The word science means knowledge what

Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.^[1][2]

The earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes.^{[3]: 12 [4]} After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age^[5] and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance.

The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived «natural philosophy»,^[6][7] which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century^[8] as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.^[9][10] The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape,^[11][12] along with the changing of «natural philosophy» to «natural science».^[13]

Modern science is typically divided into three major branches:^[14] natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies;^[15][16] and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules.^[17][18] There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines,^[19][20][21] because they do not rely on empirical evidence.^[22][20] Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine.^[23][24][25]

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.^[26][27] Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions,^[28] government agencies, and companies.^[29][30] The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection.

Etymology

The word science has been used in Middle English since the 14th century in the sense of «the state of knowing». The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia, meaning «knowledge, awareness, understanding». It is a noun derivative of the Latin sciens meaning «knowing», and undisputedly derived from the Latin sciō, the present participle scīre, meaning «to know».^[31]

There are many hypotheses for science‘s ultimate word origin. According to Michiel de Vaan, Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist, sciō may have its origin in the Proto-Italic language as *skije- or *skijo- meaning «to know», which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh₁-ie, *skh₁-io, meaning «to incise». The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre, meaning «to not know, be unfamiliar with», which may derive from Proto-Indo-European *sekH- in Latin secāre, or *skh₂—, from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning «to cut».^[32]

In the past, science was a synonym for «knowledge» or «study», in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a «natural philosopher» or «man of science».^[33] In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville’s book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences,^[34] crediting it to «some ingenious gentleman» (possibly himself).^[35]

History

Early history

Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years,^[36][37] taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science,^[38] as did religious rituals.^[39] Some scholars use the term «protoscience» to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features;^[40][41][42] however, this label has also been criticized as denigrating^[43] or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories.^[44]

Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of writing systems in early civilizations like Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, creating the earliest written records in the history of science in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.^{[3]: 12–15 [4]} Although the words and concepts of «science» and «nature» were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.^{[45][3]: 12} From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a decimal numbering system,^[46] solved practical problems using geometry,^[47] and developed a calendar.^[48] Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, incantations, and rituals.^[3]: 9

The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing.^[49] They studied animal physiology, anatomy, behavior, and astrology for divinatory purposes.^[50] The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine^[49] and the earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur.^[51] They seem to study scientific subjects which have practical or religious applications and have little interest of satisfying curiosity.^[49]

Classical antiquity

In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time.^[52] Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural «way» in which a plant grows,^[53] and the «way» in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish «nature» and «convention».^[54]

The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural.^[55] The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy^{[56]: 467–68} and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science.^[56]: 465 The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.^[57][58] Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a «canon» (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth.^[59] The Greek doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical science^[60][61] and is known as «The Father of Medicine».^[62]

A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates’ example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato’s dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them for consistency.^[63] Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.^[64]

Aristotle in the 4th century BCE created a systematic program of teleological philosophy.^[65] In the 3rd century BCE, Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the center and all the planets orbiting it.^[66] Aristarchus’s model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics,^[66] while Ptolemy’s Almagest, which contains a geocentric description of the Solar System, was accepted through the early Renaissance instead.^[67][68] The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus.^[69] Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopedia Natural History.^[70][71][72]

Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.^[73]

Middle Ages

Due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the 5th century saw an intellectual decline and knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe.^[3]: 194 During the period, Latin encyclopedists such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge.^[74] In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning.^[3]: 159 John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, started to question Aristotle’s teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.^{[3]: 307, 311, 363, 402} His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.^{[3]: 307–308 [75]}

During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle’s four causes: material, formal, moving, and final cause.^[76] Many Greek classical texts were preserved by the Byzantine empire and Arabic translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and the Monophysites. Under the Caliphate, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists.^[77] By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighboring Sassanid Empire established the medical Academy of Gondeshapur, which is considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical center of the ancient world.^[78]

The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq,^[79] where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished^[80] until the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen, began experimenting as a means to gain knowledge^[81][82] and disproved Ptolemy’s theory of vision^{[83]: Book I, [6.54]. p. 372} Avicenna’s compilation of the Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century.^[84]

By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian,^[3]: 204 and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe.^[85] As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew,^[3]: 204 a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century. Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature.^[86] In the 13rd century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi.^[87]

Renaissance

New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the Renaissance, both by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as the camera obscura and the telescope. At the start of the Renaissance, Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham each built up a scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle.^{[83]: Book I} A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle’s four causes: formal, material, and final.^[88]

In the sixteenth century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the geocentric model where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the center of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy’s model.^[89]

Johannes Kepler and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light.^[88][90] Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus’ heliocentric model through the discovery of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.^[91] Galileo had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.^[92]

The printing press was widely used to publish scholarly arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.^[93] Francis Bacon and René Descartes published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal and final cause, promoted the idea that science should study the laws of nature and the improvement of all human life.^[94] Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature.^[95]

Age of Enlightenment

At the start of the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton formed the foundation of classical mechanics by his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, greatly influencing future physicists.^[96] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, now used in a new non-teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.^[97]

During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon’s words, «the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches«, and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond «the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]».^[98]

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies^[99] and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centers of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.^[100] Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.^[101]

The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine^[102] and physics;^[103] the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus;^[104] a new understanding of magnetism and electricity;^[105] and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline.^[106] Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.^[107] Modern sociology largely originated from this movement.^[108] In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first work on modern economics.^[109]

19th century

During the nineteenth century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences, frequent use of precision instruments, emergence of terms such as «biologist», «physicist», «scientist», increased professionalization of those studying nature, scientists gained cultural authority over many dimensions of society, industrialization of numerous countries, thriving of popular science writings and emergence of science journals.^[110] During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.^[111]

During the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859.^[112] Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, «Experiments on Plant Hybridization» in 1865,^[113] which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.^[114]

Early in the 19th century, John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory, based on Democritus’s original idea of indivisible particles called atoms.^[115] The laws of conservation of energy, conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the steam engine and the industrial revolution there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities, the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy.^[116] This realization led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time.^[a]

The electromagnetic theory was established in the 19th century by the works of Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton’s framework. The discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896,^[119] Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel prizes.^[120] In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron.^[121]

20th century

In the first half of the century, the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilizers improved human living standards globally.^[122][123] Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication and climate change came to the public’s attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.^[124]

During this period, scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding.^[125] The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race^[126] and nuclear arms race.^[127] Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.^[128]

In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields.^[129] The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964^[130] led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.^[131]

The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.^[132] Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity.^[133][134] Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones. The need for mass systematization of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modeling.^[135]

21st century

The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome.^[136] The first induced pluripotent human stem cells were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem cells and turn to any cell type found in the body.^[137] With the affirmation of the Higgs boson discovery in 2013, the last particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics was found.^[138] In 2015, gravitational waves, predicted by general relativity a century before, were first observed.^[139][140] In 2019, the international collaboration Event Horizon Telescope presented the first direct image of a black hole’s accretion disk.^[141]

Branches

Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches: natural science, social science, and formal science.^[14] Each of these branches comprises various specialized yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own nomenclature and expertise.^[142] Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences,^[143] as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.^[144]

Natural science

Natural science is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. These two branches may be further divided into more specialized disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science. Modern natural science is the successor to the natural philosophy that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.^[145] Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.^[146] Today, «natural history» suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.^[147]

Social science is the study of human behavior and functioning of societies.^[15][16] It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology.^[15] In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programs such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology.^[15] Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.^[15]

Formal science

Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems.^{[148][17][18]} A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules.^[149] It includes mathematics,^[150][151] systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts.^{[22][152][144]} The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science.^[19][153] Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. Calculus, for example, was initially invented to understand motion in physics.^[154] Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include mathematical physics,^[155] chemistry,^[156] biology,^[157] finance,^[158] and economics.^[159]

Applied science

Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine.^[160][25] Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies.^[161] Science may contribute to the development of new technologies.^[162] Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of injury or disease.^[163][164] The applied sciences are often contrasted with the basic sciences, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.^[165][166]

Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science for example in agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modeling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.^[167][168]

Interdisciplinary science

Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one,^[169] such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer science^[170] or cognitive sciences. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek and it became popular again in the 20th century.^[171]

Scientific research

Scientific research can be labeled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.^[172]

Scientific method

Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way.^[173] Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.^[2] Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modeling, observing, and collecting measurements.^[174] Statistics is used to summarize and analyze data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.^[175]

In the scientific method, an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question.^[176] This tentative explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.^{[173]: 4–5 [177]} Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.^[178]

When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is modified or discarded.^[179] If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.^[180]

While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another.^[181][182] Eliminating the bias can be achieved by transparency, careful experimental design, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions.^[183][184] After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.^[185] Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimizing the effects of subjective and confirmation bias.^[186] Intersubjective verifiability, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.^[187]

Scientific literature

Scientific research is published in a range of literature.^[188] Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des sçavans followed by Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.^[189]

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.^[190]

Challenges

The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis that affects parts of the social and life sciences. In subsequent investigations, the results of many scientific studies are proven to be unrepeatable.^[191] The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s^[192] as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.^[193]

An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science.^[194][195] Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term «cargo cult science» for cases in which researchers believe and at a glance looks like they are doing science, but lack the honesty allowing their results to be rigorously evaluated.^[196] Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as «the most important tool» for separating valid claims from invalid ones.^[197]

There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as «bad science,» research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term «scientific misconduct» refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.^[198]

Philosophy of science

There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations.^[199] Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being Bayesianism^[200] and the hypothetico-deductive method.^[199]

Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.^[201] Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories: that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation.^[202]
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.^[202] Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and error,^[203] covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.^[204]

Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be something that should be ignored.^[205] Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.^[206]

Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a logically consistent «portrait» of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterized normal science as the process of observation and «puzzle solving» which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.^[207] Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more «portraits» against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn’s position, however, is not one of relativism.^[208]

Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements like «creation science» is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations.^[209] Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification.^[210]

The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conducts scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.^[211]

Scientists

Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.^[212][213] In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and upon completion, attain an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD.^[214] Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.^{[215][216][217]}

Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees^[218] in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit environments.^[219][220]

Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women in science faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.^[221] The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the domestic sphere.^[222] Lifestyle choice plays a major role in female engagement in science; female graduate students’ interest in careers in research declines dramatically throughout graduate school, whereas that of their male colleagues remains unchanged.^[223]

Learned societies

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.^[224] Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, profession, or group of related disciplines.^[225] Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election.^[226] Most scientific societies are non-profit organizations,^[227] and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership.^{[citation needed]}

The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished academies of sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei Lincei in 1603,^[228] the British Royal Society in 1660,^[229] the French Academy of Sciences in 1666,^[230] the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863,^[231] the German Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1911,^[232] and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1949.^[233] International scientific organizations, such as the International Science Council, are devoted to international cooperation for science advancement.^[234]

Awards

Science awards are usually given to individuals or organizations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions, thus it is considered a great honor for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists are often awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.^[235]

Society

Funding and policies

Scientific research is often funded through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.^[236] In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. In the lesser-developed nations, government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.^[237]

Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the National Science Foundation in the United States,^[238] the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina,^[239] Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization in Australia,^[240] National Centre for Scientific Research in France,^[241] the Max Planck Society in Germany,^[242] and National Research Council in Spain.^[243] In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than research driven by curiosity.^[244]

Science policy is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including research funding, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy’s goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.^[245] Public policy can directly affect the funding of capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund research.^[190]

Education and awareness

Science education for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by online pedagogical content (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the scientific method, units and methods of measurement, empiricism, a basic understanding of statistics (correlations, qualitative versus quantitative observations, aggregate statistics), as well as a basic understanding of core scientific fields, such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology and computation. As a student advances into higher stages of formal education, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.^[246]

The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.^[247] Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.^[248][249]

Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.^[250] Science fiction genre, primarily speculative fiction, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public.^[251] Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund.^[252]

Anti-science attitudes

While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are skeptical about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)^[253] or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).^[254] Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:^[255]

• Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.
• Some marginalized social groups hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in unethical experiments.^[256]
• Messages from scientists may contradict deeply-held existing beliefs or morals.
• The delivery of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted to a recipient’s learning style.

Anti-science attitudes seem to be often caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.^[257] That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardize their social status.^[258]

Politics

Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests.^[260] Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasizes the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence.^[261] Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence.^[262] Examples of issues that have involved the politicization of science include the global warming controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco.^[262][263]

See also

• List of scientific occupations
• List of years in science

Notes

References

External links

• Media related to Science at Wikimedia Commons

Другие языки

Пожалуйста, переведите этот текст SCIENCE The word «science» comes from the Latin word «scientia», which means «knowledge».

Scientists make observations and collect facts in field they work in.

Then they arrange facts orderly and try to express the connection between the facts and try to work out theories.

Then they have to prove the facts or theory correct and make sufficient and sound evidence.

So scientific knowledge is always growing and improving.

Science has great influence on our life.

It provides with base of modern technology, materials, sources of power and so on.

Modern science and technology have changed our life in many different ways.

During the present century our life changed greatly.

Thanks to radio and television we can do a great number of jobs ; it was radio and TV that made it possible to photograph the dark side of the moon and to talk with the first cosmonaut while he was orbiting the Earth.

To some, science refers to difficult high school or college-level courses such as physics, chemistry, and biology meant only for the brightest students.

What is science? To
some, science refers to difficult high school or college-level courses such as
physics, chemistry, and biology meant only for the brightest students. To
others, science is a craft practiced by scientists in white coats using
specialized equipment in their laboratories. Etymologically, the word ‘science’
is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. Science refers
to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is
acquired using ‘the scientific method’ (the scientific method is described
further below). Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural
science and social science. Natural science is the science of
naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter,
earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural sciences can be further
classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others.
Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as physics (the science of
physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy (the
science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of disciplines such as
geology (the science of the earth). Life sciences include disciplines such as
biology (the science of human bodies) and botany (the science of plants). In contrast, social
science is the science of people or collections of people, such as
groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective
behaviors. Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as
psychology (the science of human behaviors), sociology (the science of social
groups), and economics (the science of firms, markets, and economies).

The natural sciences
are different from the social sciences in several respects. The natural
sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic, and independent of the
person making the scientific observations. For instance, a scientific
experiment in physics, such as measuring the speed of sound through a certain
media or the refractive index of water, should always yield the exact same
results, irrespective of the time or place of the experiment, or the person
conducting the experiment. If two students conducting the same physics
experiment obtain two different values of these physical properties, then it
generally means that one or both of those students must be in error. However,
the same cannot be said for the social sciences, which tend to be less accurate,
deterministic, or unambiguous. For instance, if you measure a person’s
happiness using a hypothetical instrument, you may find that the same person is
more happy or less happy (or sad) on different days and sometimes, at different
times on the same day. One’s happiness may vary depending on the news that
person received that day or on the events that transpired earlier during that
day. Furthermore, there is not a single instrument or metric that can
accurately measure a person’s happiness. Hence, one instrument may calibrate a
person as being ‘more happy’ while a second instrument may find that the same
person is ‘less happy’ at the same instant in time. In other words, there is a
high degree of measurement error in the social sciences and
there is considerable uncertainty and little agreement on social science policy
decisions. For instance, you will not find many disagreements among natural
scientists on the speed of light or the speed of the earth around the sun, but
you will find numerous disagreements among social scientists on how to solve a
social problem such as reduce global terrorism or rescue an economy from a
recession. Any student studying the social sciences must be cognizant of and
comfortable with handling higher levels of ambiguity, uncertainty, and error
that come with such sciences, which merely reflects the high variability of
social objects.

Sciences can also be
classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences, also called pure
sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and forces,
relationships between them, and laws governing them. Examples include physics,
mathematics, and biology. Applied sciences, also called
practical sciences, are sciences that apply scientific knowledge from basic sciences
in a physical environment. For instance, engineering is an applied science that
applies the laws of physics and chemistry for practical applications such as
building stronger bridges or fuel efficient combustion engines, while medicine
is an applied science that applies the laws of biology for solving human
ailments. Both basic and applied sciences are required for human development.
However, applied sciences cannot stand on their own right, but instead relies
on basic sciences for its progress. Of course, the industry and private
enterprises tend to focus more on applied sciences given their practical value,
while universities study both basic and applied sciences.

Study Material, Lecturing Notes, Assignment, Reference, Wiki description explanation, brief detail

: What is science? |

Министерство образования и науки администрации Амурской области

ГПОАУ АО

«Амурский педагогический колледж»

Учебно-методическое пособие

 по английскому языку

для специальности СПО    09.02.05  Прикладная информатика

Составитель: Коновалова Лариса Борисовна, преподаватель иностранного языка

высшей квалификационной категории

2016

Введение

Данное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для преподавателей и студентов специальности  и 09.02.05 Прикладная информатика  учреждений среднего профессионального образования для изучения профессионального модуля дисциплины «Иностранный язык» (английский). Пособие рассчитано на 100 часов аудиторной работы и представляет собой ряд текстов и лексико-грамматических упражнений к ним. Все упражнения носят послетекстовый характер и их выполнение направлено как на проверку понимания прочитанного, так и на формирование речевых  и грамматических навыков по изучаемой теме.

Тексты представляют повышенный уровень сложности как в содержательном, так и в лексическом плане. В текстах представлено более детальное знакомство с компьютером,  программным и аппаратным обеспечением, устройствами ввода, хранения и вывода информации; знакомство с всемирной компьютерной сетью. В заданиях предусмотрены не просто ответы на вопросы, но и их аргументация; толкование специальных терминов на изучаемом языке.  В пособии также предусмотрены упражнения на словообразование, синонимы и антонимы, части речи и их функции в предложении,  порядок слов в предложении, времена и формы английского глагола, активный и пассивный залог. Особое внимание уделяется практике технического  перевода с родного языка на иностранный. Все перечисленные формы работы способствуют интеграции дисциплин информационного технологического цикла и английского языка и развитию как  иноязычной коммуникативной, так и профессиональной компетенций.

В конце пособия  даны тексты для дополнительного чтения. Тематика текстов отражает вопросы  современных оптических технологий и компьютерной графики.

Работу по данному пособию рекомендуется начинать с введения тематической лексики. Дальнейшую работу над текстами и выполнение упражнений преподаватель строит по своему усмотрению. Завершать работу над изучением данной темы целесообразно выполнением контрольной работы.

Пособие может быть также использовано преподавателями английского языка учреждений среднего профессионального образования непедагогического профиля  и студентами, обучающихся по укрупненной группе специальностей 09.00.00 ИНФОРМАТИКА И ВЫЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНАЯ ТЕХНИКА.

Unit 1.  Science and Technology.

Text 1  Science.

Before reading the text translate the following words:

Science, cover, broad,  deal with, relationship, wide, variety, search for, clue, universe, origin, cell, research,  solve, complicated,  unity, attempt,  happen,  consider, prove, divide, major, grow (grew), complicated,  boundary, clear, numerous, overlap, interconnect,  influence, provide, discovery, invention, shape, Universe, tool.

       The word “science” comes from the Latin word “scientia”, which means “knowledge”. Science covers the broad field of knowledge that deals with facts and the relationship  among these facts.  Scientists study a wide variety of subjects. Some scientists search for clues to the origin of the Universe and examine the structure of the cells of living plants and animals. Other researches investigate why we act the way we do, or try to solve complicated mathematical problems.

        Scientists use systematic methods of study to make observations and collect facts. They develop theories that help them order and unity facts. Scientific theories consist of general principals or laws that attempt to explain how and why something happens or  happened. A theory is considered to become a part of scientific knowledge if it has been tested experimentally and proved to be true.

       Scientific study can be divided  into three major groups: the natural, social and technical sciences.  As science knowledge grew and became more complicated.  Many new fields of science appeared. At the same time, the boundaries between scientific fields became less clear. Numerous areas of science overlap each other and it is often hard to tell where one science ends and another begins. All sciences are closely interconnected.

       Science has great influence on our life. It provides the basis of modern technology – the tools and machines that make our life and work easier. The discoveries and inventions  of scientists also help shape our view about ourselves and our place in the Universe.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the English for:   большая область знаний, иметь дело с, отношения между,  большое множество, и происхождение Вселенной, решать проблемы, граница между,  различать,  близко взаимосвязаны, оказывать влияние, сформировать взгляд на.

Exercise 2.  Find in the text the synonyms for:  learn, a large number of, look for, decide, difficult problems,  try,  scientific research,  major groups,  various.

Exercise 3. Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph.

1. The fields of scientific research.
2. Different groups of sciences.
3.  The importance of science.
4. What is science?
5. Methods of scientific research.

Exercise 4.  Ask questions to the following sentences.

1. The word “science” comes from the Latin word “scientia”.
2. Scientists use systematic methods of study to make observations and collect facts.
3. Scientific study can be divided  into three major groups: the natural.
4. Scientists use systematic methods of study to make observations and collect facts
5. Science has great influence on our life.

Text 2. Technology

Technology means the use of people’s inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs. Since people appeared on the Earth, they had to get food, clothes and shelter. Through the ages people invented tools, machines and materials to make work easier.

Nowadays, when people speak of technology, they generally mean industrial technology. Industrial technology began about 200 years ago with the development of the steam engine, the growth of factories, and the mass production of goods. It influenced different aspects of people’s lives. The development of the car influenced where people lived and worked. Radio and television changed their leisure time. The telephone revolutionized communication.

Science contributed much to modern technology. Science attempts to explain how and why things happen. Technology makes things happen. But not all technology is based on science. For example, people made different objects from iron for centuries before they learnt the structure of the metal. But some modern technologies, such as nuclear power production and space travel, depend heavily on science.

Exercise 1. Find in text 2 the English for: изобретения и открытия, удовлетворять потребности, инструменты, облегчить работу, промышленная технология, паровой двигатель, развитие, рост, массовое производство товаров, влиять, способствовать, делать попытку, атомная энергия, сильно зависеть от.

Exercise 2. Find in the texts the words, which have the opposite meanings to the following:

Narrow, easy, practice, to try, artificial, old, more, to begin, small, different, little

Exercise 3. Read, translate the sentences, change the words in italics into the words with similar and opposite meanings

1.He happened to meet her in that broad street. 2. They are investigating complex problems. 3. It was a very difficult experiment. 4. They started researching this problem. 5. It was a big contribution.

Exercise 4.  Fill in the blanks with the articles a, an, the where necessary.

… most common type of… computer is … digital computer…. largest digital computers are … parts of…. computer system that fill… large room. … smallest digital computers — some so small they can рай through … eye of… needle — are found inside … watches, … pocket calculators, and … other devices.

Exercise 5.  a) Read and state the function of the verbs be, have

All digital computers have two basic parts: a memory and a processor. The memory is receiving data and holding them until they are needed. The memory is made up of a big collection of switches (переключатели). The processor is changing data into useful information by the converting numbers into other numbers. It reads numbers from the memory, performs basic arithmetic calculations, and puts the answer back into the memory. The processor is performing this activity and over again until the desired result is achieved. Both the memory  and the processor are electronic.

b) Fill in the blanks with the verbs be, have

People … used calculating devices since ancient times. The first electronic digital computer … built in 1946. The large room … filled with the computer. Since then rapid improvement in computer technology … led to the development of smaller, more powerful, and less еxpensive computers. But computers … not able to think. A user… to tell the  computer in very simple terms exactly what to do with the data it receives. A list of instructions for a computer to follow … called a program.

Exercise 6 . Mind the word order

1. Extend the following sentences with the words given in brackets.

1.        Scientists solve problems (complicated, some, mathematical, to try).

1. Researchers make observations (facts, and, collect).
2. The boundaries have become clear (fields, scientific, between

less).

1. Science has influence on lives (our, great).
2. Technology makes life easier (our, and, work, modern).

1. Put the words in the following sentences in order, the first word in each sentence is in italics.

1. interconnected, sciences, All, closely, are.
2. provides, Science, of, technology, modern, the, basis.

1. people, the, ages, Through, tools, invented, have, machines, materials, and.
2.  influenced, aspects, people’s, of, different, Industrial, technology, lives.
3. our, time, Radio, television, and, leisure, changed.

Exercise  7.  Complete the following sentences in a logical way

1. The word «science» comes from …
2. Science deals with …
3. Scientists study…
4. Some scientists search for …
5. Other researchers solve …
6. Scientific theories consist of…
7. A theory becomes …
8. Scientific study can be divided into …
9.  The boundaries between scientific fields have become …
10. Science provides …
11. Technology means …
12. Industrial technology began …
13. Technology influenced …
14. Science attempts to explain …
15. Technology makes …

Exercise 8. Make up special question according to the model, and answer them

a)        Model: Technology influences all aspects of people’s life.

What does technology influence?

1. Science provides the basis of modern technology. 2. Technology means the use of people’s inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs. 3. This scientist uses systematic methods of study. 4. He usually tests any theory experimentally. 5. He proves it to be true.

b)        Model: Scientists can study a wide variety of subjects.

What can scientists study?

1. The scientists can examine the structure of the cells of living plan and animals. 2. The scientists can solve different mathematical problems. 3. Scientists can use systematic methods of study. 4. They can make observations. 5. They can develop theories.

           Exercise 9.  Make up questions the answers to which will be words in italics. The words in   brackets will   help you

     1.The word «science» means «knowledge«(what). 2. The scientists can order facts (what). 3. The scientists can unity facts (what). 4. They usually test the theory experimentally (what). 5. Technology influences      different aspects of our life (what).

       Exercise 10. Answer the following questions about science and technology.

1. What is science?
2. What is technology?
3. Are they interconnected?
4. Is all technology based on science?
5. What modern technologies depend heavily on science?
6. When did industrial technology begin?
7. When was a steam engine invented?
8. Who invented the steam engine?
9. When was radio invented?

      10. Who invented the radio?

      11. When was television invented?

      12  Who invented the television?

      13. When was a telephone invented?

       14. Who invented the telephone?

      15. When was the first car invented?

      16. When was the first digital computer invented?

      17. Who invented the first digital computer?

      18.What famous scientists do you know?

1. What famous inventors do you know?
2. What scientific field are you interested in? Why?

Exercise 11. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.

1. Слово «science» происходит от латинского слова «scientia», которое означает «наука». 2. Ученые изучают широкий круг проблем. 3. Некоторые ученые ищут разгадку происхождения Bселенной. 4. Другие изучают строение клетки. 5. Некоторые исследуют причины нашего поведения. 6. Ученые используют систематические методы изучения проблем. 7. Науки могут быть разделены на три главные группы: естественные, общественные, технические науки. 8. Но границы между научными областями становятся все менее и менее четкими. 9. Все науки тесно взаимосвязаны. 10. Наука оказывает огромное влияние на нашу жизнь. 11. Она является основой современной технологии. 12. Сегодня, когда люди говорят о технологии, они имеют ввиду Промышленную технологию. 13. Промышленная технология нашла свое существование около 200 лет назад с появлением парового двигателя, ростом фабрик и массовым производством товаров. 14. Радио и телевидение изменило наш досуг; телефон произвел революцию в общении. 15. Открытия и изобретения ученых помогают нам формировать наши взгляды о себе и о нашем месте во Вселенной.

Text 3. Computer Literacy

Informed citizens of our information-dependent society should be computer-literate, which means that they should be able to use computers as everyday problem-solving devices. They should be aware of the potential of computers to influence the quality of life.

There was a time when only privileged people had an opportunity to learn the basics, called the three R’s: reading, writing, and arithmetic’s. Now, as we are quickly becoming an information-becoming society, it is time to restate this right as the right to learn reading, writing and computing. There is little doubt that computers and their many applications are among the most significant technical achievements of the century. They bring with them both economic and social changes. «Computing» is a concept that embraces not only the old third R, arithmetics, but also .a new Idea — computer literacy.

In an information society a person who is computer-literate need not be an expert on the design of computers. He needn’t even know much about how to prepare programs which are the instructions that direct the operations of computers. All of us are already on the way to becoming computer-literate.

If         you buy something with a bank credit card or pay a bill by сheck, computers help you process the information. When you check out at the counter of your store, a computer assists the checkout clerk and the store manager. When you visit your doctor, your schedules and bills and special services, such as laboratory tests, are prepared by computer. Many actions that you have taken or observed have much in common. Each relates to some aspect of a data processing system.

Exercise 1.  Translate into English and remember the following.

 Информационно-зависимое общество; человек, обладающий компьютерной грамотностью;  устройство, решающее повседневные проблемы;  понимать, сознавать;  влиять на качество жизни;  иметь возможность,  изучать основы;  научиться работе на компьютере;  наиболее значимые технические достижения;  охватывать компьютерной грамотностью;  писать программы;  направлять работу компьютера;  обрабатывать информацию;  иметь много общего;  система обработки данных.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions on the text.

I. What does «a computer-literate person» mean? 2. Are you aware of the potential of computers to influence your life? 3. What do the people mean by «the basics»? 4. What is the role of computers in our society? 5. What is «computing’? 6. What is a program? 7. Prove that we all are on the way to becoming computer-literate. 8. Give examples of using computers in everyday life.

Exercise 3.  Give the 3 forms of the verbs.

То be; to have; to mean; to learn; to become; to bring; to know; to think; to buy; to pay; to take; to do; to begin; to give; to make; to keep; to get; to read; to show.

Exercise 4. Turn the sentences into Past Simple.

1. Many people have an opportunity to use computers.  2. There is no doubt that computers solve problems very quickly.  3. Instructions direct the operation of a computer. 4. Computers bring with them both economic and social changes. 5. Computing embraces not only arithmetics, but also computer literacy.  6.It is well known that computers prepare laboratory tests.        7. Those persons are computer literate and think of buying a new computer. 8. They receive a subscription magazine once a month. 9. My mother is ill and visits her doctor every other day.  10. Experts know much about how to prepare programs.

Text 4. The First Calculating Devices

Let us take a look at the history of computers that we know today. The very first calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man’s hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens.

Then the abacus was invented. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th century, and it is still being used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read.

During the 17lh and 18th centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J. Napier, a Scotsman, invented a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is now the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier’s ideas to produce logarithm tables which all mathematicians use today.

Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by both Sir Isaak Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician. The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people’s experiments.

In 1830 Charles Babbage, a gifted English mathematician, proposed to build a general-purpose problem-solving machine that he called «the analytical engine». This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building today’s computers.

By the early part of the twentieth century electromechanical machines had been developed and were used for business data processing. Dr. Herman Hollerith, a young statistician from the US Census Bureau successfully tabulated the 1890 census. Hollerith invented a means of coding the data by punching holes into cards. He built one machine to punch the holes and others to tabulate the collected data. Later Hollerith left the Census  Bureau and established his own tabulating machine company. Through a series of merges the company eventually became the IBM Corporation.

Until the middle of the twentieth century machines designed to manipulate punched card data were widely used for business data processing. These early electromechanical data processors were called unit record machines because each punched card contained a unit of data.

In the mid—1940s electronic computers were developed to perform calculations for military and scientific purposes. By the end of the 1960s commercial models of these computers were widely used for both scientific computation and business data processing. Initially these computers accepted their input data from punched cards. By the late 1970s punched cards had been almost universally replaced by keyboard terminals. Since that time advances in science have led to the proliferation of computers throughout our society, and the past is but the prologue that gives us a glimpse of the future.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the English for: Вычислительное устройство; легкий способ вычисления; поэтому (вот почему); кратное десяти; изобрести механический способ умножения и деления; логарифмическая линейка; составить таблицы логарифмов; математический анализ; изобрести независимо (друг от друга); в результате; полностью исключить человека; кроме (за исключением); обработка деловой информации; средство кодирования информации; перфокарты; пробивать отверстия; оформить собранные данные в таблицу; работать с данными на перфокарте; устройство, записывающее информацию блоками; единица информации; выполнять вычисления; для научных целей; клавишный термина.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. What was the very first calculating device? 2. What is the abacus? 3. What is the modern slide rule? 4. Who gave the ideas for producing logarithm tables? 5. How did Newton and Leibnitz contribute to the problem of calculation? 6. When did the first calculating machine appear? 7. What was the main idea of Ch.Babbage’s machine? 8. How did electromechanical machines appear and what were they used for? 9. What means of coding the data did Hollerith devise? 10. How were those electromechanical machines called and why? 11. What kind of computers appeared later? 12. What new had the computers of 1970s?

Exercise 3.  Form other parts of speech from the following words.

Example:  to calculate — calculating, calculator, calculation.

To compute, to invent, to know, to multiply, to divide, to depend, to solve, to provide, to process, to code, to punch, to collect, to design, to store, to contribute, to use, to manipulate, to assemble, to connect, to consume, to rely, to divide, to multiply, to inform, to instruct, to discover, to operate.

Exercise 4. Translate the word combinations with a) Participle 1  b) Participle 2 into Russian.

1. Computers using vacuum tubes; the machine calculating mathematical problems; the computer keeping instructions in its memory; binary code storing data and instructions; the vacuum tube controlling and amplifying electronic signals; computers performing computations in milliseconds; electronic pulses moving at the speed of light; students coding the information by using a binary code; devices printing the information; keyboard terminals replacing vacuum tubes.
2. The given information; the name given to the machine; the coded data; the device used in World War II; the invention named EN I AC; the machine called EDVAC; instructions kept in the memory; the engine designed for storing data; data stored in a binary code; vacuum tubes invented by J. Neumann; the general-purpose machine proposed by Ch. Babbage; the machine provided with the necessary facts.

Before reading text 5,  learn these terms

applied physics — прикладная физика

generation— создание, формирование, выработка

scientific research— научные исследования

due to the efforts  — благодаря усилиям

manipulation— управление; обработка; преобразование

to replace vacuum tubes — заменять электронные лампы

a piece of semiconductor— полупроводниковый кристалл

reduced weight— уменьшенный вес

power consumption  — потребление (расход) электроэнергии

to carry out— выполнять; осуществлять

solid body — твердое тело; кристалл; полупроводник

to respond— отвечать; реагировать

at a rate — со скоростью

integrated circuit (1С)— интегральная схема        

batch processing— пакетная обработка

to assemble— собирать; монтировать

to lower manufacturing — снизить производительность

     to increase reliability— увеличить надежность

Text  5. Development of Electronics

Electronics is a field of engineering and applied physics dealing with the design and application of electronic circuits. The operation of circuits depends on the flow of electrons for generation, transmission, reception and storage of information.

Today it is difficult to imagine our life without electronics. It surrounds us everywhere. Electronic devices are widely used in scientific research and industrial designing, they control the work of plants and power stations, calculate the trajectories of space-ships and help the people discover new phenomena of nature. Automatization of production processes and studies on living organisms became possible due to electronics.

The invention of vacuum tubes at the beginning of the 20th century was the starting point of the rapid growth of modern electronics. Vacuum tubes assisted in manipulation of signals. The development of a large variety of tubes designed for specialized functions made possible the progress in radio communication technology before the World War II and in the creation of early computers during and shortly after the war.

The transistor invented by American scientists W. Shockly, J. Bardeen and W. Brattain in 1948 completely replaced the vacuum tube. The transistor, a small piece of a semiconductor with three electrodes, had great advantages over the best vacuum tubes. It provided the same functions as the vacuum tube but at reduced weight, cost, power consumption, and with high reliability. With the invention of the transistor all essential circuit functions could be carried out inside solid bodies. The aim of creating electronic circuits with entirely solid-state components had finally been realized. Early transistors could respond at a rate of a few million times a second. This was fast enough to serve in radio circuits, but far below the speed needed for highspeed computers or for microwave communication systems.

The progress in semiconductor technology led to the development of the integrated circuit (1С), which was discovered due to the efforts of John Kilby in 1958. There appeared a new field of science — integrated electronics. The essence of it is batch processing. Instead of making, testing and assembling descrete components on a chip one at a time, large groupings of these components together with their interconnections were made all at a time. 1С greatly reduced the size of devices, lowered manufacturing costs and at the same time they provided high speed and increased reliability.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the words and combinations: прикладная физика; передача и прием информации; поток электронов; трудно представить; научные исследования; промышленное проектирование; вычислять траекторию космических кораблей; обнаруживать явления природы; благодаря электронике; отправная точка; способствовать управлению сигналами; быстрый рост; разнообразие ламп; создание первых компьютеров; полностью заменил; полупроводниковый кристалл; уменьшить вес; сократить стоимость; потребление электроэнергии; высокая надежность; твердотельные компоненты; довольно быстро … но гораздо ниже; высокоскоростной компьютер; микроволновые системы связи; полупроводниковая технология; область науки; интегральная схема; пакетная обработка; сборка дискретных компонентов на кристалле; снизить производственные затраты; обеспечить высокую скорость.

Exercise 2. Translate the word combinations into Russian. Mind the order of translation.

Power consumption; power consumption change; signals manipulation; transistor invention; circuit functions; communication systems, data processing system; integrated circuits development; science field; process control; automatization processes control; circuit components; size reduction; electronics development; communication means; problem solution; space exploration; pattern recognition; customers accounts; air traffic control.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions on the text.

1. What is electronics?

2. Can you imagine modern life without electronics?

3. Where are electronic devices used?

4. What was the beginning of electronics development?

5. What made the progress in radio communication technology possible?

 6. What is the transistor?

7. When was the transistor invented?

8.  What aim was realized with the invention of the transistor?

1. When were integrated circuits discovered?
2.  What advantages did the transistors have over the vacuum tubes?

Before reading text 6, learn these terms

calculating device — вычислительное устройство

multiple — кратный

abacus — счеты

slide rule— логарифмическая линейка

logarithm table — логарифмическая таблица

calculus — исчисление; математический анализ

general-purpose— общего назначения, универсальный

to cut out the human being altogether — полностью исключить человека

to manipulate— обрабатывать, преобразовывать; управлять

data processing— обработка данных (информации)

tabulate the census — занести данные по переписи (населения) в таблицу

means of coding— средства кодирования (шифровки)

to punch the holes— пробивать отверстия

punched card— перфокарта

to perform— выполнять, производить (действие); осуществлять;

unit of data— единица информации

keyboard terminals — терминал (вывод) с клавишным управлением

Text 6. The First Computers

In 1930 the first analog computer was built by American named Vannevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help aim guns.

Many technical developments of electronic digital computers took place in the 1940s and 1950s. Mark I, the name given to the first digital computer, was completed in 1944. The man responsible for this invention was Professor Howard Aiken. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems at a very fast rate.

In 1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsilvania, J. Eckert and J. Maushly, built their digital computer with vacuum tubes. They named their new invention ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator).

Another important achievement in developing computers came in 1947, when John von Neumann developed the idea of keeping instructions for the computer inside the computer’s memory. The contribution of John von Neumann was particularly significant. As contrasted with Babbage’s analytical engine, which was designed to store only data, von Neumann’s machine, called the Electronic Discrete Variable Computer, or EDVAC, was able to store both data and instructions. He also contributed to the idea of storing data and instructions in a binary code that uses only ones and zeros. This simplified computer design. Thus computers use two conditions, high voltage, and low voltage, to translate the symbols by which we communicate into unique combinations of electrical pulses. We refer to these combinations as codes.

Neumann’s stored program computer as well as other machines of that time were made possible by the invention of the vacuum tube that could control and amplify electronic signals. Early computers, using vacuum tubes, could perform computations in thousandths of seconds, called milliseconds, instead seconds required by mechanical devices.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the English for: цифровые компьютеры; технические усовершенствования; совершенствование компьютеров; ответственный за изобретение; математические задачи; электронные трубки; важное достижение; запоминающее устройство; значительный вклад; двоичный код; высокое напряжение; низкое напряжение; электрические импульсы; тысячная доля секунды, происходить; завершать; вычислять; хранить команды внутри компьютера; запоминать информацию; запоминать команды; содействовать; использовать единицу и ноль; упрощать дизайн; усиливать сигналы; выполнять вычисления.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions on the text.

I When was the first analog computer built? 2. Where and how was that computer used? 3. When did the first digital computer appear? 4. Who was the inventor of the first digital computer? 5. What could that device do? 6. What is ENIAC? Decode the word. 7. What was J. Neumann’s contribution into the development of computers? 8. What were the advantages of EDVAC  in comparison with ENIAC? 9. What does binary code mean? 10. Due to what invention could the first digital computers be built?

Exercise 3. Make up pairs of synonyms from the given words.

Verbs: to name, to complete, to calculate, to develop, to keep, to interprete, to communicate, to fulfill, to apply, to translate, to improve, to build, to call, to store, to communicate, to figure out, to perform, to use, to finish, to construct, to connect.

Nouns: speed, aim, storage, information, machine, significance, computation, data, device, rate, calculation, purpose, memory, importance.

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with proper words.

1. The first digital computer could        a lot of mathematical problems at a fast 2.  Vannevar Bush built the first        computer in 1930. 3. Babbage’s analytical engine was designed  to        data.  4. J.von Neumann invented a machine that was able to _____        not only data but also        .  5. Neumann        the idea of storing data in a _____        . 6. Computers use two conditions for __________        symbols.  7. The invention of _____    _____made computers possible to control and        electronic signals.  8. Due to _____   ______         computers could perform ____________ much faster.

Exercise 5.  Translate the following word combinations with the Infinitive.

I.  Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства

I. Computers were designed to perform thousands of computations  per second. 2. To make computers more reliable transistors were used. 3. They were applied to reduce computational time. 4. To integrate large numbers of circuit elements into a small chip, transistors should be reduced in size. 5. To use integrated circuit technology new computers were built. 6. Analytical engine was invented to store data.

II. Инфинитив в функции определения

The problem to be solved; the work to be finished; the cards to be punched; calculations to be performed; the machine to be shown at the exhibition; the device to be provided with the necessary facts; computers to be used for data processing; efforts to increase reliability; electronics to connect systems and subsystems; the speed of response to depend on the size of transistor; computers to perform thousands of calculations per second; vacuum tubes to control and amplify electric signals; these are circuits to use a large number of transistors; operations to be performed.

Text  7.  Four Generations of Computers

The first vacuum tubes computers are referred to as first generatlon computers, and the approximate period of their use was from 1950 to 1959. UNIVAC 1 (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. Those devices were not оnly bulky, they were also unreliable. The thousands of vacuum tubes emitted large amounts of heat and burned out frequently. The transistor, a smaller and more reliable successor to the vacuum tube, was invented in 1948. So-called second generation computers, which used large numbers of transistors were able to reduce computational time from milliseconds to microseconds, or millionths of seconds. Second-generation computers were smaller, faster and more reliable than first-generation computers.

Advances in electronics technology continued, and micro-electronics made it possible to reduce the size of transistors and integrate large numbers of circuit elements into very small chips of silicon. The computers that were designed to use integrated circuit technology were called third generation computers, and  the approximate time span of these machines was from 1960 to 1979. They could perform many data processing operations in nanoseconds, which are billionths of seconds.

Fourth generation computers have now arrived, and the intergrated circuits that are being developed were greatly reduced in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits are much smaller than before; as many as 100 tiny circuits are placed now on a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic or metal.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the English for:  приблизительный период, выполнять вычисления,  устройство, громоздкий, ненадежный, излучать тепло, перегорать, надежный, преемник, снижать, время вычислений, прогресс,  интегральная схема,  размер, крошечный, квадратный, прямоугольный,  дюйм, гравировать, заключать в капсулу.

Exercise 2. Correct the sentences.

1.  The first  generation computers could perform data processing operation in nanoseconds.
2. The second generation computers ‘s circuits were replaced on a single chip.
3. The third generation computers were bulky and unreliable.
4. The fourth generation computers had a computation time in microseconds.
5. A vacuum tube was invented in 1948
6. UNIVAC could perform hundred of operations per millisecond.

       Exercise 3. Detect the grammar tense and voice of the predicates in the sentences.

1. The first vacuum tubes computers are referred to as first generation computers.
2. The  circuit is encapsulated in plastic or metal.
3. The transistor, a smaller and more reliable successor to the vacuum tube, was  invented in 1948.
4. As  many as 100 tiny circuits are placed now on a single chip.
5. The computers that were designed to use integrated circuit technology were called third generation computers.
6.  Fourth generation computers were greatly reduced in size.

      Exercise 4. Turn the sentences from exercise 3 into the Active Voice.

      Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps.

1. The  ______   ______ of the first generation computers’ use was from 1950 to 1959.
2. UNIVAC 1 is an example of these computers which could _____ thousands of _____ per second.
3. The thousands of vacuum tubes _____ large amounts of _____ and _____ frequently.
4. Second  generation computer were able to _____   _____   _____ from milliseconds to microseconds.
5. 100 _____ circuits are placed now on a single chip.
6. A chip is a _____ or _____ piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 _____ .

    Exercise 6. Arrange the words in A and B  pairs of synonyms.

1. To perform,  device, frequently,  to reduce, advance, tiny, to etch, single.
2. The only,  to make, to imprint, often, progress, to diminish, little, gadget

Unit 2.   What is a Computer?

Text 1.  What is a Computer?

Computer is a device for processing information. Computer has no intelligence by itself and is called hardware. A computer system is a combination of four elements:

• Hardware
• Software
• Procedures
• Data/information

          Software are the programmes that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without software instructions, the hardware doesn’t know what to do.

            The basic job of the computer is the processing of information. Computers take information in the form of instructions called programmes and symbols called data. After that they perform various mathematical and logical operations, and then give the results (information). Computer is used to convert data into information. Computer is also used to store information in the digital form.

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps.

1.   Computer has no ……………………

2.   A computer system is……………….

3.   Without……………. Instructions  …

4.   Computer is used …………………   information in digital form

5.   The basic job of the computer is ……  

Exercise 2.   Answer the questions.

1. What does the term «Computer» describe?
2. Is computer intelligent?
3. What are four components of computer system?
4. What is software?
5. What is the difference between software and hardware?
6. In what way do terms «information» and «data» differ?
7. How does computer convert data into information?

Exercise 3.   Are the statements true or false? Give your arguments.

1. Computer is made of electronic components so it is an electronic device.
2. Computer has no intelligence until software is loaded.
3. There are four elements of computer system: Software, hardware, diskette and  data.
4. Without software instructions hardware doesn’t know what to do.
5. The software is the most important component because it is made by people.
6. The user inputs data into computer to get information as an output.

Text 2.   Welcome to  the Computer World.

Many companies computerized their offices because computers can do work more quickly and accurately than people. The computer stores and finds information and does calculations. This work is called data processing. The part of the computer that processes the data (information) is called the central processing unit. It contains only electronic components called microchips.

          A computer can only do what it is instructed to do. This instructions that are stored in a computer are called the computer programs. The parts of the computer used by most people are called terminals. The terminals consist of α keyboard, which looks like a typewriter, and a visual display units, which looks like a television. Information put into the computer on the keyboard is called input. When the computer shows the result of the data processing on the video display unit, it is called output.

         When a computer goes wrong, it is usually because there is something wrong with the input. In other words it is a mistake made by a person not by a computer. This is sometimes called GIGO (Garbage in, Garbage out).

Exercise 1. Answer the questions on text 2.

1. Why did many companies computerise their offices?
2. What work does a computer do?
3. How is this work called?
4. What is the function of the central processor unit?
5. What are computer programs?
6. How does a keyboard look?
7. Why does a computer go wrong?

Exercise 2. Find in text 2 all sentences with Passive Voice. Detect their grammar forms. Turn them into the Past simple and Future  simple tense forms.

Exercise 3. Translate into English.

1. Хранение, поиск информации и вычисления называется обработкой данных.
2. Компьютер запрограммирован на выполнение различных операций.
3. В компьютер заложены много разных программ.
4. Информация, поступающая в компьютер, называется вводом.

5.          Если ошибка сделана человеком, компьютер может дать сбой.

Text 3.   Introduction to the WWW and the Internet.

Million of people around the world use the Internet to search for and retrieve information on all sorts of topics including arts, business, humanities, news, politics and recreation. People communicate through electronic mail (e-mail), discussion groups, chat channels and other means of informational exchange. They share information and make commercial and business transactions. All this activity is possible because tens of thousands of networks are connected to the Internet and exchange information in the same basic ways.

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a part of the Internet. But it is not a collection of networks. Rather, it is information that is connected or linked together like a web. You access this information through one interface or tool called a Web browser. The number of resources and services that are part of the World Wide Web is growing extremely fast. In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the WWW. By using a computer terminal (hardware) connected to a network that is a part of the Internet, and by using a program (software) to browse or retrieve information that is a part of the World Wide Web, the people connected to the Internet and WWW through the local providers. Each browser provides a graphical interface. You move from place to place, from site to site on the Web by using a mouse to click on a portion of text, icon or region of the map. These items are called hyperlinks or links. Each link you select represents a document, an image, a video clip or an audio file somewhere on the Internet. The user doesn’t need to know where it is, the browser follows the link.

All sorts of things are available on the WWW. One can use the WWW for the recreation purposes. Many TV and radio stations broadcast line on the WWW. Essentially, if something can be put into digital format and stored in a computer, then it’s available on the WWW. You can even visit museums, gardens, cities throughout the world, learn foreign languages and meet new friends. And of course you can play computer games through WWW, competing with partners from other countries and continents.

     Just a little bit of exploring the World Wide Web will show you what a much of use and fun it is.

Exercise 1. Answer the questions (general understanding).

1. How can people use the Internet?
2. What is WWW?
3. How do people access information in WWW?
4. How do people connect to the Internet?
5. What sorts of things are available on the WWW?

Exercise 2. Insert proper words or phrases.

1. People communicate through … , … .
2. Thousands of… are connected to the Internet and … information.
3. The        is a part of the Internet.
4. You … information through one … called ….
5. Each browser provides a graphical ….
6. You move from site to site by using a … to … on a portion of text.
7. The … doesn’t need to know where it is, the browser follows the link.
8. One can use the Internet for … purposes.

Exercise 3.   Correct the sentences.

1. People use the Internet to do shopping.
2. People communicate through the browser.
3. The Internet is a part of the World Wide Web.
4. The people connect to the Internet through another computer.
5. A user must know where the needed files or documents in the Internet are.
6. The Internet is used for business transactions only.

Exercise 4.   Translate into English.

1. Люди используют Интернет чтобы извлекать информацию и общаться.
2. Мы находим информацию через специальную программу поиска.
3. Кто-то может использовать Интернет для отдыха и развлечений.
4. С помощью всемирной сети мы можем посетить разные города и страны, выучить иностранный язык и встретить новых друзей.
5. Люди подключаются к Интернету и всемирной сети через местных провайдеров.
6. Пользователю не нужно знать, где находится информация, ему поможет программа поиска.
7. Десятки тысяч сетей соединены в Интернет, где люди обмениваются информацией.

Unit 3.

Computer operations and operating systems.

Text 1. What is Hardware?

Hardware is the devices composing a computer system. Computer hardware can be divided into 4 categories:

1. Input hardware
2. Processing hardware
3. Storage hardware
4. Output hardware

Input hardware

Input hardware collects data and converts them into a form suitable for computer processing. The most common input device is a keyboard. It looks like a typewriter. The mouse is a hand-held device connected to the computer by a small cable. As the mouse is rolled across the desktop, the cursor moves across the screen. When the cursor reaches the needed location, the user usually presses the button on the mouse once or twice to give a command to a computer.

Another type of input hardware is optic-electronic scanner. Microphone and videocamera can be also used to input data into the computer.

Processing hardware

Processing hardware directs the execution of software instructions in the computer. The most common components of processing hardware are the central processing unit and main memory.

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets software instructions and coordinates the processing.

Memory is the component of the computer in which information is stored. There two types of computer memory: random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).

Random access memory is the memory, used for creating, loading and running programs.

Read only memory is computer memory used to hold programmed instructions to the system.

The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you can perform.

Storage hardware.

The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data and retrieve when needed for processing. Storage hardware stores data as electromagnetic signals. The most common ways of storing data are hard disk, floppy disk and CD — ROM. Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing programs and a large amount of data.

Floppy disk (diskette) — a thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material, for storing temporary computer data and programs. There are two formats of floppy disks; 5.25′ and 3.5’.   3.5′ disks are formatted 1.4 megabytes and are widely used.

CD — ROM (compact disk read only memory) is a compact disk on which a large amount of digitized data can be stored. CD — ROMs are very popular now because of the growing speed which CD- ROM drives can provide nowadays.

Output hardware.

The purpose of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to view information produced by the computer system. Information is in either hardcopy or softcopy forms. Hardcopy output can be held in your hand, such as paper with text (words or numbers) or graphics printed on it. Softcopy output is displayed on a monitor.

Monitor is a display screen for viewing computer data, television programs, etc. Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data or graphics.

Modem is an example of communication hardware — an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via telephone or other communication lines.

Hardware comes in many configurations, depending on what you are going to do on your computer.

Exercise 1. Answer the questions.

1. What is hardware?
2. What groups of hardware do you know?
3. What is input hardware?
4. What are the examples of input hardware?
5. What is the mouse designed for?
6. What is processing hardware?
7. What are the basic types of memory used in a personal computer?
8. What is a storage hardware?
9. What is the CD-ROM used for?
10. What kind of hardware can contain more information: CD-ROM, ROM or RAM?
11.  What is a modem used for?
12. Can a PC user communicate with other people without a modem?

Exercise 2. True or false? Give your arguments.

1. The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and to convert them into a form suitable for computer processing.
2. Scanner is used to input graphics only.
3. CPU reads and interprets software and prints the results on the paper.
4. A user can’t change the contents of ROM.
5. A printer is a processing hardware because it shows the information.
6. Modem is an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data from one computer to another via telephone or other communication lines.
7. The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data.
8. Floppy disk is used for storing a large amounts of data.
9. A monitor is an output device that produces a paper data or graphics.
10. A keyboard is a computer software for to input information.

Exercise 3. Give the definitions, using the text.

1. CPU
2. ROM
3. Floppy-disk
4. CD-ROM
5. Printer
6. Modem

1. Hard disk
2. Keyboard

Exercise 4. Insert proper words or phrases.

1. Software tells the … how to perform a task.
2. The most common input device is …
3. The … is a hand-held device connected with the computer by a small cable.
4. The … is the brain of the computer.
5. The purpose of… hardware is to store computer instructions and data.
6. … is a rigid disk coated with magnetic materials.
7. Floppy disk is for storing … and ….

Text 2. Computer Operations.

Much of the processing computers can be divided into two general types of operation. Arithmetic operations are computations with numbers such as addition, subtraction, and other mathematical procedures. Early computers performed mostly arithmetic operations, which gave the false impression that only engineers and scientists could benefit from computers. Of equal importance is the computers’ ability to compare two values to determine if one is larger than, smaller than, or equal to the other. This is called a logical operation. The comparison may take place between numbers, letters, sounds, or even drawings. The processing of the computer is based on the computer’s ability to perform logical and arithmetic operations.

Instructions must be given to the computer to tell it how to process the data it receives and the format needed for output and storage. The ability to follow the program sets computers apart from most tools. However, new tools ranging from typewriters to microwave ovens have embedded computers, or built-in- computers. An embedded computer can accept data to use several options in its program, but the program itself cannot be changed. This makes these devices flexible and convenient but not the embedded computer itself.

Types of Data

With the advent of new computer applications and hardware, the definition of data expanded to include many types.

Numeric data consists of numbers and decimal points, as well as the plus (+) and minus (-) signs. Both arithmetic operations and logical operations are performed on numeric data. This means that numbers can be used for calculations as well as sorted and compared to each other.

Text, or textual data, can contain any combinations of letters, numbers special characters. Sometimes textual data is known as alphanumeric data.

Various forms of data that we can hear and see make up audio-visual data. The computer can produce sounds, music and even human voice. It can also accept audio information as an input. Data can also take form of drawings and video sequences.

Physical data is captured from the environment. For example, light, temperature and pressure are all types of physical data. In many large buildings, computer systems process several kinds of physical data to regulate operations. Computers can set off security alarms, control temperature and humidity, or turn lights on and off,, all in response to physical data. These applications increase people’s safety and save the time and money.

Exercise 1.   Answer the questions.

1. What parts are computer operations divided into?
2. Can computer compare two graphical objects?
3. What makes computer so different from other tools?
4. What is an embedded computer?
5. What  types of data do you know?
6. What does numeric data consist of?
7. What is physical data?
8. What makes up audio-visual data?

Exercise 2.   True or false?  Give your arguments.

1. Arithmetic operations are operations with numbers – subtraction and division.
2. Early computers gave false impression about their capabilities.
3. Logical operations are computer’s ability to compare two values.
4. The major difference between the computer and tools lies in the flexibility of the program.
5. Embedded computers are found only in typewriters and ovens.
6. Microwave oven’s program  is flexible and could be changed because of  the embedded computer.
7. Numeric data consist of numbers, decimal points and the (+) and (-) signs.
8. Computer can accept human speech as an  audio-visual input data.

Exercise 3.   Give definitions, use the dictionary.

1. Software.
2. Arithmetic operations.
3. Logical operations.
4. Numeric data.
5. Textual data.
6. Physical data.
7. Audio-visual data.

Exercise 4.    Fill in the banks.  

1. … are computations with numbers such as addition, subtraction, and other mathematical procedures.
2. The computers ability to compare two values to determine,  if one is larger than, smaller than, or equal to the other is called  a …
3. New tools ranging from typewriters to microwave ovens have embedded computers, or …
4. As … can accept data to use several options in its program, but the program itself cannot be changed.
5. … can be used for calculations as well as sorted and compared to each other.
6. … can contain any combinations of  letters, numbers and specific characters.
7. Various forms of data that we can hear and see makes up … which is captured from the environment.

Text  3.  Types of  Software

A computer to complete a job requires more than just  the actual equipment or hardware we can see and touch. It  requires Software – programs for directing the operation of a computer or electronic data. Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs instruct the hardware how to conduct processing. The computer is merely a general – purpose machine which requires specific software to perform a given task. Computers can input, calculate, compare and output data as information. Software determines the order in which these operations are performed.

Programs usually fall in one of  two categories: system software and application software.

System software controls standard internal computer activities. An operating system, for example, is a collection of system programs that aid in operation of a computer regardless of the application software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of the system programs is booted or loaded into the computer memory. This software contains information about memory capacity, the model of the processor, the disc drives to be used, and more. Once the system software is loaded, the application software can start to work.

System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These programs are called drivers and coordinate peripheral hardware and computer activities. User needs to install a specific driver in order to activate his peripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a printer, or a scanner, you need to worry in advance about the driver program, which commonly goes along with your device. By installing a driver you teach your mainboard to understand the newly attached part.

Application software  satisfies your specific needs. The developers of software rely mostly on marketing research strategies trying to do their best to attract more users (buyers) to their software. As the productivity of the hardware increased greatly in recent years, the programmers nowadays tend to include all kinds of gimmicks  in one program to make software interface look more attractive to their user. This class of programs is the most numerous and perspective from the marketing point of view.

Data communication within and between computers systems is handled by system  software. Communications software transfers data from one computer system to another. These programs usually provide users with data security and error checking along with physically transferring data between the two computers’ memory. During the past five years the developing electronic network communication stimulated more and more companies to produce various communication software, such as Web-Browsers for Internet.

Exercise 1.   Find in Text  4 the English equivalents: управлять; проводить; завершать; оборудование; внутренний; требовать; управление;  конкретный, определенный; многоцелевой; помощь; отношение;  несмотря на;  вместимость памяти; устанавливать,  встраивать; переводить, переносить; обеспечивать чем-либо; обеспечивать безопасность; развивать, проявлять; разработчик; проверять; присоединять; запускать; трюк, приманка.

Exercise 2.   General understanding questions.

1. What is a software?
2. In what two basic groups could software be divided?
3. What is software for?
4. Is an operating system an application or system software?
5. What is a driver?
6. What is an application software?
7. What is the tendency in application software market in recent years?
8. What is the application of the communication software?

Exercise 3.   What  is software?

a) Program                                                                     b) Mouse

c) CPU                                                                            d) Word  processor

e) Modem                                                                       f) Web – browser

g) Operating system                                                     h) Scanner

i) Developer                                                                    k) Equipment

Exercise 4.   True or false?  Give your arguments.

1. Computer programs only instruct the hardware how to handle data storage.
2. System software controls internal computer activities.
3. System software is very dependable on  the type of application software being used.
4. The information about memory capacity, the model of the processor and disc drives is unavailable for system software.
5. The driver is a special device usually used by car drivers for Floppy-discs driving.
6. It is very reasonable to ask for a driver when you buy a new piece of hardware.
7. Software developers tend to make their products very small and with poor interface to save computer resources.
8. Communication software is of great need now because of the new advances in communication technologies.
9. Application software is merely a general-purpose instrument.
10. Web-browsers is the class of software for electronic communication through the network.

Exercise 5.   Translate into English, using the text.

1. Программное обеспечение определяет порядок выполнения операций.
2. Прикладные программы выполняют поставленную вами конкретную задачу.
3. Этот класс программ самый многочисленный и перспективный с точки зрения маркетинга.
4. Системные программы предназначены для конкретных устройств компьютерной системы.
5. Устанавливая драйвер, вы учите систему понимать вновь присоединенное устройство.
6. Когда компьютер впервые включается, одна из системных программ должна быть загружена  в  его память.
7. Развитие систем электронной коммуникации за последние пять лет стимулировала много к производству соответствующих программных продуктов возрастающим числом компаний-разработчиков.

Text  4.  Operating  Systems

When computers were first introduced in 1940’s, and 50’s, every program written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as how to perform several other  tasks not necessarily related to the program. The additional program instructions for working with hardware devices were very complex and time-consuming. Programmers soon realized it would be smarter to develop one program that could control the computer’s hardware, which other programs could use when they needed it. With that, the first operating system was born.

Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or the mouse. They also provide disk management by letting  you store information in files. The operating system also lets you  run programs such  as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands that help you to use the computer.

DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system. DOS was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS is an abbreviation for “Microsoft DOS”. When IBM first released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from Microsoft for use on the PC and called it  PC – DOS. From the users perspective, PC – DOS and MS – DOS  are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands. The version of  DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over  the past decade, DOS underwent several changes. Each time the DOS developers  release a new version, they increase the version number.

Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced version of the popular  Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programs. NT requires a 386 or greater and 8 MB of  RAM. For the best NT performance, you have to use 486 with about 16 MB or higher. Unlike the  Windows, which runs on top of DOS, Windows NT is operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible. The advantage of using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC’s memory management capabilities.

OS / 2  is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, ODS /2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse. Also  like NT,  OS / 2  performs best when you are using a powerful system. Many IBM – based PCs are shipped with OS / 2 preinstalled.

UNIX is  a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system. Traditionally, UNIX was run on a larger mini computers to which users accessed the systems using terminals and not PC’s. UNIX allowed each user to simultaneously  run the programs they desired. Unlike NT and OS / 2, UNIX is not DOS compatible. Most users would not purchase UNIX for their own use.

Windows 95 and 98 are the most popular user-oriented operating systems with a friendly interface and  multitasking capabilities. The usage of  Windows 95 and its enhanced version Windows 98 is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly. Windows 95 and 98 are DOS compatible, so all programs written for DOS may work under the new operating system. Windows 95 requires 486 with 16 Mb of  RAM or Pentium 75 – 90 with 40 Mb of free hard disk space.

Exercise 1.   Find  in text 5 the English for:   сложный; потреблять; осознать; умный; расширять, увеличивать; вершина; на основе  DOS; совместимый;  доступ; многочисленные пользователи; одновременно; желать; поставлять.

Exercise 2.   Fill in the blanks.

1. Like NT, … is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse.
2. … is the most commonly used operating systems.
3. … is  a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system
4. … is an operating system developed by Microsoft, an enhanced version of the popular  Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programs.
5. The usage of  … and … is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly.

Exercise 3.   Answer general understanding questions.

1. What problems faced programmers in the 1940s’ and 1950s’?
2. Why were first programs complex and time-consuming?
3. What are the basic functions of operating systems?
4. What does “DOS” abbreviation mean?
5. What company developed the first version of  DOS operating systems and for what purpose?
6. Was the new operating system successful?
7. What is the difference between PC-DOS and MS-DOS?
8. What does the abbreviation NT stand for?
9. Is NT  DOS — compatible?
10. What are the basic requirements for NT?
11. Who is the developer of OS 2?
12. What makes UNIX so different from the other operating systems?
13. What are the remarkable features of Windows – 95?

Exercise 4.   True or false?   Give your arguments.

1. When computers were first introduced in 1940s and 1950s, programmers had to write programs to instruct CD – ROMs, laser printers and scanners.
2. The operating system control s and manages  the use of the hardware and the memory usage.
3. There are no commands available in operating systems, only word processors.
4. Microsoft developed MS – DOS to compete with IBM’s PC DOS.
5. NT requires computers with 486 CPU and 16 M random access memory.
6. OS2 is DOS compatible because it was developed by Microsoft.
7. Traditionally, UNIX was run by many users simultaneously.
8. Windows 95 and Windows 98   are DOS compatible and have very “friendly” and convenient interface.

Exercise 5.   Translate into English, using the  active vocabulary of the text.

1.  Современные операционные системы контролируют использование системного оборудования,    например принтера  и сканера.  2. С точки зрения пользователя, операционные системы PC — DOS и MS – DOS идентичны, с равными возможностями и набором системных команд.  3. OS2 – DOS совместимая операционная система, позволяющая запускать программы при помощи графического    интерфейса  пользователя.  4. Дополнительные программы для работы с устройствами системного оборудования были очень сложны и поглощали много времени.  5. DOS – наиболее распространенная операционная система для персонального компьютера.

Unit  4

Data Processing and Computer Systems

Before reading  text 1 learn these terms

data processing — обработка информации

to convert— преобразовывать; переводить (в др. единицы)

to accomplish —завершать, заканчивать; осуществлять, выполнять

to house — помещать, размещать

to improve — улучшать, совершенствовать

to control  — управлять, регулировать;

to  store — хранить, запоминать, заносить

storage  — запоминающее устройство, память; хранение

resource — ресурс; средство; возможность

facility – устройство, средство

facilities – возможности, приспособления

equipment – оборудование, аппаратура

available – доступный, возможный, имеющийся

display – дисплей, показ, устройство отображения

manner – способ, образ (действия)

sequence — последовательность

successively — последовательно

data storage hierarchy – последовательность запоминания данных

to enter  — входить; вводить (данные); заносить, записывать

comprehensive groupings — полные, обширные, универсальные образования

meaningful  — имеющий смысл; значащий (о данных)

item — элемент; составная часть

record  — запись, регистрация; записывать, регистрировать        

file  — файл; заносить (хранить) в файл

set — набор; множество; совокупность; серия; группа; система

data base — база данных

related  — смежный; взаимосвязанный; относящийся (к ч.-л.)        

Text 1.  Data Processing and Data processing Systems.

The necessary data are processed by a computer to become useful information. In fact this is the definition of data processing. Data are a collection of facts — unorganized but able to be organized into useful information. Processing is a series of actions or operations that convert inputs into outputs. When we speak of data processing, the input is data, and the output is useful information. So, we can define data processing as a series of actions or operations that converts data into useful information.

We use the term data processing system to include the resources that are used to accomplish the processing of data. There are four types of resources: people, materials, facilities, and equipment. People provide input to computers, operate them, and use their output. Materials, such as boxes of paper and printer ribbons, are consumed in great quantity. Facilities are required to house the computer equipment, people and materials.

The need for converting facts into useful information is not I phenomenon of modern life. Throughout history, and even prehistory, people have found it necessary to sort data into forms that were easier to understand. For example, the ancient Egyptians  recorded the ebb and flow of the Nile River and used this information to predict yearly crop yields. Today computers convert data about land and water into recommendations to farmers on crop planting. Mechanical aids to computation were developed and improved upon in Europe, Asia, and America throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Modern computers are marvels of an electronics technology that continues to produce smaller, cheaper, and more powerful components.

Basic data processing operations

Five basic operations are characteristic of all data processing systems: inputting, storing, processing, outputting, and controlling. They are defined as follows.

Inputting is the process of entering data, which are collected facts, into a data processing system. Storing is saving data or information so that they are available for initial or for additional processing. Processing represents performing arithmetic or logical operations on data in order to convert them into useful information. Outputting is the process of producing useful information, such as a printed report or visual display.

Controlling is directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.

Data storage hierarchy

It is known that data, once entered, are organized and stored in successively more comprehensive groupings. Generally, these groupings are called a data storage hierarchy. The general groupings of any data storage hierarchy are as follows.

1) Characters, which are all written language symbols: letters, numbers, and special symbols. 2) Data elements, which are meaningful collections of related characters. Data elements are also called data items or fields. 3) Records, which are collections of related data elements. 4) Files, which are collections of related records. A set of related files is called a data base or a data bank.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text  the English for:

Системы обработки информации; определение (термина) обработки данных; совокупность фактов; последовательность действий; преобразование входных данных в полезную информацию; включать ресурсы; завершить обработку данных; обеспечивать ввод информации в компьютер; ленты принтера; расходовать в большом количестве; размещать компьютерное оборудование; нуждаться (требовать) в приспособлениях; явление современной жизни; на протяжении доисторического периода; превращать информацию в выражения; регистрировать отливы и приливы; прогнозировать урожай зерновых культур; механические средства вычисления; ввод данных; хранение данных; первоначальная обработка данных; дополнительная обработка; выдача полезной информации; напечатанное сообщение; зрительное отображение; последовательность запоминания информации; записанные символы языка; элементы информации; база данных; набор взаимосвязанных файлов.

Exercise  2.  Look at the text once more and answer the questions.

1. What is processing? 2. What is data processing? 3. What does the term of data processing system mean? 4. What basic operations does a data processing system include? 5. What is inputting / storing / outputting information? 6. What do you understand by resources? 7. How did ancient Egyptians convert facts into useful information? 8. When were mechanical aids for computation developed? 9. What does data storage hierarchy mean? 10. What are the general groupings of any data storage hierarchy?

Exercise 3.  Translate the following word combinations. Mind the word order.

1. Data resource; storage resource; network resource; security resource; system resource.
2. Communication facilities; data base facilities; display facilities; management facilities.
3. Distance control; device control; keyboard control; position control; program control.
4. Computer storage; laser storage;  file storage; disk storage; data storage hierarchy.
5. Character sequence; instruction sequence; message sequence; pulse sequence.
6. Batch file; catalog file; data file; help file; input file; output file; menu file; user file.
7. Command input; data input; disk input; file input; keyboard input; program input.

Exercise 4.  Match the right and the left columns.

1.         Computer        a) the set of instructions that direct

the operations of computers;

2.         Computer literacy     b) a part of a computer, entering

data into the device;

3.         A program        c) facts unorganized but able t6 be

organized;

4.         Data        d) the output of a data processing

system;

5.         Data processing        e) possessing sufficient knowledge of how computers work and what  they can      

                                              do to use them as problem-solving tools;
6.             Data processing                         f) a series of operations that results

in the conversion of data system into useful information;        

7.         Input        g) an electronic device performing

                                                          calculations on numerical data;

8.         Output        h) an electronic device accepting

the data processing results from the computer and displaying them;

9.         Useful information    i) a set of related files;

10.         Data bank        j) the resources required to accomplish the processing of data.

                                           These    resources are personnel, material, facilities and equipment.

Exercise 7.  Analyze the forms of verbs and translate the sentences properly.

1. Data are processed to become useful information. 2. We use the term data processing to include the resources applied for processing of information. 3. Resources required for accomplishing the processing of data are called data processing system. 4. Processing is a series of operations converting inputs into outputs. 5. Facilities are required to house the computer equipment. 6. Egyptians used the information to predict crop yields. 7.  Information to be put into the computer for processing should be coded into ones and zeroes. 8. Processing is operations on data to convert them into useful information. 9. The first machines designed to manipulate punched card data were widely used for business data processing. 10. Hollerith built one machine to punch the holes and the other to tabulate the collected data.

Before reading text 2 learn the new words.

manual — ручной, выполняемый вручную

to take advantage of smth — воспользоваться ч.-л.

capability — способность; возможность; характеристика

accuracy — точность; правильность; четкость

to eliminate — устранять; удалять; отменять; ликвидировать

to make errors — допускать ошибки (погрешности)

error-prone — подверженный ошибкам

to remain vulnerable — оставаться уязвимым, чувствительным

invalid data— неверные, неправильные, недопустимые данные

communications networks — сети передачи данных; сети связи

travel — перемещение; прохождение; путь; ход

instant response — мгновенный ответ (реакция)

to respond — отвечать; реагировать

access —доступ; обращение; обращаться, иметь доступ

capacity of storage — объем (емкость) памяти

to retrieve — извлекать, выбирать (данные); восстанавливать (файл)

value— значение; величина; значимость; ценность; оценка; оценивать

objective — цель; требование; целевая функция

cost-effective — экономичный; экономически оправданный

challenge  — трудность; препятствие; представлять трудность

Text  2.   Advantages  of  Computer Data Processing.

Computer-oriented data processing systems or just computer data processing systems are not designed to imitate manual systems. They should combine the capabilities of both humans and computers. Computer data processing systems can be designed to take advantage of four capabilities of computers.

1. Accuracy. Once data have been entered correctly into the computer component of a data processing system, the need for further manipulation by humans is eliminated, and the possibility of error is reduced. Computers, when properly programmed, are also unlikely to make computational errors. Of course, computer systems remain vulnerable to the entry by humans of invalid data.
2. Ease of communications. Data, once entered, can be transmitted wherever needed by communications networks. These may be either earth or satellite-based systems. A travel reservations system is an example of a data communications network. Reservation clerks throughout the world may make an enquiry about transportation or lodgings and receive an almost instant response. Another example is an office communications system that provides executives with access to a reservoir of date, called a corporate data base, from their personal microcomputer work

stations.

1. Capacity of storage. Computers are able to store vast amounts of information, to organize it, and to retrieve it in ways that are far beyond the capabilities of humans. The amount of data that can be stored on devices such as magnetic discs is constantly increasing. All the while, the cost per character of data stored is decreasing.
2. Speed. The speed, at which computer data processing systems can respond, adds to their value. For example, the travel reservations system mentioned above would not be useful if clients had to wait more than a few seconds for a response. The response required might be a fraction of a second.

Thus, an important objective in the design of computer data processing systems is to allow computers to do what they do best and to free humans from routine, error-prone tasks. The most cost-effective computer data processing system is the one that does the job effectively and at the least cost. By using computers in a cost-effective manner, we will be better able to respond to the challenges and opportunities of our post-industrial, information-dependent society.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text the English equivalents for:

Система обработки информации компьютером; система ориентирования на обработку данных компьютером; сочетать возможности человека и машины; ограничивать управление; вряд ли допустят ошибку; оставаться уязвимым; недопустимые данные; легкость осуществления связи; сеть передачи информации; системы, основанные на использовании спутников; служащие по резервированию жилья; получить мгновенный ответ; наводить справки; хранилище данных; корпоративная база данных; объем памяти; запоминать огромное количество информации; извлекать информацию; добавить значимости; упомянутый выше; доля секунды; подверженный ошибкам; экономически оправданный.

Exercise 2.  Answer   the questions, using the information from the text.

1. What capabilities should data-processing systems combine when designed? 2. What are the main advantages of computers? 3. What do you know of computers accuracy? 4. What is the function of communication networks? 5. Give examples of I data communication network. 6. What do you understand by capacity storage? 7. What other values of computer data processing systems do you know? 8. What is an important objective in the design of computer data processing systems? 9. What is the most effective computer data processing system? 10. What is the best way of responding to the challenges and opportunities of our post-industrial society?

Exercise 3.  Guess the meaning of the words.

То eliminate: elimination; eliminable; eliminator; unlimited.

To respond: respondent; response; responsible; irresponsible; responsibility.

Accuracy: inaccuracy; accurate; inaccurate; accurately.

Correctly, correct; incorrect; to correct; correction; correctional; corrective; corrector.

Vulnerable: invulnerable; vulnerability; invulnerability.

Invalid: valid; invalidity; validity;

Access: accessible; inaccessible; accessibility; inaccessibility.

     Exercise 4.  Turn the sentences with Modal Verbs into the Past and the Future.

1. Computers can replace people in dull routine work. 2. The program is a set of instructions that may also include data to be processed. 3. Computer-controled robots must increase the productivity of industry. 4. They can help in making different decisions. 5. The pupils may work with computers at the lessons. 6. Electric pulses can move at the speed of light. 7. Storage devices must have capacities for the input, output data and programs and for intermediate results. 8. Business minicomputers can perform to 100 million operations per second. 9. In order to solve scientific problems researchers must deal with the language of science — mathematics. 10. Programmers must write . application programs in a way that computers can understand.

Exercise 5.  Insert proper word.        

1.        Computer data        system frees humans from routine error-prone tasks.

a) counting;  b) computing:   c) processing

2.        Computers can store vast amount of information to organize it and _____         it.

a) to travel;  b) to retrieve;  c) to respond

3.        The entered data can be transmitted by        networks.

a) communications;   b) conversions;    c) procession

4.        The possibility of        is reduced if data were correctly put into the data processing system.

a) character;   b) access;    c) error

5.        Computer data processing systems can        at a fraction of a second.
a) receive;   b) respond;   c) retrieve

   6.        As soon as data were entered into the system correctly, the   ___________ human        is limited.

a) computation;    b) information;    c) manipulation

  7.        The amount of data stored on magnetic discs is constantly         ___________ .

a) decreasing;   b) increasing;   c) eliminating

Before   reading text 3, learn the new terms.

architecture — архитектура; структура

architect— разработчик архитектуры (системы, структуры)

unit— устройство; модуль; блок; элемент; составная часть

accessory equipment — вспомогательные устройства

engineering background — техническая подготовка, квалификация

analyst — аналитик; системный разработчик

product line — серия (компьютерных) продуктов

manufacturer— изготовитель; производитель; разработчик

application programmer — прикладной программист

to simulate — моделировать; имитировать

voltage — напряжение

pressure — давление, сжатие

digital computer — цифровой компьютер

hybrid computer— смешанного типа, аналого-цифровой компьютер

discrete— дискретный; отдельный

continuous quantity — непрерывная величина

on — going process —продолжающийся, постоянный, непрерывный процесс

to rely— основываться на ч.-л.; полагаться

to install— устанавливать; размещать; монтировать; настраивать

household appliances  — домашние приборы / устройства

microwave oven— микроволновая печь

indoor climate control system — система регуляции температуры в доме

Text 3. Computer System Architecture

As we know all computer systems perform the functions of inputting, storing, processing, controlling, and outputting. Now we’ll get acquainted with the computer system units that perform these functions. But to begin with let’s examine computer systems from the perspective of the system designer, or architect.

It should be noted that computers and their accessory equipment are designed by a computer system architect, who usually has a strong engineering background. As contrasted with the analyst, who uses a computer to solve specific problems, the computer system architect usually designs computer that can be used for many different applications in many different business. For example, the product lines of major computer manufacturers such as IBM, Digital Equipment Corporation and many others are the result of the efforts of teams of computer system architects.

Unless you are studying engineering, you don’t need to become a computer system architect. However, it is important that as a potential user, applications programmer or systems analyst you understand the functions of the major units of a computer system and how they work together.

Types of computers

The two basic types of computers are analog and digital. Analog computers simulate physical systems. They operate on the basis of an analogy to the process that is being studied. For example, a voltage may be used to represent other physical quantities such as speed, temperature, or pressure. The response of an analog computer is based upon the measurement of signals that vary continuously with time. Hence, analog computers are used in applications that require continuous measurement and control.

Digital computers, as contrasted with analog computers, deal with discrete rather than continuous quantities. They count rather than measure. They use numbers instead of analogous physical quantities to simulate on-going, or real-time processes. Because they are discrete events, commercial transactions are in a natural form for digital computation. This is one reason that digital computers are so widely used in business data processing.

Machines that combine both analog and digital capabilities are called hybrid computers. Many business, scientific, and industrial computer applications rely on the combination of analog and digital devices. The use of combination analog devices will continue to increase with the growth in applications of microprocessors and microcomputers. An example of this growth is the trend toward installing control systems in household appliances such as microwave ovens and sewing machines. In the future we will have complete indoor climate control systems and robots to do our housecleaning. Analog sensors will provide inputs to the control centres of these systems, which will be small digital computers.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text the English for:

Функции ввода, хранения, обработки, управления и вывода информации; познакомиться; системные блоки; для начала; вспомогательные устройства; разработчик компьютерной системы; хорошая компьютерная подготовка; различные сферы применения; корпорация цифрового оборудования; прикладной программист; системный разработчик; главные устройства компьютерной системы; моделировать физические величины; измерение сигналов; к отличие от; иметь дело скорее с дискретными, чем непрерывными величинами; в режиме реального времени; коммерческие операции; цифровое вычисление; аналого-цифровые компьютеры; тенденция к установке систем управления; домашние приборы.

Exercise 2.  Answer the questions.

1. Who designs computers and their accessory equipment? 2. What is the role of an analyst? 3. Is it necessary for a user to become a computer system architect? 4. What functions do computer systems perform? 5. What types of computers do you know? 6. What is the principle of operation of analog computers? 7. How do digital computers differ from analog computers? 8. Where are digital and analog computers used? 9. What are hybrid computers? 10. Where do they find application?

Exercise 3.   Form nouns from the given verbs using the suffixes.

A.        -er, -or

То control, to compute, to design, to use, to manufacture, to work, to simulate, to operate, to protect, to process, to deal, to perform, to examine, to program, to execute, to transmit, to convert, to print, to consume, to record.

B.        -tion, -sion

To organize, to collect, to combine, to apply (ic), to represent, to add, to corporate, to transact, to compute, to produce, to operate, to execute, to protect, to substitute, to prepare, to invent, to decide, to eliminate, to communicate, to correct, to inform.

C.        -ment

To require, to measure, to equip, to invest, to accomplish, to improve, to develop, to achieve, to displace, to govern, to move.

Exercise 4.  Choose the sentences with the Passive Voice, detect their tense form.

1. It should be noted that computers and their accessory equipment are designed by a computer system architect.
2. Unless you are studying engineering, you don’t need to become a computer system architect.
3. The two basic types of computers are analog and digital.
4. This is one reason that digital computers are so widely used in business data processing.
5. Machines that combine both analog and digital capabilities are called hybrid computers.

Before reading text 4, learn the new terms.

hardware — аппаратное обеспечение; аппаратура; оборудование

software — программное обеспечение; программные средства

system software — системное программное обеспечение

application software — прикладное программное обеспечение

firmware — встроенное /микропроцессорное программное обеспечение

visible units— видимый блок, устройство

procedure  — процедура, процесс; метод, методика; алгоритм

to associate — соединять; объединять; связывать

associated documentation — соответствующая документация

to execute applications programs — выполнять прикладные программы

payroll — платежная ведомость

inventory control — инвентаризация; переучет

investment analyses — анализ инвестиций (капиталовложений)

to protect — защищать

read-only memory —постоянное запоминающее устройство (ПЗУ)

to refer to — относиться к; ссылаться на

to substitute — заменять; замещать

to cause — заставлять, вынуждать; причина, основание

to accomplish — завершать, заканчивать; выполнять, осуществлять

performance — производительность; быстродействие; рабочая характеристика

Text 4.  Hardware, Software and Firmware,.

The units that are visible in any computer are the physical components of a data processing system, or hardware. Thus, the input, storage, processing and control devices are hardware. Not visible is the software — the set of computer programs, procedures, and associated documentation that make possible the effective operation of the computer system. Software programs are of two types: systems software and applications software.

Systems software are the programs designed to control the operation of a computer system. They do not solve specific problems. They are written to assist people in the use of the computer system by performing tasks, such as controlling all of the operations required, to move data into and out of a computer and all of the steps in executing an application program. The person who prepares systems software is referred to as a systems programmer. Systems programmers are highly trained specialists and important members of the architectural team.

Applications software are the programs written to solve specific problems (applications), such as payroll, inventory control, and investment analysis. The word program usually refers to an application program, and the word programmer is usually a person who prepares applications software.

Often programs, particularly systems software, are stored in an area of memory not used for applications software. These protected programs are stored in an area of memory called read only memory (ROM), which can be read from but not written on.

Firmware is a term that is commonly used to describe certain programs that are stored in ROM. Firmware often refers to a sequence of instructions (software) that is substituted for hardware. For example, in an instance where cost is more important than performance, the computer system architect might decide not to use special electronic circuits (hardware) to multiply two numbers, but instead write instructions (software) to cause the machine to accomplish the same function by repeated use of circuits already designed to perform addition.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text the English for the following words and combinations.

Видимые устройства; система обработки данных; аппаратное обеспечение; набор компьютерных программ; соответствующая документация; эффективная работа; системное программное обеспечение; прикладное программное обеспечение; системный программист; платежная ведомость; переучет; анализ инвестиций; прикладная программа; работающий только в режиме чтения; постоянное запоминающее устройство; последовательность команд; в случае; производительность; электронная цепь; умножать числа; заставить машину выполнять ту же функцию; выполнять сложение.

Exercise2. Answer the questions on the text.

1. What is hardware? 2. Give the definition of software. 3. What are the types of software? 4. What are systems software? 5. What kind of tasks do systems software perform? 6. Who prepares systems software? 7. What are applications software? 8. What problems do applications software solve? 9. What is firmware? 10. How can a computer system architect use firmware?

         Exercise 3. Correct the false sentences.

1. The  input, storage, processing and control devices are firmware.
2. The  set of computer programs, procedures, and associated documentation are visible.
3. Systems software solve specific problems.
4. Applications software are the programs written to solve technical problems.
5. Firmware describe certain programs that are stored on a RAM disk.

Exercise 4.  Translate the word combinations with new words.

Architecture: communication architecture; computer architecture; disk architecture; microprocessor architecture; network architecture; security architecture; system architecture; virtual architecture.

Software: system software; application software; database software; disk software; educational software; game software; management software; simulation software.

Hardware: computer hardware; device hardware; display hardware; memory hardware; mouse hardware; network hardware; system hardware; video hardware.

Procedure: accounting procedure; computational procedure; control procedure; data-processing procedure; decision procedure; error-correcting procedure; formatting procedure; installation procedure; management procedure; solution procedure.

Protection: computer protection; data protection; device protection; display protection; error protection; hardware protection; software protection; resource protection; security protection; system protection; virus protection.

Unit 5

Central Processing Unit and Storage

Before reading text 1, learn the new words:

primary / secondary storage — первичное / вторичное запоминающее устройство

main storage — основная память; оперативное запоминающее устройство

internal storage  — внутреннее ЗУ

sequence — последовательность; порядок следования

intermediate results  — промежуточные результаты

ongoing process — продолжающиеся), постоянный процесс

similarity  — сходство; подобие

to retain — сохранять; удерживать

to locate — размещать(ся); располагать(ся)

value — значение, величина; значимость, ценность; оценка

binary digit — двоичная цифра; двоичный знак

adjacent  — смежный; соседний; примыкающий

strings of characters — последовательность символов    ‘

consecutive — последовательный; смежный; соседний

Text 1.  Storage Units.

Computer system architecture is organized around the primary storage unit because all data and instructions used by the computer system must pass through primary storage. Our discussion of computer system units will begin with the functions of the primary and secondary storage units. This leads to the examination of the central processing unit and from there to the consideration of the input and output units. Therefore, the sequence in which we’ll describe the functional units of a digital computer is: 1) storage units, primary and secondary; 2) central processing unit; 3) input and output units.

As you know, there are primary and secondary storage units. Both contain data and the instructions for processing the data. Data as well as instructions must flow into and out of primary storage.

Primary storage is also called main storage or internal storage. The specific functions of internal storage are to hold (store): 1) all data to be processed; 2) intermediate results of processing; 3) final results of processing; 4) all the instructions required for ongoing process. Another name for primary storage is memory, because of its similarity to a function of the human brain. However,

43

computer storage differs from human memory in important respects. Computer memory must be able to retain very large numbers of symbol combinations, without forgetting or changing any details. It must be able to locate all its contents quickly upon demand. The combinations of characters, that is, the letters, numbers, and special symbols by which we usually communicate, are coded. The codes used by computer designers are based upon a number system that has only two possible values, 0 and 1. A number system with only two digits, 0 and 1, is called a binary number system. Each binary digit is called a bit, from Binary digit. As the information capacity of a single bit is limited to 2 alternatives, codes used by computer designers are based upon combinations of bits. These combinations are called binary codes. The most common binary codes are 8-bit codes because an 8-bit code provides for 2/8, or 256 unique combinations of 1 ‘s and 0’s, and this is more than adequate to represent all of the characters by which we communicate.

Data in the form of coded characters are stored in adjacent storage locations in main memory in two principal ways : 1) as «strings» of characters — in bytes; and 2) within fixed-size «boxes» — in words. A fixed number of consecutive bits that represent a character is called a byte. The most common byte size is 8-bit byte. Words are usually 1 or more bytes in length.

Secondary storage. Primary storage is expensive because each bit is represented by a high-speed device, such as a semiconductor. A million bytes (that is, 8 million bits) is a large amount of primary storage. Often it is necessary to store many millions, sometimes billions, of bytes of data. Therefore slower, less expensive storage units are available for computer systems. These units are called secondary storage. Data are stored in them in the same binary codes as in main storage and are made available to main storage as needed.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the English equivalents.

Функциональный блок; цифровой компьютер; устройство ввода; устройство управления; арифметико-логическое устройство; центральный процессор; структура компьютерной системы; первичное запоминающее устройство; вторичное ЗУ; рассмотрение; поэтому последовательность; оперативное ЗУ; внутренняя память; промежуточные результаты; подобие функции человеческого мозга; размещать содержимое по требованию; система счисления; двоичная система счисления; возможные величины; объем информации; двоичный код; смежные ячейки памяти; последовательность символов; быстродействующее устройство; полупроводник; доступный.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions on text 1.

1. What are the functional units of a digital computer?

2. What units make up the central processing unit?

3. How is computer system organized?

4. What are the two main types of storage units?

5. What do they contain?

6. What is the function of a primary storage?

7. Why is primary storage often called memory?

8. In what respect does computer memory differ from human memory?

9. What are codes based on?

10. What is secondary storage and what is it used for?

Exercise 3.  Translate the word combinations into Russian.

Storage: available storage; buffer storage; computer storage; data storage; magnetic disk storage; magnetic tape storage; input storage; intermediate storage; internal storage; laser storage; main storage; primary storage; secondary storage; sequential-access storage; variable storage; virtual storage.

Value: absolute value; acceptable value; additional value; binary value; byte value; character value; constant value; correct value; data value; digit value; discrete values; invalid value; negative value; numerical value; output value; valid value.

Digit, binary digit; binary-coded digit; check digit; information digit; input digit; nonsignificant digit; significant digit; digit-by-digit.

Sequence: out of sequence; alphabetic sequence; arithmetic sequence; binary sequence; character sequence; code sequence; instruction sequence;data sequence; digital sequence; historical sequence; increasing sequence; program sequence; string sequence.

Exercise 4.  Find the synonyms in the text.

Memory; element; information; command; examination; character; quantity; number; place; computer architect; likeness.

To apply; to form; to move; to hold; to demand; to connect; to supply; to place; to name; to start; to examine.

Continuous; significant; consecutive; usual; enough; main; initial; general.

Before reading text 2, learn these words and phrases.

medium (pi. media) — носитель; среда

capacity — емкость; объем (памяти); пропускная способность

media capacity — емкость носителя

data access time — время доступа к данным

 per bit — на единицу информации

to transfer— передавать(ся); переносить(ся); пересылаться)

archival storage — архивное ЗУ; архивная память

to depend — зависеть от; полагаться, рассчитывать на

 to rotate — вращать(ся); чередовать(ся); сменять(ся)

reason— причина; основание; довод; обосновывать; делать вывод

solid-state device — твердотельный прибор

 magnetic core — магнитный сердечник

bipolar semiconductor — биполярный полупроводник

metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) — структура металл-оксид-полупроводник

randomly — произвольно

random-access memory (RAM) — оперативное запоминающее устройство (ОЗУ)

sound recording — звукозапись

to arrange — размещать; располагать; устанавливать; монтировать

tape device — ЗУ на магнитной ленте

to range — классифицировать; располагать в порядке;  лежать в диапазоне

magnetic disc storage — ЗУ на магнитном диске

moving-head device — устройство с двигающейся головкой

predominant — преобладающий; доминирующий

flexible —гибкий; настраиваемый; изменяемый

floppy (disk) — гибкий диск(ета); ЗУ на гибком диске

to meet the demands — удовлетворять потребности

Text 2. Storage Devices.

Storage media are classified as primary storage or secondary storage on the basis of combinations of cost, capacity, and access time. The cost of storage devices is expressed as the cost per bit of data stored. The most common units of cost are cents, millicents (0.001 cents) and microcents (0.000001 cents). The time required for the computer to locate and transfer data to and from a storage medium is called the access time for that medium. Capacities range from a few hundred bytes of primary storage for very small computers to many billions of bytes of archival storage for very large computer systems.

Memories may be classified as electronic or electromechanical. Electronic memories have no moving mechanical parts, and data can be transferred into and out of them at very high speeds. Electromechanical memories depend upon moving mechanical parts for their operation, such as mechanisms for rotating magnetic tapes and disks. Their data access time is longer than is that of electronic memories; however they cost less per bit stored and have larger capacities for data storage. For these reasons most computer systems use electronic memory for primary storage and electromechanical memory for secondary storage.

Primary storage has the least capacity and is the most expensive; however, it has the fastest access time. The principal primary storage circuit elements are solid-state devices: magnetic cores and semiconductors. For many years magnetic cores were the principal elements used in digital computers for primary storage. The two principal types of semiconductors used for memory are bipolar and metal-oxide semiconductors (MOS). The former is faster, the latter is more commonly used at present. Because data can be accessed randomly, semiconductor memories are referred to as random-access memory, or RAM.

There is a wide range of secondary storage devices. Typical hardware devices are rotating electromechanical devices. Magnetic tapes, disks, and drums are the secondary storage hardware most often used in computer systems for sequential processing. Magnetic tape, which was invented by the Germans during World War II for sound recording, is the oldest secondary storage medium in common use. Data are recorded in the form of small magnetized «dots» that can be arranged to represent coded patterns of bits.

Tape devices range from large-capacity, high-data-rate units used with large data processing systems to cassettes and cartridges used with small systems. Magnetic disk storage, introduced in the early 1960s, has replaced magnetic tape as the main method of secondary storage. As contrasted with magnetic tapes, magnetic discs can perform both sequential and random processing. They are classified as moving-head, fixed-head, or combination moving-head and fixed-head devices. Magnetic discs are the predominant secondary storage media. They include flexible, or floppy discs, called diskettes. The «floppies» were introduced by IBM in 1972 and are still a popular storage medium to meet the demands of the microcomputer market.

Exercise 1.  Find the word combinations in the text.

Запоминающие устройства; носители памяти; первичные ЗУ; вторичные ЗУ; время доступа; стоимость ЗУ; диапазон емкости памяти; архивная память; движущиеся механические части; вращающиеся магнитные ленты и диски; по этим причинам; твердотельные устройства; магнитные сердечники; полупроводники; оперативное ЗУ; аппаратное обеспечение вторичной памяти; звукозапись; намагниченные точки; представлять зашифрованную комбинацию единиц информации; в отличие от магнитных лент; последовательная и произвольная обработка; устройства с движущейся и фиксированной головкой; удовлетворять потребности; гибкий диск.

Exercise 2.   Answer the questions on the text. 

1. How are storage media classified?

2. How is the cost of storage devices expressed?

3. What is the access time for storage media?

4. How does the storage capacity range?

5. What are the two main types of storage devices?

6. What are electronic storage devices?

7. What are the principal primary storage circuit elements?

8. What are the main secondary storage devices?

9. What is the oldest secondary medium and when was it invented?

10. What is a floppy?

Exercise 3.  Translate the sentences with he Participle 1 and Participle 2 into Russian.

1. Electromechanical memories depend upon moving mechanical parts for their operation. 2. The time required for the computer to locate and transfer data to and from a storage medium is called the access time. 3. Being not visible software makes possible the effective operation of computer system. 4. Having invented magnetic tapes the Germans used them as the secondary storage medium. 5. When properly programmed computers don’t make computational errors. 6. Having been introduced in the early 1960s magnetic disc storage has replaced magnetic tape storage. 7. The control unit interpreting instructions is one of the important parts of any computer system. 8. Data recorded in the form of magnetized‘dots can be arranged to represent coded patterns of bits. 9. As contrasted with magnetic tapes magnetic discs can perform both sequential and random processing. 10. While having no moving mechanical parts electronic memories can transfer data at very high speed

.

Text 3. Memory

It is interesting to note that memory, one of the basic components of the computer, is often called storage. It stores calculation program, the calculation formulae, initial data, intermediate and final results. Therefore, the functions of the computer memory may be classified in the following way. Firstly, the computer memory must store the information transmitted from the input and other devices. Secondly, memory should produce the information needed for the computation process to all other devices of the computer.

Generally, memory consists of two main parts called the main, primary or internal, memory and the secondary, or external memory. The advantage of the primary memory is an extremely high speed. The secondary memory has a comparatively low speed, but it is capable of storing far greater amount of information than the main memory. The primary storage takes a direct part in the computational process. The secondary storage provides the information necessary for a single step in the sequence of computation steps.

The most important performance characteristics of a storage unit are speed, capacity and reliability. Its speed is measured in cycle time. Its capacity is measured by the number of machine words or binary digits. Its reliability is measured by the number of failures (отказ) per unit of time.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text the following words and phrases.

Основной компонент, программа вычисления, исходные данные, промежуточные результаты, поступать (передавать),  производить информацию, вычислительный процесс, внутренняя память, внешняя память, преимущество, очень высокая скорость, сравнительно, бОльшее количество информации, принимать прямое участие, последовательность вычисления, рабочие характеристики, скорость, вместимость, надежность, время цикла, двоичный знак, количество отказов.

Exercise 2.  Find in the sentences Participle 1 or Participle 2. Detect their function.

1. It is interesting to note that memory, one of the basic components of the computer, is often called storage.
2. Its speed is measured in cycle time.
3. Therefore, the functions of the computer memory may be classified in the following way.
4. The secondary memory has a comparatively low speed, but it is capable of storing far greater amount of information than the main memory.
5. Memory  should produce the information needed for the computation process to all other devices of the computer.
6. Memory  consists of two main parts called the main, primary or internal, memory and the secondary, or external memory.
7. The functions of the computer memory may be classified in the following way.

          Exercise 3.  Answer the questions on the text.

1. What is memory?
2. What is the function of memory?
3. What are the main parts of memory?
4. What are advantages and disadvantages of a storage unit?
5. What are their functions?
6. What are performance characteristics of the main and-secondary memory?
7. What units are performance characteristics measured by?

Exercise 4. Give a summary of the text in 5-6 sentences. Use the words and phrases:

Basic component, storage, the function of…, to store, to produce, two main parts, primary storage, secondary storage, performance characteristics.

Before reading  text 4, learn these words.

central processing unit (CPU) — центральный процессор (ЦП)

interchangeably  — взаимозаменяемым образом

precisely — точно

internal memory — внутренняя память; внутреннее ЗУ

activity  — деятельность; работа; действия операции

to issue — посылать (сигнал); выводить, выдавать (сообщение)

response — ответ; отклик; реакция; отвечать; реагировать

to interprete — интерпретировать; истолковывать;

according to  — согласно; в соответствии с

level — уровень; степень; мера; выравнивать

input-output port — порт ввода-вывода

control unit (CU) — устройство управления

arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) — арифметико-логическое устройство

switch — переключатель; коммутатор; переключать; переходить

direct — направлять; адресовать; указывать; прямой; непосредственный

step-by-step operations — пошаговые операции

to select — выбирать; выделять (на экране)

on the other hand — с другой стороны

exponentiation — возведение в степень

Text 4. Central Processing Unit.

It is well known in computer science that the words ‘computer’ and ‘processor’ are used interchangeably. Speaking more precisely, ‘computer’ refers to the central processing unit (CPU) together with an internal memory. The internal memory, control and processing components make up the heart of the computer system. Manufactures design the CPU to control and carry out basic instructions for their particular computer.

The CPU coordinates all the activities of the various components of the computer. It determines which operations should be carried out and in what order. The CPU controls the operation of the entire system by issueing commands to other parts of the system and by acting on responses. When required it reads information from the memory, interprets instructions, performs operations on the data according to the instructions, writes the results back into the memory and moves information between memory levels or through the input-output ports.

In digital computers the CPU can be divided into two functional units called the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). These two units are made up of electronic circuits with millions of switches that can be in one of two states, either on or off.

The function of the CU within the central processor is to transmit coordinating control signals and commands. The control  unit is that part of the computer that directs the sequence of step-by-step operations of the system, selects instructions and data from memory, interprets the program instructions, and controls the flow between main storage and the arithmetic-logical unit.

The ALU, on the other hand, is that part of the computer in which the actual arithmetic operations, namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation, called for in the instructions are performed.

Programs and the data on which the CU and the ALU operate, must be in internal memory in order to be processed. Thus, if located in secondary memory devices, such as disks or tapes, programs and data are first loaded into internal memory.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the following words and phrases.

Хорошо известно; к компьютеру относятся; внутренняя память — internal memory; составлять суть — make up the heart; выполнять; координировать деятельность; определяя в каком порядке; управлять работой всей системы; при необходимости; в соответствии с командами; уровни памяти; порт ввода-вывода; переключатели; режим включения или выключения; передавать сигналы; указывать последовательность пошаговых операций; основная память; управлять ходом выполнения программы; с другой стороны; выполнять вычитание, сложение, возведение в степень, деление, умножение; для того чтобы.

 Exercise 2.  Answer the questions on the text.

1. What words in computer science are used interchangeably and why?

2. What components make up the heart of the computer system.

3. What is the function of the CPU?

4. In what way does the CPU control the operation of the whole system?

5. Name the sequence of operations the CPU performs (use five verbs).

6. What are the CPU functional units made of?

7. What is the function of the CU?

8. What operations are performed in the ALU?

9. Where are data processed?

10. Where are data to be processed loaded into?

Exercise 3.  Translate the phrases with the key words.

Direction: backward direction; clockwise direction; counterclockwise direction; data direction; forward direction; inverse / reverse direction; negative direction; positive direction; printing direction; transmission direction.

Level: access level; application level; data level; device level; difficulty level; error level; function level; hardware level; high level; input level; output level; performance level; presentation level; program level; protection level; resource level; security level; software level; structural level; system level; transmisson level.

Processor: arithmetic processor; central processor; command processor; control processor; data processor; error processor; general-purpose processor; special-purpose processor; image processor; language processor; mail processor; message processor; numeric processor; parallel processor; peripheral processor; text processor.

Switch: to switch between programs; to switch between windows; to switch disks; to switch on; to switch off; to switch over; binary switch; command switch.

Step: conversion step; final step; procedure step; program step; programming step; step by step; one step at a time; to step down; to step out; to step up; to take steps.

 Exercise 3.  Translate the sentences with the participial construction

1. Data being accessed randomly, semiconductor memories are called random access memory (RAM).

 2. The  information capacity of a single bit being limited to two alternatives, codes are based on combination of bits.

3. Primary storage having similarity to a junction of the human brain, the storage is also called memory.

4. An electron leaving the surface, the metal becomes positively charged.

 5. Computer system architecture being organized around the primary storage unit, all instructions must pass through it.

6. Computer system architecture is organized around the primary storage unit, all instructions passing through it. 

         7.        Electromechanical memories depend upon moving mechanical parts, their data access time being longer than is that of electronic memories.

       8. For this reason most computer systems use electronic memory for primary storage, electromechanical memory being used for secondary storage.

       9. Large capacity tape devices are used with large data processing systems, cassettes and cartridges being applied with small systems.

     10. The CPU controls the operation of the entire system, commands being issued to other parts of the system.

Learn these words before reading  text 5.

to manage — управлять; организовывать; справляться

to obtain — получать; достигать; добиваться

to cause — заставлять; вынуждать; вызывать; быть причиной; причина, основание

flow  — поток; ход (выполнения программы); последовательность

counter  — счетчик

register  — регистр; устройство регистрации; счетчик; датчик

instruction register — регистр команд

storage register — регистр памяти; запоминающий регистр

address register — адресный регистр

temporarily  — временно

decoder — дешифратор

operand address  — адрес (хранения) операнда

mark  — отметка; маркер; знак; помечать; обозначать; выделять

timing mark — отметка времени

accumulate — накапливать(ся); суммировать; собирать(ся)

accumulator — сумматор; накапливающий регистр; устройство суммирования

compare  — сравнивать; соотноситься

comparer  — компаратор; устройство сравнения

content — содержимое; смысл; объем; количество

involve — включать; содержать; заключать (в себе)

core — суть; основная часть; ядро; оперативная память

add  — складывать; суммировать; прибавлять; присоединять

added — добавочный; дополнительный

adder — сумматор; блок суммирования

at least — по крайней мере

Text 5.  The CPU Main Components

As it is known the two functional units of the CPU are the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). The control unit manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them.

The control unit operates by reading one instruction at a time from memory and taking the action called for by each instruction. In this way it controls the flow between the main storage and the arithmetic-logical unit.

The control unit has the following components: a counter that selects the instructions, one at a time, from memory; a register that temporarily holds the instructions read from memory while it is being executed; a decoder that takes the coded instruction and breaks it down into individual commands necessary to curry it out; a clock, which produces marks at regular intervals.

These timing marks are electronic and very rapid.

The sequence of control unit operations is as follows. The next instruction to be executed is read out from primary storage into the storage register. The instruction is passed from the storage register to the instruction register. Then the operation part of the instruction is decoded so that the proper arithmetic or logical operation can be performed. The address of the operand is sent from the instruction register to the address register. At last the instruction counter register provides the address register with the address of the next instruction to be executed.

The arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) executes the processing operations called for by the instructions brought from main memory by the control unit. Binary arithmetic, the logical operations and some special functions are performed by the arithmetical-logical unit.

Data enter the ALU and return to main storage through the storage register. The accumulator serving as a register holds the results of processing operations. The results of arithmetic operations are returned to the accumulator for transfer to main storage through the storage register. The comparer performs logical comparisons of the contents of the storage register and the accumulator. Typically, the comparer tests for conditions such as «less than», «equal to», or «greater than».

So as you see the primary components of the arithmetic-logical unit are banks of bistable devices, which are called registers. Their purpose is to hold the numbers involved in the calculation and hold the results temporarily until they can be transferred to memory. At the core of the ALU is a very high- speed binary adder, which is used to carry out at least the four basic arithmetic functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). The logical unit consists of electronic circuitry which compares information and makes decisions based upon the results of the comparison.

Exercise 1.  Find the English equivalents in the text.

Функциональные блоки; устройство управления; арифметико-логическое устройство; управлять работой всей системы; получать команды; основная память; посылать сигналы; считывать команды поэтапно; таким образом; временно сохранять информацию; производить пометки через равные промежутки времени; последовательность операций; регистр памяти; регистр команд; адресный регистр; счетчик; датчик; дешифратор; адрес операнда; адресный регистр, высокоскоростной двоичный сумматор; но крайней мере; вычитание; сложение; умножение; деление; принимать решения; результаты сравнения.

Exercise 2.  Translate the word-combinations into Russian.

Register, address register; base register; clock register; command / instruction register; counter register; CPU register; hardware register; input / output register; memory register; operand register; general-purpose register; special-purpose register.

Counter: binary counter; character counter; data counter; instruction counter; pulse counter; sequence counter; storage counter; software counter; time-out counter.

Selection: color selection; directory selection; drive selection; flile selection; function selection; keyboard selection; menu se-lei (ion; security selection.

Management: data management; database management; disk management; error management; information management; memory management; network management; resource management; task management; window management.

Exercise 3.  Answer the questions.

1. What are the functional units of CPU?

2. What is the function of CU?

3. How does CU operate?

4. What is the function of a counter?

5. What role does a decoder play?

6. What is the sequence of CU operations?

7. What is the function of the arithmetic-logical unit?

8. What operations are performed by ALU?

       9.  What primary components does ALU consist of?

      10. What is the function of an accumulator / comparer?

Exercise 4.  Find the synonyms in the text.

Verbs: to work; to control; to receive; to keep; to send; to perform; to demand; to choose; to supply; to pass; to name; to include; to apply; to come back; to found; to explain; to form; to define; to arrange.

Nouns: computer; answer; commands; memory; element; device; information; state; aim; heart; solution; computation.

Adjectives: main; whole; separate; quick; correct; large; main (storage); following; every; following; specific; different; real.

              Before reading  text 6, learn these words.

environment  — среда; окружение; режим работы;

external environment — внешняя среда

human-related  — (взаимо)связанный с человеком

human-independent — независимый от человека

remote terminal — удаленный терминал

 reel of magnetic tape — бобина с магнитной лентой

input-output interface — интерфейс (сопряжение, место стыковки) ввода-вывода

scan — просматривать; сканировать; развертывать

scanner — сканер; устройство оптического считывания

bar-code scanner / bar-code reader — устройство считывания штрих-кода

regardless of — несмотря на; независимо от

to match characteristics — сопоставлять параметры

similarly — подобным образом; также; аналогично

to fall between — падать; попадать в интервал между

card reader — устройство считывания платы (карты)

line printer — построчный принтер; принтер печатания строки

page printer — принтер с постраничной печатью

     character printer — принтер с посимвольной печатью

     optical character reader — оптическое считывающее устройство текста

optical mark reader — оптическое считывающее устройство знаков

visual display — визуальный индикатор

digitizer — аналого-цифровой преобразователь; сканер

keyboard input device — клавишное устройство ввода

plotter — графопостроитель

voice recognition and response unit — устройство распознавания голоса и реагирования

Text 6.  Input-Output Environment

Data and instructions must enter the data processing system, and information must leave it. These operations are performed by input and output (I/O) units that link the computer to its external environment.

   The I/O environment may be human-related or human-independent. A remote banking terminal is an example of a human- related input environment, and printer is an example of a device that produces output in a human-readable format. An example of a human-independent input environment is a device that measures traffic flow. A reel of magnetic tape upon which the collected data are stored in binary format is an example of a human-independent output.

Input-Output Interfaces, Data enter input units in forms that depend upon the particular device used. For example, data are entered from a keyboard in a manner similar to typing, and this differs from the way that data are entered by a bar-code scanner. However, regardless of the forms in which they receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data that are transformed into the binary codes that the primary memory of the computer is designed to accept. This transformation is accomplished by units called I/O interfaces. Input interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the requirements of the computer system. Similarly, when output is available, output interfaces must be designed to reverse the process and to adapt the output to the external environment. These I/O interfaces are also called channels or input-output processors*(IOP).

The major differences between devices are the media that they use and the speed with which they are able to transfer data to or from primary storage.

Input-Output Device Speed. Input-output devices can be classified as high-speed, medium-speed, and low-speed. The devices are grouped according to their speed. It should be noted that the high-speed devices are entirely electronic in their operation or magnetic media that can be moved at high speed. Those highspeed devices are both input and output devices and are used as secondary storage. The low-speed devices are those with complex mechanical motion or operate at the speed of a human operator. The medium-speed devices are those that fall between — they tend to have mechanical moving parts which are more complex than the high-speed devices but not as complex as the low-speed.

High-speed devices: magnetic disk; magnetic tape.

Medium-speed devices: card readers; line printers; page printers; computer output microfilms; magnetic diskette; optical character readers; optical mark readers; visual displays.

Low-speed devices: bar-code readers; character printers; digitizers; keyboard input devices; plotters; voice recognition and response units.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text the English equivalents.

Среда, устройств ввода-вывода; система обработки информации; внешняя среда; связан с человеком; независим от человека; удаленный банковский терминал; измерять поток данных; бобина с магнитной лентой; хранить собранную информацию; двоичный формат; интерфейс ввода-вывода; вводить с клавиатуры; устройство считывания штрих-кода; не смотря на; преобразовать в двоичный код; сопоставлять параметры; подобным образом; интерфейс вывода; изменить процесс в обратном направлении; настроить устройство ввода-вывода к внешней среде; главное отличие; основная память; вторичная память; низкоскоростные устройства; в соответствии.

Exercise 2.  Translate the following word combinations.

Environment: application environment; communication environment; execution environment; external environment; hardware environment; interface invironment; management environment; multimedia environment; network environment; processing environment; security environment; software environment; user environment.

Interface: channel interface; common interface; data interface; database interface; display interface; external interface; flexible interface; floppy-disk interface; general-purpose interface; hardware interface; low-level interface.

Scanner: bar code scanner; black-and-white scanner; color scanner; desktop scanner; hand scanner; laser scanner; manual scanner; optical scanner; visual scanner.

Terminal: batch terminal; desktop terminal; display terminal; printer terminal; remote terminal; security terminal; logical terminal; text terminal.

Exercise 3.  Answer the questions on the text.

1. What is the purpose of input and output devices?

      2. What types of input-output devices do you know?

3. Why are data transformed into a binary code while entering the input device?

      4.        Give an example of a human independent output.

     5. What is an I/O interface?

     6. What are the major differences between the various I/O devices?

     7. What types of I/O devices tend to be high-speed devices?

     8. What types of devices tend to be low- speed devices?

               Before reading  text 7, learn the new glossary.

keyboard  — клавиатура

key  — клавиша; кнопка; переключатель; ключевой, основной; главный; переключать; набирать на клавиатуре

manipulator  — манипулятор; блок обработки

trackball  — трекбол

touch panel  — сенсорная панель

graphic plotting tables  — графические планшеты

sound card  — звуковая карта (плата)

enable  — разрешать; позволять; допускать; делать возможным

operating mode  — режим работы

press a button — нажать на кнопку

 keep buttons depressed — удерживать кнопки в нажатом состоянии

double-click  — двойное нажатие

erase images — удалить, стереть изображение (объект)

roller  — ролик; валик

track — следить; прослеживать; проходить; след; траектория; путь; дорожка; соединение

by means of — посредством

permitting capacity — разрешающая способность

Text 7.  Input Devices

There are several devices used for inputting information into the computer: a keyboard, some coordinate input devices, such  as manipulators,  a mouse, a track ball),  touch panels and graphical plotting tables, scanners, digital cameras, TV tuners, sound cards etc.

When personal computers first became popular, the most common device used to transfer information from the user to the computer was the keyboard. It enables inputting numerical and text data. A standard keyboard has 104 keys and three more ones informing about the operating mode of light indicators in the upper right corner.

Later when the more advanced graphics became to develop, user found that a keyboard did not provide the design capabilities of graphics and text representation on the display. There appeared manipulators, a mouse and a track ball, that are usually used while operating with graphical interface. Each software program uses these buttons differently.

The mouse is an optic-mechanical input device. The mouse has three or two buttons which control the cursor movement across the screen. The mouse provides the cursor control thus simplifying user’s orientation on the display. The mouse’s primary functions are to help the user draw, point and select images on his computer display by moving the mouse across the screen.

In general software programs require to press one or more buttons, sometimes keeping them depressed or double-click them to issue changes in commands and to draw or to erase images. When you move the mouse across a flat surface, the ball located on the bottom side of the mouse turns two rollers. One is tracking the mouse’s vertical movements, the other is tracking horizontal movements. The rotating ball glides easily, giving the user good control over the textual and graphical images.

In portable computers touch panels or touch pads are used instead of manipulators. Moving a finger along the surface of the touch pad is transformed into the cursor movement across the screen.

Graphical plotting tables (plotters) find application in drawing and inputtig manuscript texts. You can draw, add notes and signs to electronic documents by means of a special pen. The quality of graphical plotting tables is characterized by permitting capacity, that is the number of lines per inch, and their capability to respond to the force of pen pressing .

Scanner is used for optical inputting of images (photographies, pictures, slides)  and texts and converting them into the computer form.

Digital videocameras have been spread recently. They enable getting videoimages and photographs directly in digital computer format. Digital cameras give possibility to get high quality photos.

Sound cards produce sound conversion from analog to digital form. They are able to synthesize sounds. Special game-ports and joysticks are widely used in computer games.

Exercise 1. Find in the text the English for:

Введение информации; координатные устройства ввода; манипуляторы; мышь; трекбол; сенсорная панель; графические планшеты; цифровые камеры; сканеры; ТВ тюнеры; стандартная клавиатура; числовая и текстовая информация; световые индикаторы; клавиши; режим работы; презентация текста на мониторе; графический интерфейс; программные средства; оптико-механическое «устройство ввода; управлять движением курсора; упрощать ориентацию пользователя на экране; указывать и выбирать изображения; удерживать кнопки в нажатом состоянии; двойное нажатие; стирать объекты; ровная поверхность; вращать ролики; следить за вертикальным движением; легко скользить; портативный компьютер; рукописный текст; посредством; разрешающая способность

Exercise 2.  Translate  into Russian.

То accomplish: accomplished; unaccomplished; accomplishment.

To adapt, adaptable; unadaptable; adaptability; unadaptabil-ity; adaptation; adapter.

To digitize: digit; digital; digitization; digitizer.

To erase: erasable; erasability; eraser; erasing; erasure.

To match: matcher; matching.

To permit: permitted; permissible; permissibility; permission.

To print: printable; printed; printer; printing;

To scan: scanning; scanner.

To recognize: recognition; recognizer; recognizable; unrecognizable.

To respond: response; responsible; irresponsible; responsibility; irresponsibility.

To reverse: reversed; reversible; irreversible; reversion; reversibility.

To transform: transformer; transformation; transformational; transformative

Exercise 3.  Answer the questions on the text.

1. What devices are used for inputting information into the computer?

2. What was the most common device in early personal computers?

3. What is the function of a keyboard?

4. Why do many users prefer manipulators to keyboard?

5. How does the mouse operate?

6. What is its function?

 7. What role does the ball on the bottom of the mouse play?

8. What is used in portable computers instead of manipulators?

9. What is the touch pad’s principle of operation?

10. Where do graphical plotting tables find application?

Before reading text 8, learn the words and combinations.

human-readable form — удобная для чтения форма

performance  — (рабочая) характеристика; производительность; быстродействие; скорость работы; пропускная способность

character printer — принтер с посимвольной печатью; символьный принтер

line printer — принтер с построчной печатью

page printer — принтер с постраничной печатью

(поп) impact printer  — (бес)контактный принтер

letter-quality printer — принтер с типографским качеством печати

dot-matrix printer  — точечно-матричный принтер

ink-jet printer  — струйный принтер

laser-beam printer  — лазерный принтер

to identify  — идентифицировать; распознать; обозначить

approach  — подход; метод; принцип; приближение

at a time — за один раз; одновременно

to cause  — вызывать; приводить к (ч.-л.); заставлять; вынуждать

to strike against a ribbon — ударять по ленте

 typewriter — печатное устройство

to spray drops of ink — распылять капли чернил

to affect  — влиять; воздействовать; сказываться на (ч.-л.)

technique  — метод; способ; техника; методика; технология

printer output — вывод на печать; распечатываемые данные

Text 8. Output Devices. Printers.

Printers provide information in a permanent, human-readable form. They are the most commonly used output devices and are components of almost all computer systems. Printers vary greatly in performance and design. We  will classify printers as character printers, line printers and page printers in order to identify three different approaches to printing, each with a different speed range. In addition, printers can be described as either impact or nonimpact. Printers that use electromechanical mechanisms that cause hammers to strike against a ribbon and the paper are called impact printers. Nonimpact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print.

Character printers print only one character at a time. A typewriter is an example of a character printer. Character printers are the type used with literally all microcomputers as well as on computers of all sizes whenever the printing requirements are not large. Character printers may be of several types. A letter-quality printer is a character printer which produces output of typewriter quality. Letter-quality printers typically have speeds ranging from 10 to 50 characters per second. Dot-matrix printers form each character as a pattern of dots. These printers have a lower quality of type but are generally faster printers than the letter-quality printers — in the range of 50 to 200 characters per second. One of the newest types of character printer is the ink-jet printer. It sprays small drops of ink onto paper to form printed characters. The ink has a high iron content, which is affected by magnetic fields of the printer. These magnetic fields cause the ink to take the shape of a character as the ink approaches the paper.

        Line printers are electromechanical machines used for high-volume paper output on most computer systems. Their printing speeds are such that to an observer they appear to be printing a line at a time. They are impact printers. The speeds of line printers vary from 100 to 2500 lines per minute. Line printers have been designed to use many different types of printing the drum and the chain. Drum printers use a solid, cylindrical drum, rotating at a rapid speed. Speeds of dram printers vary from 200 to over 2000 lines per minute. Chain printers have their character set on a rapidly rotating chain called a print chain. Speeds of chain printers range from 400 to 2400 lines per minute.

       Page printers are high-speed nonimpact printers. Their printing rates are so high that output appears to emerge from the printer a page at a time. A variety of techniques are used in the design of page printers. These techniques, called electrophotographic techniques, have developed from the paper copier technology. Laser-beam printers use a combination of laser beam and electrophotographic techniques to create printer output at a rate equal to 18000 lines per minute.

Exercise 1.   Find in the text the English for:

Удобная для восприятия человека форма; наиболее часто употребляемые устройства вывода информации; различаться по рабочим характеристикам и внешнему виду; принтеры с посимвольной печатью; принтеры с построчной печатью; принтеры с постраничной печатью; различные методы печати; диапазон скорости; принтеры контактные и бесконтактные; ударять по ленте; печатать по одному символу; буквально все компьютеры; а также; требования печати; принтер с типографским качеством печати; точечно-матричные принтеры; струйные принтеры; разбрызгивать капли чернил; высокое содержание железа; магнитные поля; принимать форму символа; кажется, что печатают по строчке; барабанный принтер; цепочечные принтеры; лазерный принтер.

Exercise 2.   Translate the word combinations into Russian

Approach: comprehensive approach; database approach; educational (training) approach; general approach; graphic approach; self-study approach; step-by-step approach; trial-and-error approach.

Performance: application performance; computer performance; device performance; disk performance; display performance; error performance; execution performance; memory performance; network performance; processor performance.

Printer: black-and-white printer; color printer; character (at-a-time) printer; dot-matrix printer; graphical (image) printer; impact printer; ink:jet printer; laser printer; letter-quality printer; matrix printer; network printer; page (at-a-time) printer.

Technique: advanced technique; analog technique; computing technique; display (video) technique; formatting technique; hardware technique; measuring technique; modeling (simulation) technique; multimedia technique; numerical technique; programming technique; scanning technique; software technique; testing technique.

Exercise 3.  Answer the questions on the text.

1. What are the three types of printers?

2. What is a letter-quality printer?

3. What is a dot-matrix printer?

4. What type of printer is the most common with microcomputer systems?

5. What is the most common printer type used on large computer systems?

6. What is an impact printer? Give an example.

7. What is a nonimpact printer? Give examples.

8. What are the most widely used printers?

9. How do you distinguish between a letter-quality printer and a dot-matrix printer?

10. Which of these printers is slower?

11. What types of character printers do you know?

12. How are printed characters formed by means of an ink-jet printer?

13. What are the main types of a line printer? Which of them is faster?

14. What techniques are used in the operation of page printers?

Unit 6

Personal  computers and Computer  Programming

Learn the new terms

competitive operating systems — конкурирующая операционная система

IBM (International Business Machine) — фирма по производству компьютеров

to enter the fray — ввязаться в драку

computer of choice — лучший компьютер

 to fall by the wayside — остаться в стороне; уступить дорогу

to survive onslaught  — выдержать конкуренцию

word size — размер слова; разрядность двоичного слова

 soft-copy output — вывод электронной, программно-управляемой копии

hard-copy output — вывод «твердой» печатной копии

online storage — неавтономное хранение данных в ЗУ

offline storage — автономное хранение данных отдельно от компьютера

input media — носитель для входных данных

output media — носитель для выходных данных

general -purpose — универсальный; общего назначения

 stand-alone — автономный

to plug in — подключать; подсоединять

leisure activities  — досуговая деятельность

Text 1. Personal Computers.

       Personal computers are supposed to appear in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competitive operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the way-side. One of the few companies to survive IBM’s onslaught was Apple Computer, which is sure to remain a major player in the personal computer marketplace. In less than a decade the microcomputer has been transformed from a calculator and hobbyist’s toy into a personal computer for almost everyone.

What is a personal computer? How can this device be characterized?

First, a personal computer being microprocessor-based,on its central processing unit, called a microprocessor unit, or MPU, is concentrated on a single silicon chip.

Second, a PC has a memory and word size that are smaller than those of minicomputers and large computers. Typical word sizes are 8 or 16 bits, and main memories range in size from 16 К to 512 K.

Third, a personal computer uses smaller, less expensive, and less powerful input, output and storage components than do large computer systems. Most often, input is by means of a keyboard, soft-copy output being displayed on a cathode-ray tube screen. Hard-copy output is produced on a low-speed character printer. A PC employs floppy disks as the principal online and offline storage devices and also as input and output media.

Finally, a PC is a general-purpose, stand-alone system that can begin to work when plugged in and be moved from place to place.

Probably the most distinguishing feature of a personal computer is that it is used by an individual, usually in an interactive mode. Regardless of the purpose for which it is used, either for leisure activities in the home or for business applications in the office, we can consider it to be a personal computer.

Exercise 1.   Find in the text the English for:

Конкурирующая операционная система; появляться ежедневно; ввязаться в драку; лучший компьютер; остаться в стороне; выдержать конкуренцию; главный поставщик на компьютерном рынке; игрушка для любителя; микропроцессорный; цельный кристалл (микросхема) из кремния; размер слова; компоненты меньшей мощности; посредством; вывести на экран; низкоскоростной принтер с посимвольной печатью; использовать гибкие диски; приборы (не) автономного хранения данных; универсальный; автономная система; отличительная черта; интерактивный режим; независимо от цели; досуговая деятельность.

Exercise 2.   Make grammar analyses of the text.. find the sentences with:

1. The Passive Voice.  Detect the tense.
2. Participial construction.
3. Infinitive construction.

Mind!

Participial construction.  The first calculating device called abacus appeared in ancient times.

Infinitive construction.  The parents are expected to come late in the evening.

Exercise 3.  Answer the questions.

1. When did the first personal computer appear?

2. What was one of the first PC model?

3. What is a personal computer?

       4.        What are the four main characteristics of a PC?

      5. What does the term * microprocessor-based» mean?

      6. What are the typical word sizes of a PC?

      7. How is input carried out in personal computers?

     8. What principle storage devices do PC use?
    9. What kind of a system is a PC?

      10. What differs personal computers from large computer systems?

Learn the terms from text 2.

word processing — обработка текста

telephone dialing  — набор номера телефона

security  — безопасность; охрана

appliance — устройство; прибор

maintenance— поддержание; сохранение; эксплуатация

application software — прикладные программы

 to delete — удалять; стирать; очищать память

 to move paragraphs around — менять местами абзацы

accountant  — бухгалтер

 accounting  — бухгалтерский учет

income tax  — подоходный налог

 stock market forecasting — биржевые прогнозы

worksheet  — электронная таблица

scheduling — составление расписания, графика

computer-assisted instructions — компьютерные команды

to meet the demands — удовлетворять потребности

record keeping — регистрация; ведение записей

grading — оценивание; классификация

Text 2. Application of Personal Computers

Personal computers have a lot of applications, however, there are some major categories of applications: home and hobby, word processing, professional, educational, small business and engineering and scientific.

Home and hobby. Personal computers enjoy great popularity among experimenters and hobbyists. They are an exciting hobby. All hobbyists need not be engineers or programmers. There are many games that use the full capabilities of a computer to provide many hours of exciting leisure-time adventure.

The list of other home and hobby applications of PCs is almost endless, including: checking account management, budgeting, personal finance, planning, investment analyses, telephone answering and dialing, home security, home environment and climate control, appliance control, calendar management, maintenance of address and mailing lists and what not.

Word processing. At home or at work, applications software, called a word processing program, enables you to correct or modify any document in any manner you wish before printing it. Using the CRT monitor as a display screen, you are able to view what you have typed to correct mistakes in spelling or grammar, add or delete sentences, move paragraphs around, and replace words. The letter or document can be stored on a diskette for future use.

Professional. The category of professional includes persons making extensive use of word processing, whose occupations are particularly suited to the desk-top use of PCs. Examples of other occupations are accountants, financial advisors, stock brokers, tax consultants, lawyers, architects, engineers, educators and all levels of managers. Applications programs that are popular with persons in these occupations include accounting, income tax preparation, statistical analysis, graphics, stock market forecasting and computer modeling. The electronic worksheet is, by far, the computer modeling program most widely used by professionals. It can be used for scheduling, planning, and the examination of «what if situations.

Educational. Personal computers are having and will continue to have a profound influence upon the classroom, affecting both the learner and the teacher. Microcomputers are making their way into classrooms to an ever-increasing extent, giving impetus to the design of programmed learning materials that can meet the demands of student and teacher.

Two important types of uses for personal computers in education are computer-managed instruction (CMI), and computer-assisted instruction (CAI). CMI software is used to assist the instructor in the management of all classroom-related activities, such as record keeping, work assignments, testing, and grading. Applications of CAI include mathematics, reading, typing, computer literacy, programming languages, and simulations of real-world situations

Exercise 1.   Find in the text the English for:

       Много областей применения; тем не менее; обработка текстов; пользоваться популярностью; любители; способности компьютера; бесконечный перечень; анализ инвестиций; набор номера телефона; автоответчик; ведение календаря; хранение адресов и почты; и так далее; прикладные программы; исправлять ошибки в написании; стирать предложения; переставлять абзацы; бухгалтер; биржевые брокеры; консультант по налогам; юристы; работники образования; управленцы; бухгалтерский учет; подоходный налог; компьютерное моделирование; электронные таблицы; составление расписания; оказывать огромное влияние; прокладывать путь; дать толчок; удовлетворять потребности; учебная деятельность; компьютерная грамотность; моделирование реально-жизненных ситуаций.

Exercise 2.   Find in text 1 and 2:

1. synonyms to:

Verbs: to print; to produce; to convert; to keep; to found; to erase; to name; to change; to use; to start; to switch on; to supply; to give possibility; to involve.

Nouns: rate; analyst; possibilities; use; plays; control; post; mode; profession; consultant; teacher; director; book-keeper; fight; producer; attack; amateur; device; crystal; error; storage; primary (memory); monitor; characteristic; aim.

Adjectives: flexible; thrilling; main; little; general.

1. antonyms to:

Verbs: to finish; to switch on; to take; to delete.
Nouns; online; input; work.

Adjectives: cheep; weak; common; general; large; soft; high; easy.

Exercise 3.   Decode the following abbreviations:

PC; PU; CU; ALU; CPU; MPU; IBM; DOS; CRT; ROM; RAM; 1С; SSI; MSI; LSI; VLSI; MP; CD; I/O; IOP; CMI; CAI.

Exercise 4.   Answer the questions on text 2.

1. What are the main spheres of PC application?
2. Do you enjoy computer games?
3. Is it necessary for a person to be an analyst or a programmer to play computer games?
4. What other home and hobby applications, except computer games, can you name?
5. What is «a word processing program»?
6. What possibilities can it give you?
7. Can you correct mistakes while typing any material and how?
8. What other changes in the typed text can you make using a display?
9. Which professions are in great need of computers?
10. How can computers be used in education?

Exercise 5.   Find in text 2 sentences with Passive Voice and turn them into Active voice.

Text 3. A Modem

The piece of equipment that allows a computer to communicate with other computers over telephone lines is called a modem. The modem allows the individual to access information from all over the world and use that information in everyday life. Connecting with banks, Automatic Teller Machines, cash registers to read credit cards, access travel agents, buy products, e-mail, access databases, and teleconferencing, the modems provide easy access to many services. Files can be transferred easily, by uploading to another machine, or downloading to your own machine within a matter of minutes. The computer modem can be used as a telephone answering system, and documents can be faxed from one computer to another assuring fast and easy access to important documents.

A modem takes computer information and changes it into a signal that can be sent over telephone lines. The modem is a bridge between digital and analog signals. The computer is of the digital type, and the telephone using analog technology. The modem converts the «0»s and «l»s of the computer (off-on switches) into an analog signals modulating the frequency of the electronic wave or signal. The modem does just the opposite and demodulate the signal back into digital code. The modem gets its name from MOdulate and the DEModulate.  Most people believe that you need a separate phone line for a modem, but that is not true. Your modem and telephone can share one line, the problem arises when someone else needs to use the telephone while the modem is in use.

There are three kinds of modems — internal, external, and fax. All modems do the same thing, they allow computers to communicate through telephone lines. This lets computers exchange information everywhere. Internal Modem is a circuit board that plugs into one of the expansion slots of the computer. Internal modems usually are cheaper than external modems, but when problems occur, fixing and troubleshooting the modem can sometimes prove to be quite difficult. External Modem attaches to the back of the computer by way of a cable that plugs into the modem port. It is usually less expensive and very portable. It can be used with other computers very easily by unplugging it and plugging it into another computer. Fax Modem can be hooked up to your telephone and used to send information to your computer. Your computer can also send information to a fax machine. Most computer modems are modems with faxing capabilities.

Exercise 1.   Find in the text the English for:

   Оборудование, получать информацию, соединять, кассовый регистратор, легкий доступ, передавать, загрузка, автоответчик,  мост, цифровой сигнал, аналоговая технология, частота, электронные волны,  отдельная телефонная линия, внутренний модем, внешний модем,  цепь, слот расширения, присоединять,  отключать, возможности.

Exercise 2.   Insert proper words or phrases.

1. Most computer modems are modems with faxing …….  .
2. The piece of ……. that allows a computer to  …….  with other computers over telephone lines is called a modem.  
3. Files can be …..  easily, by  …..  to another machine, or …..  to your own machine.
4. There are three kinds of modems —  ….., ……  and fax.  
5. The modem is a  …..  between  …..  and analog signals.
6. Internal Modem is a  ….. board that plugs into one of the  …..   ……  of the computer.
7. The computer modem can be used as a telephone…..  ……  .
8. External Modem  …….  to the back of the computer by way of a cable that  …….  into the modem port.  
9. Documents  can be faxed from one computer to another assuring fast and easy  …..  to important documents.

Exercise 3.   Answer the questions.

1. What is a modem?
2. How do the modems provide easy access to many services?
3. How can files be transferred?
4. Where does the modem take its name from?
5. Do you need a separate line for a modem?
6. How many types of modems do you know?
7. What is an internal modem?
8. Is an external modem a movable or a rigid device?

Learn the words from text 4.

1. equation — уравнение, приравнивание
2. list of instructions — перечень команд
3. guard — защищать; предохранять; завершать; заканчивать
4. appropriate sequence  — необходимая (требуемая) последовательность
5. program logic — логическая последовательность выполнения программы
6. flowchart — блок-схема; составлять блок-схему
7. flowcharting — построение блок-схемы
8. pictorial representation — наглядное представление
9. predefined symbols — заранее заданные символы
10. specifics  — специальные черты; характерные особенности
11. emplate — шаблон; маска; образец; эталон
12. pseudocode — псевдокод; псевдопрограмма
13. burden — издержки , затраты
14. programming rules — правила программирования
15. consume — потреблять; расходовать
16. emphasize — выделять; подчеркивать
17. top-down approach — принцип нисходящей разработки
18. looping logic — логическая схема выполнения (операций) в цикле

Text 4. Computer Programming.

Programming is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions. The essence of computer programming is the encoding of the program for the computer by means of algorythms. The thing is that any problem is expressed in mathematical terms, it contains formulae, equations and calculations^ But the computer cannot manipulate formulae, equations and calculations. Any problem must be specially processed for the computer to understand it, that is — coded or programmed.

The phase in which the system’s computer programs are written is called the development phase. The programs are lists of instructions that will be followed by the control unit of the central processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program must be complete and in the appropriate sequence, or else the wrong answers will result. To guard against these errors in logic and to document the program’s logical approach, logic plans should be developed.

There are two common techniques for planning the logic of a program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowchart is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, therefore, a «picture» of the logical steps to be performed by the computer. Each of the predefined symbol shapes stands for a general operation. The symbol shape communicates the nature of the general operation, and the specifics are written within the symbol. A plastic or metal guide called a template is used to make drawing the symbols easier.

The second technique for planning program logic is called pseudocode.  Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program instructions. It allows a program-like structure without the burden of programming rules to follow. Pseudocode is less time-consuming for the professional programmer than is flowcharting. It also emphasizes a top-down approach to program structure.

Pseudocode has three basic structures: sequence, decision, and looping logic. With these three structures, any required logic can be expressed.

Exercise 1.  Find in the text the English for:

Совокупность закодированы ‘команд; суть компьютерного программирования; кодирование посредством алгоритма; формулы, уравнения, вычисления; обработать особым образом; перечень команд; необходимая последовательность; защищать от ошибок; составлять план логической последовательности; общепринятая методика; логическая последовательность выполнения программы; построение блок-схемы; наглядное представление; заранее заданные символы; шаблон; псевдопрограмма; без издержек; выделять принцип нисходящей обработки; расходовать меньше времени; логическая схема выполнения операций в цикле; необходимая последовательность операций.

Exercise 2.   Match the English and the Russian word combinations.

  a.    Program: access program; application program; archived program; binary program; common program; compatible / incompatible program; control / management program; database program; debugging program; educational / teaching / training program; free program; general-purpose program; high-performance program; off-line program; on-line program; operating (-system) program; processing program; protected-mode program; remote program; running program; self-loading program; simulation program; support program; utility program; virus-detection program; watch-dog program.

b.   Программа в двоичном коде; прикладная программа; (не) совместимая программа; бесплатная программа; программа отладки; сторожевая программа; дистанционная программа; программа моделирования; сервисная программа; вспомогательная программа; программа для доступа (к данным); заархивированная программа; программа, работающая с базой данных; обучающая программа; программа, выполняемая с большой скоростью; универсальная программа; программа, выполняемая в защищенном режиме; программа обработки данных; программа операционной системы (системная программа); выполняемая программа; сетевая /несетевая программа; самозагружающаяся программа; часто используемая (распространенная) программа; программа управления; программа обнаружения вирусов.

Exercise 3.   Answer the questions.

1. What is programming?

2. What is the essence of programming?

3. What should be done with the problem before processing by the computer?

4. What is a program?

5. What are instructions?

6. What are the main techniques for planning the program logic?

7. What is a flowchart?

8. What is a template and what is it used for?

9. What do you understand by «pseudocode»?

10. What are the basic structures of pseudocode?

Exercise 4.   Read and translate the sentences.  Find and explain the subjunctive.

1.1 should like to be a top specialist in computer technology. 2. It is necessary that the program should be debugged (отлажена) by a programmer. 3. It is required that the programmer should code the instructions of the program in the appropriate sequence. 4. The manager demanded that the work should be performed in time. 5. Write down the algorythm of computer operations lest you should make errors. 6. Our teacher speaks English as if he were a real Englishman. 7. Without the Sun there would be no light, no heafe, no energy of any kind. 8.1 wish it were summer now and we could go to the seaside. 9. American scientists suggested that the quantum generator should be called laser, which is the acronym for fight amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. 10.1 wished you had mentioned these facts while the subject was being discussed.

Learn the words from text  5.

programming language — язык программирования

coded form — кодированный вид; кодированное представление

to convey — передавать; сообщать

to improve — улучшать, совершенствовать

machine-oriented language — машинно-ориентированный язык

business-oriented language — язык для (программирования) экономических задач

problem-oriented language — проблемно-ориентированный язык

string of binary — строка двоичного представления

 data handling — обработка данных; работа с данными

field-name length — длина имени поля

 incorporate features — включать свойства, особенности

 versatile — многофункциональный; разносторонний;универсальный

generous — большой, значительный (о количестве)

mathematical relationship — математическая связь (соотношение)

Text  5. Programming Languages

        Let’s assume that we have studied the problem, designed a logical plan (our flowchart or pseudocode), and are now ready to write the program instructions. The process of writing program instructions is called coding. The instructions will be written on a form called a coding form.. The instructions we write will be recorded in a machine-readable form using a keypunch, key-to-tape, or key-to-disk, or entered directly into computer memory through a terminal keyboard.

       The computer cannot understand instructions written in just any old way. The instructions must be written according to a set of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming language. A programming language must convey the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions. Programming        languages have improved throughout the years, just as computer hardware has improved. They have progressed from machine- oriented languages that use strings of binary 1s and 0s to problem-oriented languages that use common mathematical and/or English terms.

There are over 200 problem-oriented languages. The most common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL.

COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Business-Oriented Language. COBOL was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. Of course, COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is in data handling. COBOL also was designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentence like structure and the very generous maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length of up to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose.

   The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of a mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV has been designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula or those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications.

       PL/I stands for programming language I. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet, although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used. COBOL and FORTRAN have been available for a longer period of time than PL/I, and many more users work with those languages.

Exercise 1.   Find in the text the English for:

Языки программирования; блок-схема; кодированная форма; вид, удобочитаемый для компьютера; в соответствии с набором правил; представить логические шаги программы; таким образом; совершенствовать языки программирования; машинно-ориентированные языки; проблемно-ориентированные языки; обычный термин; язык для программирования экономических задач; обработка информации; операции по вводу-выводу данных; гибкость; идентифицировать поле и его цели; решение проблем математического характера; сферы научного применения; универсальный язык; включать свойства; уникальные возможности; многофункциональный и самый мощный из языков программирования.

Exercise 2.   Find in texts 1 and 2 the synonyms to:

Nouns: command; line; characteristic; form; evolution; enumeration; mistake; method; character; manual (instruction); consumption; storage; basics; abbreviation; interpretation; correlation; possibility.

Verbs: include; inform; process; protect; apply; permit; stress; suppose; learn; make up; write; key; explain; define; perfect; advance; decide; execute; demand.

Adjectives: full; incorrect; usual; necessary; accessible; required; considerable; floppy; possible.

Exercise 3.   Translate  conditional sentences.  Explain their types.

I.        1. If you try very hard you can master any language. 2. If you want to master any language you must know at least three thousand words. 3. You will improve your pronunciation if you read aloud every day. 4. Time will be saved if one uses a com puter. 5. If you learn all the words of the lesson you will write your test successfully. 6. If you or I add up two numbers of six figures without a calculator, it will take us a lot of time.

II.        1. It would be a good thing if you didn’t smoke. 2. If the earth didn’t rotate it wouldn’t have the shape of a ball. 3. If I had the time I should help you to solve the problem. But I must be off. 4.1 should translate the article without difficulty if I knew English well. 5. If I were in your place I should learn to speak English fluently. 6. Were you asked to explain why addition is performed the way it is, you would probably have to think for a while before answering.

III. 1.1 decided to stay at home last night. I would have gone out if I hadn’t been so tired. 2. Had he not been busy, he wouldn’t have missed that conference. 3. Why didn’t you phone me yesterday? I would have helped you. 4. If you had attended preliminary courses, you would have passed you examinations more successfully. 5. Had the manager had this information before, he would have acted differently. 6. The binary system is particulary appropriate to the nature of an electric machine; if it had not existed, computer designers would have had to invent it.

Exercise 4.  Answer the questions.

1. What is the process of writing instructions called? 2. What is a code? 3. How must instructions be written? 4. What is the foundation of any programming language? 5. How was the development of programming languages progressing throughout the years? 6. What are the most common problem-oriented languages? 7. What is COBOL? 8. What functions was COBOL designed for? 9. What does FORTRAN serve for? 10. What capabilities has PL/I?

Computer Glossary

1. affect                                                        влиять
2. (non) impast printer  — (бес)контактный принтер
3. abacus — счеты
4. access —доступ; обращение; обращаться, иметь доступ
5. accessory equipment — вспомогательные устройства
6. accomplish — завершать, заканчивать; выполнять, осуществлять
7. according to  — согласно; в соответствии с
8. accountant  — бухгалтер
9. accounting  — бухгалтерский учет
10. accumulate — накапливать(ся); суммировать; собирать(ся)
11. accumulator — сумматор; накапливающий регистр; устройство суммирования
12. accuracy — точность; правильность; четкость
13. activity  — деятельность; работа; действия операции
14. add  — складывать; суммировать; прибавлять; присоединять
15. added — добавочный; дополнительный
16. adder — сумматор; блок суммирования
17. address register — адресный регистр
18. adjacent                            смежный; соседний; примыкающий
19. affect  — влиять; воздействовать; сказываться на (ч.-л.)
20. amount                                                      количество
21. analyst — аналитик; системный разработчик
22. appliance — устройство; прибор
23. application programmer — прикладной программист
24. application software — прикладное программное обеспечение
25. applied physics — прикладная физика
26. approach  — подход; метод; принцип; приближение
27. appropriate sequence  — необходимая (требуемая) последовательность
28. architect— разработчик архитектуры (системы, структуры)
29. architecture — архитектура; структура
30. archival storage — архивное ЗУ; архивная память
31. arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) — арифметико-логическое устройство
32. arrange — размещать; располагать; устанавливать; монтировать
33. assemble— собирать; монтировать
34. associate — соединять; объединять; связывать
35. associated documentation — соответствующая документация
36. at a rate — со скоростью
37. at a time — за один раз; одновременно
38. at least — по крайней мере
39. available – доступный, возможный, имеющийся
40. bar-code scanner / bar-code reader — устройство считывания штрих-кода
41. batch processing— пакетная обработка
42. binary  digit —                                                           двоичная цифра; двоичный знак
43. bipolar semiconductor — биполярный полупроводник
44. brain                                                              мозг
45. browser                                                     программа поиска
46. burden — издержки , затраты
47. business transaction                                коммерческие операции
48. business-oriented language — язык для (программирования) экономических задач
49. by means of — посредством
50. calculus — исчисление; математический анализ
51. capability — способность; возможность; характеристика
52. capacity — емкость; объем (памяти); пропускная способность
53. capacity of storage — объем (емкость) памяти
54. card reader — устройство считывания платы (карты)
55. carry out— выполнять; осуществлять
56. cause — заставлять; вынуждать; вызывать; быть причиной; причина, основание
57. central processing unit                            центральный процессор
58. central processing unit (CPU) — центральный процессор (ЦП)
59. challenge  — трудность; препятствие; представлять трудность
60. character printer — принтер с посимвольной печатью; символьный принтер
61. coded form — кодированный вид; кодированное представление
62. communications networks — сети передачи данных; сети связи
63. compare  — сравнивать; соотноситься
64. comparer  — компаратор; устройство сравнения
65. competitive operating systems — конкурирующая операционная система
66. comprehensive groupings — полные, обширные, универсальные образования
67. computer of choice — лучший компьютер
68. computer-assisted instructions — компьютерные команды
69. connect                                                     соединять
70. consecutive — последовательный; смежный; соседний
71. consume — потреблять; расходовать
72. content — содержимое; смысл; объем; количество
73. continuous quantity — непрерывная величина
74. control  — управлять, регулировать;
75. control unit (CU) — устройство управления
76. convert— преобразовывать; переводить (в др. единицы)
77. convey — передавать; сообщать
78. core — суть; основная часть; ядро; оперативная память
79. cost-effective — экономичный; экономически оправданный
80. counter  — счетчик
81. crash                                                            давать сбой, зависать
82. create a program                                      создать программу
83. cursor                                                        курсор
84. cut out the human being altogether — полностью исключить человека
85. data access time — время доступа к данным
86. data base — база данных
87. data handling — обработка данных; работа с данными
88. data processing— обработка данных (информации)
89. data storage hierarchy – последовательность запоминания данных
90. decoder — дешифратор
91. delete — удалять; стирать; очищать память
92. depend — зависеть от; полагаться, рассчитывать на
93. digital computer — цифровой компьютер
94. digitizer — аналого-цифровой преобразователь; сканер
95. direct — направлять; адресовать; указывать; прямой; непосредственный
96. discrete— дискретный; отдельный
97. display – дисплей, показ, устройство отображения
98. dot-matrix printer  — точечно-матричный принтер
99. double-click  — двойное нажатие
100. due to the efforts  — благодаря усилиям
101. eliminate — устранять; удалять; отменять; ликвидировать
102. emphasize — выделять; подчеркивать
103. emplate — шаблон; маска; образец; эталон
104. enable  — разрешать; позволять; допускать; делать возможным
105. engineering background — техническая подготовка, квалификация
106. enter  — входить; вводить (данные); заносить, записывать
107. enter the fray — ввязаться в драку
108. environment — среда; окружение; режим работы;
109. equation — уравнение, приравнивание
110. equipment – оборудование, аппаратура
111. erase images — удалить, стереть изображение (объект)
112. error-prone — подверженный ошибкам
113. execute applications programs — выполнять прикладные программы
114. exponentiation — возведение в степень
115. external environment — внешняя среда
116. facilities – возможности, приспособления
117. facility – устройство, средство
118. fall between — падать; попадать в интервал между
119. fall by the wayside — остаться в стороне; уступить дорогу
120. field-name length — длина имени поля
121. file  — файл; заносить (хранить) в файл
122. firmware — встроенное /микропроцессорное программное обеспечение
123. flexible —гибкий; настраиваемый; изменяемый
124. floppy (disk) — гибкий диск(ета); ЗУ на гибком диске
125. flow  — поток; ход (выполнения программы); последовательность
126. flowchart — блок-схема; составлять блок-схему
127. flowcharting — построение блок-схемы
128. general -purpose — универсальный; общего назначения
129. generation— создание, формирование, выработка
130. generous — большой, значительный (о количестве)
131. grading — оценивание; классификация
132. graphic plotting tables  — графические планшеты
133. guard — защищать; предохранять; завершать; заканчивать
134. hard disk                                                    жесткий диск
135. hard-copy output — вывод «твердой» печатной копии
136. hardware — аппаратное обеспечение; аппаратура; оборудование
137. house — помещать, размещать
138. household appliances  — домашние приборы / устройства
139. human-independent — независимый от человека
140. human-readable form — удобная для чтения форма
141. human-related  — (взаимо)связанный с человеком
142. hybrid computer— смешанного типа, аналого-цифровой компьютер
143. IBM (International Business Machine) — фирма по производству компьютеров
144. icon                                                                ярлык
145. identify  — идентифицировать; распознать; обозначить
146. improve — улучшать, совершенствовать
147. income tax  — подоходный налог
148. incorporate features — включать свойства, особенности
149. increase reliability— увеличить надежность
150. indoor climate control system — система регуляции температуры в доме
151. ink-jet printer  — струйный принтер
152. Input hardware          устройство ввода
153. input media — носитель для входных данных
154. input-output interface — интерфейс  ввода-вывода
155. input-output port — порт ввода-вывода
156. install— устанавливать; размещать; монтировать; настраивать
157. instant response — мгновенный ответ (реакция)
158. instruction register — регистр команд
159. integrated circuit (IC) —   интегральная схема
160. interchangeably  — взаимозаменяемым образом
161. intermediate  results                                               промежуточные результаты
162. internal memory — внутренняя память; внутреннее ЗУ
163. interprete — интерпретировать; истолковывать;
164. invalid data— неверные, неправильные, недопустимые данные
165. inventory control — инвентаризация; переучет
166. investment analyses — анализ инвестиций (капиталовложений)
167. involve — включать; содержать; заключать (в себе)
168. issue — посылать (сигнал); выводить, выдавать (сообщение)
169. item — элемент; составная часть
170. iteract                                                       взаимодействовать
171. iternal   storage                                                   внутреннее ЗУ
172. iterpret                                                     переводить, интерпретировать
173. keep buttons depressed — удерживать кнопки в нажатом состоянии
174. key  — клавиша; кнопка; переключатель; ключевой, основной; главный;
175. keyboard input device — клавишное устройство ввода
176. keyboard terminals — терминал (вывод) с клавишным управлением
177. laser-beam printer  — лазерный принтер
178. leisure activities  — досуговая деятельность
179. letter-quality printer — принтер с типографским качеством печати
180. level — уровень; степень; мера; выравнивать
181. line printer — принтер с построчной печатью
182. list of instructions — перечень команд
183. load a program                                       загружать программу
184. locate —  размещаться, располагаться
185. logarithm table — логарифмическая таблица
186. looping logic — логическая схема выполнения (операций) в цикле
187. lower manufacturing — снизить производительность
188. machine-oriented language — машинно-ориентированный язык
189. magnetic core — магнитный сердечник
190. magnetic disc storage — ЗУ на магнитном диске
191. main  storage — основная память; оперативное запоминающее устройство
192. maintenance— поддержание; сохранение; эксплуатация
193. make errors — допускать ошибки (погрешности)
194. manage — управлять; организовывать; справляться
195. manipulate— обрабатывать, преобразовывать; управлять
196. manipulation— управление; обработка; преобразование
197. manipulator  — манипулятор; блок обработки
198. manner – способ, образ (действия)
199. manufacturer— изготовитель; производитель; разработчик
200. mark  — отметка; маркер; знак; помечать; обозначать; выделять
201. match characteristics [‘mastfkasrskta’ristiks] — сопоставлять параметры
202. mathematical relationship — математическая связь (соотношение)
203. meaningful  — имеющий смысл; значащий (о данных)
204. means of coding— средства кодирования (шифровки)
205. media capacity — емкость носителя
206. medium (pi. media) — носитель; среда
207. meet the demands — удовлетворять потребности
208. metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) — металл-оксид-полупроводник
209. microwave oven— микроволновая печь
210. move paragraphs around — менять местами абзацы
211. moving-head device — устройство с двигающейся головкой
212. multiple — кратный
213. necessity                                       необходимость
214. network                                            сеть
215. objective — цель; требование; целевая функция
216. obtain — получать; достигать; добиваться
217. offline storage — автономное хранение данных отдельно от компьютера
218. on — going process —продолжающийся, постоянный, непрерывный процесс
219. on the other hand — с другой стороны
220. online storage — неавтономное хранение данных в ЗУ
221. operand address  — адрес (хранения) операнда
222. operating mode  — режим работы
223. optical character reader — оптическое считывающее устройство текста
224. optical mark reader — оптическое считывающее устройство знаков
225. output hardware                                     устройства вывода информации
226. output media — носитель для выходных данных
227. page printer — принтер с постраничной печатью
228. payroll — платежная ведомость
229. per bit — на единицу информации
230. perform— выполнять, производить (действие); осуществлять;
231. performance  — (рабочая) характеристика; производительность; быстродействие; скорость работы; пропускная способность
232. permitting capacity — разрешающая способность
233. pictorial representation — наглядное представление
234. piece of semiconductor— полупроводниковый кристалл
235. pimary  / secondary storage — первичное / вторичное запоминающее устройство
236. plotter  — графопостроитель
237. plug in — подключать; подсоединять
238. plug-n-play                                               подключай и работай
239. power consumption  — потребление (расход) электроэнергии
240. precisely — точно
241. predefined symbols — заранее заданные символы
242. predominant — преобладающий; доминирующий
243. press a button — нажать на кнопку
244. pressure — давление, сжатие
245. printer output — вывод на печать; распечатываемые данные
246. problem-oriented language — проблемно-ориентированный язык
247. procedure  — процедура, процесс; метод, методика; алгоритм
248. product line — серия (компьютерных) продуктов
249. program logic — логическая последовательность выполнения программы
250. programming language — язык программирования
251. programming rules — правила программирования
252. protect — защищать
253. provide                                                      обеспечивать
254. pseudocode — псевдокод; псевдопрограмма
255. punch the holes— пробивать отверстия
256. punched card— перфокарта
257. random access memory     (RAM)       оперативное запоминающее устройство
258. randomly — произвольно
259. range — классифицировать; располагать в порядке;  лежать в диапазоне
260. reach                                                            достигать
261. read only memory (ROM)     постоянное запоминающее устройство
262. reason— причина; основание; довод; обосновывать; делать вывод.
263. record  — запись, регистрация; записывать, регистрировать        
264. record keeping — регистрация; ведение записей
265. recover                                                     восстанавливать
266. recreation                                                 развлечение
267. recycle bin                                              корзина
268. reduced weight— уменьшенный вес
269. reel of magnetic tape — бобина с магнитной лентой
270. refer  to— относиться к; ссылаться на
271. regardless of [n’gardbs sv] — несмотря на; независимо от
272. register  — регистр; устройство регистрации; счетчик; датчик
273. related  — смежный; взаимосвязанный; относящийся (к ч.-л.)
274. rely— основываться на ч.-л.; полагаться
275. remain vulnerable — оставаться уязвимым, чувствительным
276. remote terminal — удаленный терминал
277. replace vacuum tubes — заменять электронные лампы
278. resource — ресурс; средство; возможность
279. respond — отвечать; реагировать
280. response — ответ; отклик; реакция; отвечать; реагировать
281. retain  — сохранять; удерживать
282. retrieve — извлекать, выбирать (данные); восстанавливать (файл)
283. roll                                                                прокручивать
284. roller  — ролик; валик
285. rotate — вращать(ся); чередовать(ся); сменять(ся)
286. rrpose                                                      цель
287. scan  — просматривать; сканировать; развертывать
288. scanner  — сканер; устройство оптического считывания
289. scheduling — составление расписания, графика
290. scientific research— научные исследования
291. security  — безопасность; охрана
292. select — выбирать; выделять (на экране)
293. sequence                                                           последовательность; порядок следования
294. sequence — последовательность
295. set — набор; множество; совокупность; серия; группа; система
296. share                                                            делить
297. shortcut capability                                   возможность найти кратчайший путь
298. similarity                                                            сходство; подобие
299. similarly  — подобным образом; также; аналогично
300. simulate — моделировать; имитировать
301. slide rule— логарифмическая линейка
302. soft-copy output — вывод электронной копии
303. software — программное обеспечение; программные средства
304. solid body — твердое тело; кристалл; полупроводник
305. solid-state device — твердотельный прибор
306. sound card  — звуковая карта (плата)
307. sound recording — звукозапись
308. specifics  — специальные черты; характерные особенности
309. spray drops of ink — распылять капли чернил
310. stand-alone — автономный
311. step-by-step operations — пошаговые операции
312. stock market forecasting — биржевые прогнозы
313. storage  — запоминающее устройство, память; хранение
314. storage hardware                                    устройство хранения данных
315. storage register — регистр памяти; запоминающий регистр
316. store — хранить, запоминать, заносить
317. strike against a ribbon — ударять по ленте
318. string of binary — строка двоичного представления
319. strings  of characters — последовательность символов    ‘
320. substitute — заменять; замещать
321. successively — последовательно
322. support                                                     поддержка
323. survive onslaught  — выдержать конкуренцию
324. switch — переключатель; коммутатор; переключать; переходить
325. system software — системное программное обеспечение
326. tabulate the census — занести данные по переписи (населения) в таблицу
327. take advantage of smth — воспользоваться ч.-л.
328. tape device — ЗУ на магнитной ленте
329. technique  — метод; способ; техника; методика; технология
330. telephone dialing  — набор номера телефона
331. temporary                                                временный
332. timing mark — отметка времени
333. touch panel  — сенсорная панель
334. track — следить; прослеживать; проходить; след; траектория; путь
335. trackball  — трекбол
336. transfer— передавать(ся); переносить(ся); пересылаться)
337. travel — перемещение; прохождение; путь; ход
338. typewriter — печатное устройство
339. unit of data— единица информации
340. unit— устройство; модуль; блок; элемент; составная часть
341. up-down approach — принцип нисходящей разработки
342. upgrade                                                      увеличение возможности компьютера
343. value— значение; величина; значимость; ценность; оценка; оценивать
344. variety                                                       спектр
345. versatile — многофункциональный; разносторонний; универсальный
346. visible units— видимый блок, устройство
347. visual display — визуальный индикатор
348. voice recognition and response unit — устройство распознавания голоса и реагирования
349. voltage — напряжение
350. web                                                                паутина
351. word processing — обработка текста
352. word size — размер слова; разрядность двоичного слова
353. worksheet  — электронная таблица

Extra Reading Texts

Text 1

Optical Technology

One of the most interesting developments in telecommunication is the rapid progress of optical communication where optical fibers are replacing conventional telephone wires and cables. Just as digital technologies greatly improved the telephone system, optical communication promises a considerable increase in capacity, quality, performance and reliability of the global telecommunication network. New technologies such as optical fibers will increase the speed of telecommunication and provide new, specialized information service. Voice, computer data, even video images, will be increasingly integrated into a single digital communication network capable of processing and transmitting virtually any kind of information.

It is a result of combining two technologies: the laser, first demonstrated in 1960, and the fabrication 10 years later of ultra-thin silicon fibres which can serve as lightwave conductors. With the further development of very efficient lasers plus continually improved techniques to produce thin silica fibres of incredible transparency, optical systems can transmit pulses of light as far as 135 kilometers without the need for amplification or regeneration. At present high-capacity optical transmission systems are being installed between many major US cities at a rapid rate. The system most widely used now operates at 147 megabits per second and accommodates 6,000 circuits over a single pair of glass fibres (one for each direction of transmission).

This system will soon be improved to operate at 1.7 gigabits per second and handle 24,000 telephone channels simultaneously. A revolution in information storage is underway with optical disk technology.

The first digital optical disks were produced in 1982 as compact disks for music. They were further developed as a storage medium for computers. The disks are made of plastics coated with aluminium. The information is

recorded by using a powerful laser to imprint bubbles on the surface of the disk. A less powerful laser reads back the pictures, sound or information. An optical disk is almost indestructible and can store about 1000 times more information than a plastic disk of the same size. One CD-ROM disk (650 MB) can replace 300,000 pages of text (about 500 floppies), which represents a lot of savings in databases.

The future of optical storage is called DVD (digital versatile disk). A DVD-ROM can hold up to 17 GB, about 25 times an ordinary CD-ROM. For this reason, it can store a large amount of multimedia software and complete full-screen Hollywood movies in different languages. However, DVD-ROMs are «read-only» devices. To avoid this limitation, companies also produce DVD rewritable drives. Besides, it is reported that an optical equivalent of a transistor has been produced and intensive research on optical electronic computers is underway at a number of US companies as well as in countries around the world.

It is found that optical technology is cost-effective and versatile. It finds new applications every day — from connecting communication equipment or computers within the same building or room to long distance transcontinental, transoceanic and space communications.

Exercise 1. Give English equivalents:

обычные телефонные провода и кабели, цифровые технологии, надежность, объединять в одно целое, проводник световых волн, усиление, устанавливать, развивать, представлять собой, оптико- электронный компьютер, рентабельный,

Exercise 2.  Give Russian equivalents:

capacity, computer data, transmitting information, ultra-thin silicon fibres, incredible transparency, regeneration, optical disk technology, coated, database, multimedia software, rewritable drive, cost-effective, application.

Exercise 3.  Match up:

optical ………………………………….conductors

conventional ………………………… bubbles

silicon…………………………………….medium

lightwave ……………………………… communication

storage ………………………………….. software

to imprint …………………………….. telephone wires and cables

multimedia…………………………….. fibres

Exercise 4.  Fill in the blanks:

1.7 gigabits, digital communication network, cost-effective and

versatile, high-capacity optical transmission systems, transistor, digital

technologies, coated, information storage.

1. Just as … greatly improved the telephone system, optical

communication promises a considerable increase in capacity, quality,

performance and reliability.

2. Voice, computer data, even video images, will be increasingly

integrated into a single … .

3. At present … are being installed between many major US cities at a

rapid rate.

4. This system will soon be improved to operate at … per second.

5. A revolution in … is underway with optical disk technology.

6. The disks are made of plastics … with aluminium.

7. It is reported that an optical equivalent of a … has been

produced.

8. It is found that optical technology is … .

Exercise 5.  Put in the right proposition:

1. You communicate with your computer … the keyboard.

2. The instruction manuals … most software applications contain a section describing the functions … each key.

3. The mouse works … sliding it around (ball down) … a flat surface.

4. You will see the arrow … your screen moving … unison.

5. That’s the only part the computer pays attention … .

6. Your computer is not complete … the monitor.

7. The sharpness … the picture depends … the number and size … these pixels.

8. Some … the controls … the monitor change the size and position  … the image.

9. Windows includes a number … screen savers.

10.The drives can read and write … floppy diskettes.

11.The amount and variety … material you can access … CD-ROM  is amazing.

12.If a diver wants to know an accurate depth he is down, he must  set water type he is… .

13.If a diver wants to know how long he has been down, he can see this  … the display.

14.Before he descends, the diver sets the time … ascend.

15.Optical communication promises a considerable increase …  capacity, quality, performance and reliability … the global  telecommunication network.

16.The system most widely used now operates … 147 megabits  (thousand bits) per second.

17.The first digital optical disks were produced … 1982 as compact  disks … music.

18.The information is recorded … using a powerful laser to imprint  bubbles … the surface … the disk.

Exercise 6.  Put the verbs into the correct tense form:

a. In the nearest future digital communication network (to allow) to process and transmit voice, computer data and video images.

b. Invention of the laser and thin silicon fibres (to make) it possible to transmit pulses of light without amplification and  regeneration.

c. New high-capacity optical transmission systems (to operate)  between many major US cities.

d. Another revolution (to concern) optical disk technology.

e. An optical disk (to be) capable of storing about 1000 times more  information than a plastic disk of the same size.

Exercise  7.   Answer the following questions:

1. Which is one of the most interesting developments in telecommunication nowadays?

2. What does optical communication promise?

3. What are the capabilities of optical fibers?

 4. What are the perspectives of optical fibers?

 5. Why is the system developing rapidly now?

6. What are the advantages of using compact discs?

7. How much information can a DVDROM hold?

8. Where can optical technology be used?

Text    2

Optical Disks and Drives

Optical disks can store information at much higher densities than magnetic disks. Thus, they are ideal for multimedia applications where images, animation and sound occupy a lot of disk space. Besides, they are

not affected by magnetic fields. This means that they are secure and stable, e.g. they can be transported through airport metal detectors without damaging the data. However, optical drives are slower than hard disks. While there are hard drives with an average access time of 8 millisecond (ms), most CD-ROM drives have an access time of 150 to 20 ms.

There are various types of optical drives, which have become a reality. CD-ROM systems use optical technology. The data is rewritable using a laser beam. To read CD-ROM disks, you need an optical drive (a CD-ROM player). A typical CD-ROM disk can hold 650 MB (megabytes) of sound, text, photographs, music, multimedia materials and applications. In addition, most CD-ROM drives can be used to play audio CDs. Do you

remember that CD stands for compact disk? Yet CD-ROM technology has one disadvantage. The data on a CDRОМ cannot be changed or «written» to, i.e. it is impossible to add your own material to what is on the disk. It is like a music CD. It is not designed for you to write on, it is designed to hold a lot of information that the user doesn’t need to change.

Magneto-optical (MO) drives use both a laser and an electromagnet to record information. Consequently, MO disks are rewritable, that is they can be written to, erased, and then written again. They are available in two

formats. Their capacity may be more than 2 GB (gigabyte) or 230 to 640 MB. Such combined devices are good for back up purposes and storage of large amounts of information such as a dictionary or encyclopedia.

Exercise  1.  Give English equivalents:

оптический диск, сoхранять информацию, быть подверженным чему-либо, время доступа, становиться реальностью, обозначать.

Exercise  2. Give Russian equivalents:

Rewritable, secure, density, multimedia materials, consequently, optical drives.

Exercise 3.  Match up:

to store ……………………………… data

to be affected …………………………. for

to damage …………………………… information

to stand ……………………………… purpose

back up ………………………………. by

Exercise 4. Put in the right proposition:

1. Machine code consist … the 1s and Os (binary code) that are processed … the CPU.

2. Low-level languages are converted … machine code … a special program called an assembler.

3. Any high-level language is independent … the computer the programme will be run … .

4. С, a high-level programming language, can be used … all kinds of computers.

5. In the Internet millions .. computers are connected … one another.

6. The Internet is growing … a surprising rate.

7. Hypertext is the text that contains links … other documents.

8. To surf in the Internet you can also click … keywords.

9. Special programmes allow people … talk … each other in the Web.

10.Networks can be linked together … telephone lines or fibre-optic cables.

11.Optical disks are ideal … multimedia applications.

12.When you pass … airport metal detectors Optical disks are not affected … magnetic fields.

13.CDs are not designed … you … write … .

Exercise  5.  Put the verbs into the correct tense form:

1. Optical disks (to serve) to store information.

2. Airport metal detectors (to damage) the data on the disk?

3. CDs (to hold) 650 MB or 2 GB?

4. Нow (to be) rewritable disks called?

Exercise  6.  Answer the following questions:

1. What can optical disks be used for?

 2. What are their advantages and disadvantages?

3. How can data be retrieved from a CD?

4. What are  CDs designed for and their disadvantage?

5. What is the other type of disks and what is their capacity?

Text  3.

Computer Graphics

Computer graphics are pictures and drawings produced by computers. A graphics programme interprets the input provided by the user and transports it into images that can be displayed on the screen, printed on paper or transferred to microfilm. In the process the computer uses hundreds of mathematical formulas to convert the bits of data into precise shapes and colours. Graphics can be developed for a variety of uses including illustrations, architectural designs and detailed engineering drawings.

Mechanical engineering uses sophisticated programs for applications in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In the car industry CAD software is used to develop, model and test car designs before the actual parts are made. This can save a lot of time and money.

Basically, computer helps users to understand complex information quickly by presenting it in more understandable and clearer visual forms. Electric engineers use computer graphics for designing circuits and in business it is possible to present information as graphics and diagrams. These are certain to be much more effective ways of communicating than lists of figures or long explanations.

Today, three-dimensional graphics along with color and computer animation are supposed to be essential for graphic design, computer-aided engineering (CAE) and academic research. Computer animation is the process of creating objects and pictures which move across the screen; it is used by scientists and engineers to analyze problems. With appropriate software they can study the structure of objects and how it is affected by particular changes.

A graphic package is the software that enables the user to draw and manipulate objects on a computer. Each graphic package has its own facilities, as well as a wide range of basic drawing and painting tools. The collection of tools in a package is known as a palette. The basic geometric shapes, such as lines between two points, arcs, circles, polygons, ellipses and even text, making graphical objects are called “primitives”. You can choose both the primitive you want and where it should go on the screen. Moreover, you can specify the «attributes» of each primitive, e.g., its colour, line type and so on. The various tools in a palette usually appear together as pop-up icons in a menu. To use one you can activate it by clicking on it. After specifying the primitives and their attributes you must transform them. Transformation means moving or manipulating the object by translating, rotating and scaling the object. Translation is moving an object along an axis to somewhere else in the viewing area. Rotation is turning the object larger or smaller in any of the horizontal, vertical or depth direction (corresponding to the x, у and z axis). The term «rendering» describes the techniques used to make your object look real. Rendering includes hidden surface removal, light sources and reflections.

Exercise  1.  Give English equivalents:

Всплывающая иконка, быть важным, трехмерная графика, зрительные образы, представлять, преобразовывать, компьютерная графика.

Exercise  2. Give Russian equivalents:

Graphics program, computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, circuits, to analyze problems, appropriate software, polygon.

Exercise  3.  Match up:

pop-up …………………………. in

to be essential ………………………on

three-dimensional …………………a lot of time

visual …………………………………..graphics

to present ……………………………..icons

to convert ……………………………forms

computer …………………………….. into

to be displayed……………………… for

to save……………………………….. graphics

Exercise   4.  Pick out the right definition:

1. Computer graphics are … .

a) texts; b) pictures and drawings; c) digits.

2. Computers use … to convert data into shapes and colours.

a) words;  b) pictures;  c) mathematical formulas.

3. Computer animation is the process of creating … which move across the screen.

a) objects and pictures;  b) mathematical formulas;  c) books.

4. The collection of tools in a package is known as … .

a) palette;  b) polygon; c) palate.

5. … are called “primitives”.

a) the digits;   b) the basic geometric  shapes; c) the letters.

6. The various tools in a palette usually appear together as … in a menu.

a) pop-up corks;   b) pop-up letters;   c) pop-up icons.

Exercise  5.  Put the verbs into the correct tense form:

1. Computer graphics (represent) pictures and drawings produced by computers.

2. To produce images that (can) be displayed on the screen the computer (to use) hundreds of mathematical formulas.

3. Computers (to help) in CAD and CAM to save time and money.

4. In business computers (to be used) to present information as graphics  and diagrams.

5. With the help of computer animation scientists and engineers (to analyze) problems.

6. What a graphic package (to enable) the user to draw?

Exercise  6.   Answer the following questions:

1. What is computer graphics?

2. How does a computer interpret the command?

 3. Where is computer graphics used?

 4. In what way does computer graphics help people?

5. What is computer animation and how does it help scientists and engineers?

Список использованных источников информации

1. Агабекян,  И.П. Английский язык для средних специальных заведений / И.П.Агабекян. — Серия «Учебники и учебные пособия». Ростов н/Дону. «Феникс», 2009.
2. Занина,  Е.Л. 95 устных тем по английскому языку / Е.Л.Занина. — М.: Рольф, 2011. -304 с.
3. Ионина,  А.А., Саакян А.С. Английская грамматика. Теория и практика / А.А.Ионина, А.С.Саакян. — 3-е изд, испр. — М.: Рольф, 2012, — 448с
4. Карпова,  Т.А. Английский язык для колледжей. Учебное пособие / Т.А.Карпова. — Зе изд., перераб. и дополн. — М:. Издательско-торговая корпорация «Дашков и К» , 2006 —
5. Кожевникова,  Л.А.,  Юлаева,  С.С.        Английский язык:        Учебное пособие для студентов-социологов заочного отделения. / Л.А. Кожевникова, С.С. Юлаева. Самара:  Изд-во  «Самарский университет», 2010.
6. Радовель,  В.А. Английский язык. Основы компьютерной грамотности: Учебное пособие / Радовель В.А. — Ростов н/Дон: Феникс, 2006.
7. Рогова,  Г.В. Английский язык за два года / Г.В.Рогова. – Учеб. — М.: Просвещение, 2009.
8. Саямова,  В.И. English in the Office. Пособие по деловому общению на английском языке / В.И.Саямова. — Ростов — на — Дону, 2012г.
9. TEXTS AND EXERCISES ON INFORMATION SCIENCE./ Составитель О. В. Мартынов.- Санкт-Петербург, 2006.

Ресурсы удаленного доступа

1. http://sun.tsu.ru/mminfo
2. http://shvarts.pspu.ru
3. http://www.jurnal.org

Содержание

1. Введение………………………………………………………………….3
2. Unit 1.  Science  and  Technology…………………………………………4
3. Unit 2.   What is a Computer?…………………………………………… 18
4. Unit 3. Computer Operations and Operating Systems……………………22
5. Unit  4. Data Processing and Computer Systems …………………………31
6. Unit 5. Central Processing Unit and Storage ……………………………..43
7. Unit 6. Personal  Computers and Computer  Programming ………………63
8. Glossary ……………………………………………………………………76
9. Extra reading texts………………………………………………………….87
10. A List of Literature …………………………………………………………95
11. Содержание………………………………………………………………..96

Dear Jada,

If you were to travel around the world, the word “science” might look or sound very different. In Spanish, it’s ciencia. In Japanese, 理科. In German, wissenschaft! And in French…well, it’s also science. But with an accent. 

My friend Michael Goldsby is a philosopher of science at Washington State University. He said the English word “science” comes from the Latin, scientia, which means knowledge.

In medieval times, the pursuit of knowledge included things like grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Of course, the meaning of the word “science” has changed over time.  

“We don’t know exactly who coined that term first,” Goldsby said. “Although, we do know that it was philosopher William Whewell who first coined the term ‘scientist.’ Prior to that, scientists were called ‘natural philosophers’.”

Whewell coined the term in 1833, said my friend Debbie Lee. She’s a researcher and professor of English at WSU who wrote a book on the history of science. She told me about one of her favorite examples of the way science was approached a long time ago. It was in the form of a really long poem written by a natural historian named Erasmus Darwin. The poem filled up a whole book.

This poetry was full of observations about the lives of plants. But it didn’t necessarily involve new questions or testing out ideas. Just a couple generations later, Erasmus’ grandson Charles started doing just this. His curiosity about different birds on the Galapagos Islands led him to a question that could actually be tested.

He noticed that different birds had different beak shapes, depending on what they ate to survive. The observations and questions led to discoveries about how animals adapt to their environment and evolve over time.

Lee said in the 18th and 19th centuries a lot of people in Europe were going out to other parts of the world to explore.

“They came up with these huge systems of cataloging and naming the world,” she said. “Science really continued to grow out of that pursuit.”

Goldsby said it was around this time the word “science” really started to become attached to the way we use it today. While people had ways of gaining new knowledge through exploring history or philosophy, science became more about a method of learning and knowing.

As you may know, that is what we call the scientific method, Goldsby explains.

“It tends to rely on observing the world and testing things out to figure out what claims we ought to believe,” he said.

Some of my friends at Spokane Public Schools put together a helpful video about the scientific method. Maybe you could even use it to help guide your next science fair project.

You know, we explore all kinds of science questions together, but you bring up a good one with your third question. What does science mean to you? Tell me about it between now and Nov. 30 at Dr.Universe@wsu.edu for a chance to win your very own explorer’s field guide.  

Sincerely,
Dr. Universe