months before the Chernobyl disaster, spread radioactive fall-out over the base and nearby town, but was covered  up by officials of the Soviet Union. Residents were told the explosion in the reactor of the Victor-class submarine during a refit had been a ‘thermal’ and not a nuclear explosion. And those involved in the clean up operation to remove more than 600 tones of contaminated material were sworn to secrecy.
Sumber InformasiSources	A board of investigators was later to        describe it as the worst accident in the history of the Soviet Navy.

In April 2005, the number of people killed in December 26 tsunami disaster which devastated in Indian Ocean. Countries have been revised down to 217,000 after Indonesia drastically reduced its number of missing. Indonesia remains the worst  hit country with 163,978 people dead and missing.

According to the National Disaster Relief  Coordination Agency, the number confirmed dead was 126,915 people while 37,067 were listed as missing. Officials said the figure listed as missing had now been identified among more than half a million homeless people living in the temporary camps or other shelters.

6). REPORT

Social function: To describe the way things are (for example: a man -made thing, animals, plants). The things must be a representative of their class.
Text organization:
1. General classification (introduces the topic of the report/tells what phenomenon under discussion is.)
2. Description (tell the details of topic such as physical apparts, qualities, habits/behaviour).
Language features:
ü Use of general nouns ( Whales, Kangaroo, Computer)
ü Use of present tense(Komodo dragons usually weigh more than 160 kg)
ü Use of behavioural verbs (Snakes often sunbathe in the sun)
ü Use of technical terms ( Water contains oxygen and hydrogen)
ü Use of relating verbs (is, are, has)

EXAMPLE OF REPORT TEXT

Venice is a city in northern Italy. It is the capital of region Veneto. Together with Padua, the city is included in the Padua-Venice Metropolitan Area. Venice has been known as the “Queen of the Adriatic”, “City of Water”, “City of Bridges”, and “The City of Light”. The city stretches across 117 small islands in the marshy Venetian Lagoon along the Adriatic Sea in northeast Italy.

Venice is world-famous for its canals. It is built on an archipelago of 117 islands formed by about 150 canals in a shallow lagoon. The islands on which the city is built are connected by about 400 bridges. In the old center, the canals serve the function of roads, and every form of transport is on water or on foot.

You can ride gondola there. It is the classical Venetian boat which nowadays is mostly used for tourists, or for weddings, funerals, or other ceremonies. Now, most Venetians travel by motorised waterbuses (“vaporetti”) which ply regular routes along the major canals and between the city’s islands. The city also has many private boats. The only gondolas still in common use by Venetians are the traghetti, foot passenger ferries crossing the Grand Canal at certain points without bridges.

You can see the amusing city’s landmarks such as Piazza San Marco, Palazzo Contarini del Bovolo, Saint Mark’s Cathedral or villas of the Veneto. The villas of the Veneto, rural residences for nobles during the Republic, are one of the most interesting aspects of Venetian countryside.

They are surrounded by elegant gardens, suitable for fashionable parties of high society. The city is also well known for its beautiful and romantic view, especially at night.

7). ANALYTICAL EXPOSITION

Social function: To persuade the readers or the listeners that something in the case, to analyze or to explain.
Generic Structure:
1. Thesis (usually includes a preview argument. It introduces topics and indicates the writer’s position.)
2. Arguments (consists of a point and elaboration sequence. The number of points may vary, but each must be supported by discussion and evidence).
3. Reiteration (restates the position more forcefully in the light of the arguments presented).
Language features:
ü Emotive words such as : alarmed, worried.
ü Words that qualify statements such as: usual probably
ü Words that link arguments such as: firstly, however, on the other hand, therefore.
ü Usually present tense
ü Compound and complex sentences

Example of Analytical Exposition

     Is Smoking Good for Us?

Before we are going to smoke, it is better to look at the fact. About 50 thousands people die every year in Britain as direct result of smoking. This is seven times as many as die in road accidents. Nearly a quarter of smokers die because of diseases caused by smoking.

Ninety percent of lung cancers are caused by smoking. If we smoke five cigarettes a day, we are six times more likely to die of lung cancer than a non smoker. If we smoke twenty cigarettes a day, the risk is nineteen greater. Ninety five percent of people who suffer of bronchitis are people who are smoking. Smokers are two and half times more likely to die of heart disease than non smokers.

Additionally, children of smoker are more likely to develop bronchitis and pneumonia. In one hour in smoky room, non smoker breathes as much as substance causing cancer as if he had smoked fifteen cigarettes.

Smoking is really good for tobacco companies because they do make much money from smoking habit. Smoking however is not good for every body else.

Notes on the generic structure:

From the generic structure, what make big different is that analytical exposition ends with paragraph to strengthen the thesis while hortatory makes a recommendation for readers.

Thesis: This pre-conclusive paragraph states the writer’s point of view about the topic discussed. Writer has show himself in clear position of the discussed topic. Paragraph 1 is the thesis of this analytical exposition text. It states the fact of the very fatal impact of the smoking habit. Clearly the writer wants to say that smoking is not a good habit.

Arguments: Presenting arguments in analytical exposition text is as important as giving conflict plot in narrative text. The series of argument will strengthen the thesis stated before. In this example of analytical exposition text, paragraph 2 and 3 are the detail arguments presented in a reporting fact to support that smoking is not good even for smokers themselves. Furthermore, people who do not smoke but they are in smoky area have the bad effect too from the smoking habit.

Reiteration: This end paragraph actually is restating the thesis. It is something like conclusive paragraph from the previous arguments. The last paragraph of this example of analytical exposition points again that smoking is not good for smokers and people around smokers. However smoking is very good for Cigarette Companies

8). SPOOF

Social function: To tell an event with a humorous twist.
Generic structure:
1. Orientation (who were involved, when and where was happened)
2. Events ( tell what happened in a chronological order)
3. Twist (provide the funniest part of the story)
Language features:
ü Use of connectives (first, then, finally)
ü Use of adverbial phrases of time and place (in the garden, two days ago)
ü Use of simple past tense (he walked away from the village)

EXAMPLE OF SPOOF TEXT

LOVING MONEY TOO MUCH

There was a man who liked money very much. He worked all of his life and wanted to save all of his money for his own future. He was a real miser when it came to his money. He loved money more than just about anything.
Even, just before he died, he said to his wife; “Now listen, when I die, I want you to take all my money and place it in the casket with me. I wanna take my money to the afterlife.” So he asked his wife to promise him with all her heart that when he died, she would put all the money in the casket with him.
Well, one day, he really died. Then he was stretched out in the casket. The wife was sitting there in black clothes next to her closest friend. When they finished the ceremony, just before the undertakers got ready to close the casket, the wife said “Wait just a minute!”
She had a box in her hands. She came over with the box and placed it in the casket. After that the undertakers locked the casket down and rolled it away. Not long after that, her friend said, “I hope you were not crazy enough to put all that money in the casket.”
The wife turned to her friend and replied; “Yes, because I have promised.” Then she continued; “I can’t lie. I promised him that I was going to put that money in that casket with him.” Feeling shocked, her friend said; “You mean that you have put every cent of his money in the casket with him?” Then the wife answered; “Surely I did. I got it all together, put all the money into my account and I just wrote him a check.”

9). HORTATORY EXPOSITION

Social function: To persuade the readers or the listeners that something should or should not be the case.
Generic structure:
1. Thesis ( stating an issue of concern)
2. Arguments ( giving reasons for concern, leading recommendation)
3. Recommendation (stating what ought or ought not to happen)
Language features:
ü Emotive words: alarmed, worried
ü Words that qualify statements: usual probably
ü Words that link arguments: firstly, however, on the other hand, therefore
ü Usually present tense
ü Compound and complex sentences
ü Modal auxiliary: can, may, should, must

Now, we will see the following example of hortatory text:

Watch your Kids While Watching TV

Television becomes one of the most important devices which  take place inj another house. It can unite all members of the family as well as separate them. However, is it important to know what your kids are watching? The answer is, of course, absolutely “Yes” and that should be done by all parents. Television can expose things you have tried to protect the children from, especially violence, pornography, consumerism and so on.

Recently, a study demonstrated that spending too much time on watching TV during the day or at bedtime often causes bed-time disruption, stress, and short sleep duration.

Another research found that there is a significant relationship between the amount of time spent for watching television during adolescence and early adulthood, and the possibility of being aggressive.

Meanwhile, many studies have identified a relationship between kids who watch TV a lot and being inactive and overweight.

Considering some facts mentioning above, protect your children with such tips as: (1) limit television viewing to one-two hours each day, (2) do not allow your children to have a TV set in their own bedrooms, (3) review the rating of TV shows which your children watch, and (4) watch television with your children and discuss what is happening in the show.

Notes on the Generic Structure of this Hortatory Exposition example

The above text can be considered as a hortatory exposition text, as its purpose is to influence and persuade the readers by presenting the supporting arguments. The following is the analysis of its generic structure:

Thesis: The writer’s thought is presented as thesis which is proven with several arguments. In the first paragraph, the writer points his thought about the importance of accompanying children while they are watching TV show. It is important to protect the children from the bad influences of TV show.

Arguments: The next paragraphs show the writer arguments in supporting his thesis. It is supported by various researches that there are a great relationship between watching TV and the watcher’s personality. One study describes that much time in watching TV can cause bed-time disruption. The others show the possibility of becoming an aggressive character because of watching television too much.

Recommendation: After stating the thesis and proving with various arguments, the text is completed with the writer’s recommendation on how the parents should protect the children from the bed effect of watching TV.

10) EXPLANATION
              Social function: To explain the process involved in the formation or working of natural or socio cultural phenomena.
Generic structure:
1. A general statement to position the reader
2. A sequenced explanation of why or how something occurs.
3. Closing
Language features:
ü Focus on generic, non-human participants.
ü Use mainly of general and abstract nouns, action verbs, simple present tense, passive voice, conjunction of time and cause, noun phrases, complex sentences, and technical language.

THE EXAMPLE OF EXPLANATION

How Rainbow is Formed

Rainbow is one of  optic phenomena that happens in the atmosphere of the earth naturally. We can see it at mountin range, or  when it is cloudy, or  when it is raining and rising of sun. We have to be the other side for looking.  We  just can see it a half of circle form, but acctually the rainbow is a circle form. We can see it perfectly, if it is seen by standing in the high place. It is real that rainbow is a circle form not like parabola form. On the ground, we can not see perfectly, except if we are in the high place like in the air plane or standing on top of  moutain. When we are looking at rainbow’s colors, we will see them that ordered of red is on the highest order,  and purple is on  the lowest order.

Red is more dominant than another color caused by having biggest wave between others. Therefore the red one is in the highest order  and purple one is in lowest order. How rainbow is formed?  Try to watch it when light of sun concerns a 90-degree angle mirror or a glass prism side, or surface of  soap foam. We can see colors on the light. The light is rayyed to be some  wave lenght of light that it is seen by our eyes as red, bright red, yellow, green, blue and purple. These colors are compnents of light that they are called visible light. The other component is invisible light such as infrared (red is in the right side), and ultraviolet (bright red is in the left side).

So, we can see the beautiful rainbow because there are some processes to be beautiful rainbow that it appears in the sky.

11). DISCUSSION

Social function: To present information and opinions about more than one side of an issue (“for” points “against” points)
Generic structure:
1. Opening statement presenting the issue
2. Arguments or evidence for different points of view ( pros and cons)
3. Concluding recommendation.
Language features:
ü Use of general nouns: alcohol, abortion, smoking, etc.
ü Use of relating verbs: is, are, etc.
ü Use of thinking verbs: think, feel, hope believe, etc.
ü Use of additive connectives: addition, furthermore, besides, etc.
ü Use of contrastive connectives: although, even, if, nevertheless, etc.
ü Use of causal connectives: because, because of, etc.
ü Use of modal auxiliary: must, should, etc.
ü Use of adverbial manner: hopefully.

Example of discussion text

Internet Game for Students

Internet game or game online is popular for students. It can refresh our mind from the busy school day.  Do you know the impact of the game online?

In fact, game online has many positive sides. It can make students be spared from being stress. They can also learn English through the game online because it has many vocabularies of instruction. Game online can stimulate the creativity of students because to play the game, we need to think desperately hard.

On the other hand, internet game can make students of being lazy to study because they spend too much of their time to play than to study. They also spend money to play the game if at home they are not provided with internet connection.  On the game online often appears many sexy model which not necessary to be seen by them, it can make poisoning student’s mind.

Indeed there are pros and cons  about game online. It depends on how we manage our time, money, and the game to benefit our life.

12). REVIEW
Social function: To critique an art work or event for a public audience.
Generic structure:
1. Orientation ( background information on the text)
2. Evaluation ( concluding statement : judgment, opinion, or recommendation. It can consist of more than one.
3. Interpretative Recount ( summary of an art works including characters and plot).
4. Evaluative summation: the last opinion consisting the appraisal or the punch line of the art works being criticized.
Language features:
ü Focus on specific participants
ü Use of adjectives
ü Use of long and complex clauses
ü Use of metaphor
Reviews are used to summarize, analyze and respond to art works. They may include: movie, TV shows, books, plays, concerts, etc.

The example of review

Example of Review text

Romantic Rhapsody

Written by Theresia, Student of SMAN ! Welahan Jepara, Grade XII PIA 2, 2006/2007

Artist: ADA Band
Title : Romantic Rhapsody
Genre : Pop
Production : EMI Music Indonesia

ADA band is the most popular group band in Indonesia. They are Doni (vocal), Krishna (keyboard), Marshall (guitar), Dika (bass), and additional player on drum, Rere. ADA Band has produced 6 album since 1996.

After successed with their album Heaven of Love, this time, ADA Band again release the 7th album. The title is Romantic Rhapsody. There are 12 songs in this album. This is special album because all of player make several songs. Not only that, but also the color of music is more variety.

If we hear Senandung Lagu Cinta, we will hear the sound of Marshall’s guitar influenced by classical guitar from spain. On the song of Jalan Cahaya, ADA Band featuring Ubiet. This song is about God.

From 12 songs, Karena Wanita become a hit because this song is dedicated to all woman in the world.

This album is deserved to be obtained and you should have this album.