The word science comes from the latin word that means to

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Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.^[1][2]

The earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes.^{[3]: 12 [4]} After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age^[5] and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance.

The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived «natural philosophy»,^[6][7] which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century^[8] as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.^[9][10] The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape,^[11][12] along with the changing of «natural philosophy» to «natural science».^[13]

Modern science is typically divided into three major branches:^[14] natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies;^[15][16] and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules.^[17][18] There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines,^[19][20][21] because they do not rely on empirical evidence.^[22][20] Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine.^[23][24][25]

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.^[26][27] Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions,^[28] government agencies, and companies.^[29][30] The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection.

Etymology

The word science has been used in Middle English since the 14th century in the sense of «the state of knowing». The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia, meaning «knowledge, awareness, understanding». It is a noun derivative of the Latin sciens meaning «knowing», and undisputedly derived from the Latin sciō, the present participle scīre, meaning «to know».^[31]

There are many hypotheses for science‘s ultimate word origin. According to Michiel de Vaan, Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist, sciō may have its origin in the Proto-Italic language as *skije- or *skijo- meaning «to know», which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh₁-ie, *skh₁-io, meaning «to incise». The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre, meaning «to not know, be unfamiliar with», which may derive from Proto-Indo-European *sekH- in Latin secāre, or *skh₂—, from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning «to cut».^[32]

In the past, science was a synonym for «knowledge» or «study», in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a «natural philosopher» or «man of science».^[33] In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville’s book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences,^[34] crediting it to «some ingenious gentleman» (possibly himself).^[35]

History

Early history

Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years,^[36][37] taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science,^[38] as did religious rituals.^[39] Some scholars use the term «protoscience» to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features;^[40][41][42] however, this label has also been criticized as denigrating^[43] or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories.^[44]

Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of writing systems in early civilizations like Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, creating the earliest written records in the history of science in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.^{[3]: 12–15 [4]} Although the words and concepts of «science» and «nature» were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.^{[45][3]: 12} From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a decimal numbering system,^[46] solved practical problems using geometry,^[47] and developed a calendar.^[48] Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, incantations, and rituals.^[3]: 9

The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing.^[49] They studied animal physiology, anatomy, behavior, and astrology for divinatory purposes.^[50] The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine^[49] and the earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur.^[51] They seem to study scientific subjects which have practical or religious applications and have little interest of satisfying curiosity.^[49]

Classical antiquity

In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time.^[52] Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural «way» in which a plant grows,^[53] and the «way» in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish «nature» and «convention».^[54]

The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural.^[55] The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy^{[56]: 467–68} and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science.^[56]: 465 The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.^[57][58] Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a «canon» (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth.^[59] The Greek doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical science^[60][61] and is known as «The Father of Medicine».^[62]

A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates’ example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato’s dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them for consistency.^[63] Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.^[64]

Aristotle in the 4th century BCE created a systematic program of teleological philosophy.^[65] In the 3rd century BCE, Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the center and all the planets orbiting it.^[66] Aristarchus’s model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics,^[66] while Ptolemy’s Almagest, which contains a geocentric description of the Solar System, was accepted through the early Renaissance instead.^[67][68] The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus.^[69] Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopedia Natural History.^[70][71][72]

Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.^[73]

Middle Ages

Due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the 5th century saw an intellectual decline and knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe.^[3]: 194 During the period, Latin encyclopedists such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge.^[74] In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning.^[3]: 159 John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, started to question Aristotle’s teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.^{[3]: 307, 311, 363, 402} His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.^{[3]: 307–308 [75]}

During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle’s four causes: material, formal, moving, and final cause.^[76] Many Greek classical texts were preserved by the Byzantine empire and Arabic translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and the Monophysites. Under the Caliphate, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists.^[77] By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighboring Sassanid Empire established the medical Academy of Gondeshapur, which is considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical center of the ancient world.^[78]

The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq,^[79] where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished^[80] until the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen, began experimenting as a means to gain knowledge^[81][82] and disproved Ptolemy’s theory of vision^{[83]: Book I, [6.54]. p. 372} Avicenna’s compilation of the Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century.^[84]

By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian,^[3]: 204 and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe.^[85] As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew,^[3]: 204 a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century. Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature.^[86] In the 13rd century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi.^[87]

Renaissance

New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the Renaissance, both by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as the camera obscura and the telescope. At the start of the Renaissance, Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham each built up a scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle.^{[83]: Book I} A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle’s four causes: formal, material, and final.^[88]

In the sixteenth century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the geocentric model where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the center of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy’s model.^[89]

Johannes Kepler and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light.^[88][90] Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus’ heliocentric model through the discovery of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.^[91] Galileo had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.^[92]

The printing press was widely used to publish scholarly arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.^[93] Francis Bacon and René Descartes published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal and final cause, promoted the idea that science should study the laws of nature and the improvement of all human life.^[94] Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature.^[95]

Age of Enlightenment

At the start of the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton formed the foundation of classical mechanics by his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, greatly influencing future physicists.^[96] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, now used in a new non-teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.^[97]

During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon’s words, «the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches«, and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond «the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]».^[98]

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies^[99] and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centers of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.^[100] Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.^[101]

The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine^[102] and physics;^[103] the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus;^[104] a new understanding of magnetism and electricity;^[105] and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline.^[106] Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.^[107] Modern sociology largely originated from this movement.^[108] In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first work on modern economics.^[109]

19th century

During the nineteenth century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences, frequent use of precision instruments, emergence of terms such as «biologist», «physicist», «scientist», increased professionalization of those studying nature, scientists gained cultural authority over many dimensions of society, industrialization of numerous countries, thriving of popular science writings and emergence of science journals.^[110] During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.^[111]

During the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859.^[112] Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, «Experiments on Plant Hybridization» in 1865,^[113] which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.^[114]

Early in the 19th century, John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory, based on Democritus’s original idea of indivisible particles called atoms.^[115] The laws of conservation of energy, conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the steam engine and the industrial revolution there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities, the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy.^[116] This realization led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time.^[a]

The electromagnetic theory was established in the 19th century by the works of Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton’s framework. The discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896,^[119] Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel prizes.^[120] In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron.^[121]

20th century

In the first half of the century, the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilizers improved human living standards globally.^[122][123] Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication and climate change came to the public’s attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.^[124]

During this period, scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding.^[125] The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race^[126] and nuclear arms race.^[127] Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.^[128]

In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields.^[129] The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964^[130] led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.^[131]

The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.^[132] Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity.^[133][134] Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones. The need for mass systematization of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modeling.^[135]

21st century

The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome.^[136] The first induced pluripotent human stem cells were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem cells and turn to any cell type found in the body.^[137] With the affirmation of the Higgs boson discovery in 2013, the last particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics was found.^[138] In 2015, gravitational waves, predicted by general relativity a century before, were first observed.^[139][140] In 2019, the international collaboration Event Horizon Telescope presented the first direct image of a black hole’s accretion disk.^[141]

Branches

Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches: natural science, social science, and formal science.^[14] Each of these branches comprises various specialized yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own nomenclature and expertise.^[142] Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences,^[143] as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.^[144]

Natural science

Natural science is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. These two branches may be further divided into more specialized disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science. Modern natural science is the successor to the natural philosophy that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.^[145] Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.^[146] Today, «natural history» suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.^[147]

Social science is the study of human behavior and functioning of societies.^[15][16] It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology.^[15] In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programs such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology.^[15] Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.^[15]

Formal science

Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems.^{[148][17][18]} A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules.^[149] It includes mathematics,^[150][151] systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts.^{[22][152][144]} The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science.^[19][153] Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. Calculus, for example, was initially invented to understand motion in physics.^[154] Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include mathematical physics,^[155] chemistry,^[156] biology,^[157] finance,^[158] and economics.^[159]

Applied science

Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine.^[160][25] Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies.^[161] Science may contribute to the development of new technologies.^[162] Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of injury or disease.^[163][164] The applied sciences are often contrasted with the basic sciences, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.^[165][166]

Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science for example in agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modeling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.^[167][168]

Interdisciplinary science

Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one,^[169] such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer science^[170] or cognitive sciences. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek and it became popular again in the 20th century.^[171]

Scientific research

Scientific research can be labeled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.^[172]

Scientific method

Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way.^[173] Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.^[2] Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modeling, observing, and collecting measurements.^[174] Statistics is used to summarize and analyze data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.^[175]

In the scientific method, an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question.^[176] This tentative explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.^{[173]: 4–5 [177]} Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.^[178]

When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is modified or discarded.^[179] If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.^[180]

While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another.^[181][182] Eliminating the bias can be achieved by transparency, careful experimental design, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions.^[183][184] After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.^[185] Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimizing the effects of subjective and confirmation bias.^[186] Intersubjective verifiability, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.^[187]

Scientific literature

Scientific research is published in a range of literature.^[188] Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des sçavans followed by Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.^[189]

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.^[190]

Challenges

The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis that affects parts of the social and life sciences. In subsequent investigations, the results of many scientific studies are proven to be unrepeatable.^[191] The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s^[192] as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.^[193]

An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science.^[194][195] Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term «cargo cult science» for cases in which researchers believe and at a glance looks like they are doing science, but lack the honesty allowing their results to be rigorously evaluated.^[196] Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as «the most important tool» for separating valid claims from invalid ones.^[197]

There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as «bad science,» research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term «scientific misconduct» refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.^[198]

Philosophy of science

There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations.^[199] Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being Bayesianism^[200] and the hypothetico-deductive method.^[199]

Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.^[201] Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories: that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation.^[202]
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.^[202] Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and error,^[203] covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.^[204]

Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be something that should be ignored.^[205] Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.^[206]

Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a logically consistent «portrait» of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterized normal science as the process of observation and «puzzle solving» which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.^[207] Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more «portraits» against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn’s position, however, is not one of relativism.^[208]

Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements like «creation science» is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations.^[209] Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification.^[210]

The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conducts scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.^[211]

Scientists

Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.^[212][213] In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and upon completion, attain an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD.^[214] Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.^{[215][216][217]}

Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees^[218] in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit environments.^[219][220]

Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women in science faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.^[221] The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the domestic sphere.^[222] Lifestyle choice plays a major role in female engagement in science; female graduate students’ interest in careers in research declines dramatically throughout graduate school, whereas that of their male colleagues remains unchanged.^[223]

Learned societies

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.^[224] Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, profession, or group of related disciplines.^[225] Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election.^[226] Most scientific societies are non-profit organizations,^[227] and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership.^{[citation needed]}

The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished academies of sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei Lincei in 1603,^[228] the British Royal Society in 1660,^[229] the French Academy of Sciences in 1666,^[230] the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863,^[231] the German Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1911,^[232] and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1949.^[233] International scientific organizations, such as the International Science Council, are devoted to international cooperation for science advancement.^[234]

Awards

Science awards are usually given to individuals or organizations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions, thus it is considered a great honor for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists are often awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.^[235]

Society

Funding and policies

Scientific research is often funded through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.^[236] In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. In the lesser-developed nations, government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.^[237]

Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the National Science Foundation in the United States,^[238] the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina,^[239] Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization in Australia,^[240] National Centre for Scientific Research in France,^[241] the Max Planck Society in Germany,^[242] and National Research Council in Spain.^[243] In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than research driven by curiosity.^[244]

Science policy is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including research funding, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy’s goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.^[245] Public policy can directly affect the funding of capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund research.^[190]

Education and awareness

Science education for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by online pedagogical content (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the scientific method, units and methods of measurement, empiricism, a basic understanding of statistics (correlations, qualitative versus quantitative observations, aggregate statistics), as well as a basic understanding of core scientific fields, such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology and computation. As a student advances into higher stages of formal education, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.^[246]

The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.^[247] Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.^[248][249]

Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.^[250] Science fiction genre, primarily speculative fiction, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public.^[251] Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund.^[252]

Anti-science attitudes

While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are skeptical about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)^[253] or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).^[254] Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:^[255]

• Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.
• Some marginalized social groups hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in unethical experiments.^[256]
• Messages from scientists may contradict deeply-held existing beliefs or morals.
• The delivery of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted to a recipient’s learning style.

Anti-science attitudes seem to be often caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.^[257] That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardize their social status.^[258]

Politics

Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests.^[260] Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasizes the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence.^[261] Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence.^[262] Examples of issues that have involved the politicization of science include the global warming controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco.^[262][263]

See also

• List of scientific occupations
• List of years in science

Notes

References

External links

• Media related to Science at Wikimedia Commons

Пожалуйста, переведите этот текст SCIENCE The word «science» comes from the Latin word «scientia», which means «knowledge».

Scientists make observations and collect facts in field they work in.

Then they arrange facts orderly and try to express the connection between the facts and try to work out theories.

Then they have to prove the facts or theory correct and make sufficient and sound evidence.

So scientific knowledge is always growing and improving.

Science has great influence on our life.

It provides with base of modern technology, materials, sources of power and so on.

Modern science and technology have changed our life in many different ways.

During the present century our life changed greatly.

Thanks to radio and television we can do a great number of jobs ; it was radio and TV that made it possible to photograph the dark side of the moon and to talk with the first cosmonaut while he was orbiting the Earth.

1. Read the text, translate it and do some exercises below.

The word “science” comes from the Latin word “scientia”, which means “knowledge”. Science covers the broad field of knowledge that deals with facts and the relationship among these facts.

Scientists study a wide variety of subjects. Some scientists search for clues to the origin of the Universe and examine the structure of the cells of living plants and animals. Other researches investigate why we act the way we do, or try to solve complicated mathematical problems.

Scientists use systematic methods of study to make observations and collect facts. They develop theories that help them order and unity facts. Scientific theories consist of general principals or laws that attempt to explain how and why something happens or happened. A theory is considered to become a part of scientific knowledge if it has been tested experimentally and proved to be true.

Scientific study can be divided into two major groups: sciences and humanities. They also have other names such as STEM, the arts and so on. As science, knowledge grew and became more complicated. Many new fields of science appeared. At the same time, the boundaries between scientific fields became less clear. Numerous areas of science overlap each other and it is often hard to tell where one science ends and another begins. All sciences are closely interconnected.

Science has great influence on our life. It provides the basis of modern technology – the tools and machines that make our life and work easier. The discoveries and inventions of scientists also help shape our view about ourselves and our place in the Universe.

a. Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph:

1) The fields of scientific research.

2) Different groups of sciences.

3) The importance of science.

4) What is science?

5) Methods of scientific research.

b. Ask questions to the following sentences.

1. The word “science” comes from the Latin word “scientia”.

2. Scientists use systematic methods of study to make observations and collect facts.

3. Scientific study can be divided into three major groups: the natural.

4. Scientists use systematic methods of study to make observations and collect facts

5. Science has great influence on our life.

c. Divide the following disciplines into two groups:

anatomy literary criticism physics chemistry archaeology history education science psychology art criticism ecology logic economics astronomy zoology sociology geography mathematics jurisprudence programming linguistics geology biology botany study of language and literature medicine
sciences	humanities

2. No matter which field a particular science belongs to, they all use the same basic terminological apparatus. Examine the table that lists the commonly misused word pairs about science and do the exercise below.

artificial ― искусственный	false ― неправильный, ложный
natural ― естественный, природный	physical ― физический, материальный
true ― правдивый, достоверный	accurate ― точный
a method ― метод, способ (предполагает соблюдение определенных правил)	a way ― способ
an engine ― двигатель	a machine ― механизм, машина	a motor ― двигатель (чаще всего электрический)
an aim ― намерение, цель	a cause ― причина (негативный фактор, вызывающий определенные последствия)	a reason ― повод
to estimate ― оценивать	to calculate ― подсчитывать
electric ― электрический	electronic ― электронный
to invent ― изобретать	to discover ― совершать открытие (обнаружить то, что уже существовало)
research ― исследование	an experiment ― опыт, эксперимент
progress ― прогресс, развитие	development ― развитие
modern ― современный	new ― новый
an industry ― промышленность	a factory ― завод
an award ― официальная награда (победитель, как правило, выбирается жюри или комитетом)	a reward ― награда за проделанную работу, поощрение
to take place ― проводиться, происходить (заранее планируемые события)	to occur ― происходить (непредвиденное событие)

Choose the proper word:

aim discover research way true invent accurate methods experiment reason

1. It’s … that Earth has square form.

2. What’s the best … to learn a language?

3. The scientists were furious, and with … .

4. Students managed to … math concepts on their own.

5. The book gives an … description of each mineral.

6. It’s better to do some … before you buy a car. 

7. The behaviour of wild animals was verified by … .

8. My teacher uses traditional teaching … .

9. Alexander Graham Bell is the man who … the telephone.

10. The … of the research is to find new water sources.

3. Read the text, translate it and do some exercises below.

As science, knowledge grew and became more complicated. Many new fields of science appeared. At the same time, the boundaries between scientific fields became less clear. Numerous areas of science overlap each other and it is often hard to tell where one science ends and another begins. All sciences are closely interconnected.

Digital humanities is a new direction in science, which began to develop especially actively in the last 5 years. It is a hybrid of the STEM and the humanities. But not in the sense that the humanities have suddenly decided to do physics. The main word here is still humanities, that is, the classical humanities – philology, history, philosophy, cultural studies. It is only proposed to study them in a new way – by ceasing to ignore the fact that the world is turning into digital.

Previously, researchers had dozens, hundreds, thousands of books on hand – today we are talking about millions. How can we study them if thousands of years are not enough to read them? Previously, tens of thousands of manuscripts were gathering dust in archives and were available only to a select few – now they are digitized, supplied with “smart” markup and intelligent search tools. How can we analyze and draw conclusions from this wealth of data? Previously, cartography was the lot of the elite – now everyone can place their coordinates on the interactive globe. How can you use Google Maps to learn new things about trade in the ancient world, the spread of plague in medieval Europe or air travel in the post-war USSR? All these questions forced humanitarian researchers to master skills and knowledge completely uncharacteristic for them – data analysis, data science, automatic text mining, network theory, geoinformatics. This is how “digital humanities” appeared.

And it is almost impossible to give an exhaustive definition of Digital Humanities. http://whatisdigitalhumanities.com/ has 817 different options – you can just refresh the page in your browser and read one by one. By the way, my favorite definition is: “DH is taking tools built by warmongers, oil companies, spy agencies & investment bankers and using them to study literature, philosophy, culture and the classics”.

In fact, formal studies of humanitarian objects have a rich history in the 20th century – poetry, historical databases, and stylometry. For linguists, however, working with text corpora and statistical data has long become mainstream. In fact, a new heyday of interest in exact methods in the humanities is associated with the emergence of new opportunities – the availability of electronic texts, the development of methods for their automatic analysis, new storage and processing capacities, new tools for working with data.

a. Here are the statements of scholars about what they do. Using the text, name the methods of DH they use in their work.

I create interactive maps of the correspondence of the French Enlightened.
	I measure anthropological material from paleontological and archaeological sites, and then create 3D portraits of people who lived millennia ago.
I build social networks of great poets using their letters and diaries.
	I process printed texts and then upload them into a system, which then allows other linguists to search for words, phrases, and whole sentences in different parameters.
I study medieval chronicles and mark conquest campaigns, trade ties between states and the spread of deadly diseases on Google maps.

b. The 20th century was marked by the emergence of many new disciplines at the intersection of two and sometimes three traditional ones. Below are the names of traditional sciences and humanities, make up the names of new ones.

geography linguistics informatics biology physics sociology geography nutritiology geology genetic engineering ethnology chemistry ecology astronomy

Example: A science studying the relationship between human genome, nutrition and health

genetic + nutritiology = nutrigenomics

1. A field of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and culture and how different ethnic groups perceive the world__________________________________________________________

2. The study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms_____________________

3. A science that employs the methods and principles of physics in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena__________________________________________________________________________

4. The direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using biotechnology_______________________

5. The application of biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology____________________________________________

6. A subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis______________________________________________________________________________

7. The study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping_________________________________________________________

8. A descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society’s effect on language________________________________________________________________________

9. The scientific study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time_______________________________________________________________________________

10. An interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena______________________________________________________________

4. New inventions are appearing every day to make our lives easier, longer, warmer, speedier and so on.

Some of them are the result of the work of fundamental or applied science; some are performed unexpectedly by completely ordinary people.

a. Read about inventions and name their scientific authors.

Albert Einstein Isaac Newton Thomas Newcomen Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen Louis Pasteur Alexander Fleming Michael Faraday James Watt I-Xing Thomas Severi Henry Bigelow Dmitry Mendeleev

— There is still a lot of controversy as to who can be considered the first mechanical watch. However, this groundbreaking discovery allowed people to measure time.

— Penicillin (the first antibiotic) was discovered in 1928. If this had not happened, then people would probably still die from things like stomach ulcers, tooth abscesses, tonsillitis and scarlet fever, staphylococcal infection, leptospirosis, etc.

— Rough forms of anesthesia such as opium, mandrake, and alcohol were used as early as 70 AD. But it wasn’t until 1847 that an American surgeon determined that ether and chloroform could be anesthetics, thereby making painful surgery much more bearable.

— The fateful discovery of electricity is usually associated with the name of one scientist, although this phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks. But he can rightfully be considered the father of modern power grids and electrical appliances, because he discovered the basic principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. During his experiments, he also created the first generator that produces electricity.

— Pasteurization was discovered in the 1860s. It is a heat treatment process that destroys pathogens in certain foods and beverages such as wine, beer, and milk. This discovery had a huge impact on public health.

— This is a well-known story — the famous English mathematician and physicist discovered the force of gravity after an apple fell on his head in 1664. His discovery explains why things fall to earth and why planets revolve around the sun.

— It is common knowledge that modern civilization grew thanks to the Industrial Revolution, the main cause of which was the steam engine. In fact, this engine was not invented overnight, but rather it was gradually developed over about a hundred years thanks to 3 British inventors.

— In 1869, a Russian chemist, while studying the atomic weights of elements, noticed that chemical elements can be formed into groups with similar properties. As a result, he managed to create the first periodic table, which became one of the most important discoveries in the field of chemistry.

— The German physicist discovered X-rays in 1895 when he was studying the phenomena that accompany the passage of electric current through extremely low pressure gas. For this groundbreaking discovery, he was awarded the first-ever Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.

— Two related theories – special relativity and general relativity – were published in 1905. They transformed theoretical physics and astronomy in the 20th century, replacing Newton’s 200-year-old theory of mechanics. This theory has become the basis for much of modern science.

b. This list of inventions is of course not exhaustive. Choose an invention that was not mentioned in the exercise and make a short presentation about it.

c. Watch some TED-videos (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Al-30Z-aH8M&list=PL006C004839E8F1C1) about inventions that make our everyday life easier and answer the questions:

1. What is the relationship between a treadmill and the English Penetration System?

2. How were the trains in the first London Tube put underground?

3. If Teflon is repellent, how is it used to coat pans, trays and cooking sheets?

4. Why were the first bras not popular?

5. How did someone’s awkwardness help invent the patch?

5. For a long time, women were deprived of the opportunity to receive a full-fledged education and pursue a scientific career. If any of them made significant scientific discoveries, they were declared the product of the work of male scientists. But some women still managed to write themselves in the history of science. Watch some TED-videos about them (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1mwZrVJ-TI; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w6JFRi0Qm_s&t=2s; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BIP0lYrdirI&list=PL006C004839E8F1C1&index=26). Then read an article on modern women scientists (https://www.adme.ru/zhizn-nauka/11-zhenschin-uchenyh-kotorye-rushat-stereotip-o-tom-chto-krasota-i-um-nesovmestimy-2124515/?utm_source=AdMe_web&utm_medium=article&utm_campaign=share_image&utm_content=Facebook&image=6790065; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wIBCoxuOJ0) and use this services (https://biteable.com/; https://www.powtoon.com/) to create short videos about their scientific careers and the discoveries they made.

6. Some of the most important for humankind discoveries remained unnamed, since they were made in prehistoric times.

They include:

-the invention of tools,

-the ability to produce and maintain fire, which led to

-the heat treatment of food and

-the invention of ceramics,

the domestication of animals and plants,

the invention of the wheel.

Use data from Wikipedia or any other source and place these inventions on a timeline.

2.6 bln year ago IV-III millennium BC

7

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• The word science comes from the Latin word scire, meaning “to know”

         
The
word “science” comes from the Latin word “scientia”, which
means “knowledge”. Scientists make observations and collect facts
in field they work in. Then they arrange facts orderly and try to
express the connection between the facts and try to work out
theories. Then they have to prove the facts or theory correct and
make sufficient and sound evidence. So scientific knowledge is always
growing and improving.

         
Science
has great influence on our life. It provides with base of modern
technology, materials, and sources of power and so on. Modern science
and technology have changed our life in many different ways. During
the present century our life changed greatly. Thanks to radio and
television we can do a great number of jobs; it was radio and TV that
made it possible to photograph the dark side of the moon and to talk
with the first cosmonaut while he was orbiting the Earth. On of the
wonders of our age is the “electronic brain”, or giant
calculating machine, which can to some extent duplicate human senses.
The desk computer is expected to function as your personal librarian,
to carry out simple optimization computations, to control your budget
or diet, play several hundred games, etc. further development of the
computer is believed to lead to a situation in which most of the
knowledge accepted by mankind will be stored in the computers and
made accessible to anyone with the home computers. It is natural that
the advent of minicomputers with extensive memories and possibilities
will lead to a new higher level in information culture. Among other
things, we shall be able to organize educational process in the
country’s colleges and universities and also in the system of
school education on a new basic. Knowledge is the most valuable
wealth, and minicomputers will help us to make it accessible for
everyone. Agricultural scientists develop better varieties of plants.
The development of antibiotics and other drugs has helped to control
many diseases. Studies in anatomy and physiology have let to amazing
surgical operations and the inventions of lifesaving machines, that
can do the work of such organs as heart, lungs and so on. Nuclear
fission when a tremendous amount if energy is setting free is very
important discovery.

         
Science
improved the living standards, communications, promoted contact
between people and government, knowledge and culture, made it
possible to discover and develop new sources of energy, made it
possible to prolong man’s life. But science also has some
disadvantages. It produces mass culture: painting, music, literature.
Some scientific inventions increase the ecological problems, provide
with new diseases like AIDS, increased the danger of violent death.

         
The
greatest scientists were very persistent and were sure in their
success. Even without any serious education they made great
inventions. Even during times of disappointing experiments and
unacknowledgement by other scientists, they didn’t give up and went
on working out theories. Also they were always  ready to begin
everything from the very beginning. They worked a lot, and this work
wasn’t for money.

         
The
aim, the main object of the greatest scientists of all times was
always to find out the troth and no personal prejudices can be
allowed. So the science grows and prospers and is the engine of
progress.

         
The
problem of learning languages very important today. Foreign languages
are socially demanded especially at the present time when the
progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of
knowledge and has contributed to an overflow of information. The
total knowledge of mankind is known to double every seven years.
Foreign languages are needed as the main and the most efficient means
of information exchange of the people of our planet.

         
Today
English is the language of the world. Over 300 million people speak
it as mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great
Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. 
English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic,
Canada, the South African Republic. As the second language it is used
in the former British and  US colonies.

         
It
is not only the national or the official language of some thirty
states which represents different cultures, but it is also the major
international language for communication in such areas as science,
technology, business and mass entertainment. English is one of the
official languages of the United Nations Organization and other
political organizations. It is the language of literature, education,
modern music, international tourism.

         
Russia
is integrating into the world community and the problem of learning
English for the purpose of communication is especially urgent today.

         
So
far there is no universal or ideal method of learning languages.
Everybody has his own way. Sometimes it is boring to study grammar or
to learn new words. But it is well known that reading books in the
original, listening to BBC news and English speaking singers,
visiting an English speaking country, communicating with the English
speaking people will help a lot.

         
 When
learning a foreign language you learn the culture and history of the
native speakers. 

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Presentation on theme: «The word science comes from the Latin word scire, meaning “to know”»— Presentation transcript:

1

The word science comes from the Latin word scire, meaning “to know”
Introduction to Environmental Science Chapter 2 – Tools of Environmental Science The word science comes from the Latin word scire, meaning “to know”

2

Goals and Objectives Describe steps that scientists use to solve problems in our environment Describe how statistics and models are used to solve problems Use a simple environmental decision-making model

3

What Science IS and IS NOT
Science is an organized way of studying the natural world, and the knowledge gained from such studies (experimental method) Science assumes that the natural world functions in accordance with rules that do not change. Science does NOT deal with the supernatural Science relies on evidence from measurements and observations Scientific ideas are “supported” not “proven,” and “accepted” not “believed in”

4

How Science Works In order to satisfy our curiosity about why things are the way they are and about how things happen the way they do, we must… Make Observations: using our senses and tools to gather information What are some tools a scientist may use?

5

Observations Make some observations about this photo

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Make some observations

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Observation

8

Observation

9

Hypothesis and Predicting
A testable explanation of an observation that can lead to further investigation A logical statement about what will happen if the hypothesis is correct Can you give an example?

10

Hypothesis

11

Hypothesis

12

Hypothesis Cholera is caused by people drinking contaminated water.
Which pump appears to be causing the 1854 London Cholera outbreak? Spot Map See patterns in data How could you test this hypothesis?

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Collecting Data To study the hypothesis data are collected and analyzed (experiment) Conclusions are drawn Results must be repeatable Results are communicated Subject to peer review

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Correlation Used when experimentation is impossible or unethical
Reliable association between 2 or more events Not necessarily cause-and-effect relationship

15

Collecting Data

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Collecting Data

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Drawing Conclusions

18

Repeating Experiments

19

Communicating Results

20

Community Analysis and Feedback – Peer Review
Present their work and get feedback from other researchers at conferences Write papers about their study Submit papers for publication in a journal

21

Habits of a Scientist Curiosity Skepticism Openness to New Ideas
Intellectual Honesty Imagination and Creativity

22

What is going on here? 1999 Earthquakes in yellow

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How can we use scientific methods to study our impacts on the environment?

25

Environmental ethics is the application of ethical standards to the relationship between humans and the environment. Anthropocentrism: Humans and human welfare most important Biocentrism: All living things have value; some may be more important than others Ecocentrism: Well-being of a species or community more important than that of an individual

26

Statistics & Models Statistics is the collection and classification of data that are in the form of numbers.

27

Probability, Sample & Risk
Probability – the chance that something will happen Sample – group of individuals or events chosen to represent the population Risk – probability of an unwanted outcome

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Thinking About Risk The most important risk we consider is the risk of death. Most people overestimate the risk of dying from sensational causes, such as plane crashes, but underestimate the risk from common causes, such as smoking. Likewise, most citizens overestimate the risk of sensational environmental problems and underestimate the risk of ordinary ones.

29

Models Physical – 3d models you can touch
Graphical – used to show things (maps, charts) Conceptual – verbal or graphical explanation of how a system works or is organized Mathematical – equations that represent the way a system or process works

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Physical Model

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Graphical Model

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Conceptual Model

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What does this model show us about how mercury gets to humans?

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Mathematical Model I = PAT is the lettering of a formula put forward to describe the impact of human activity on the environment I = P × A × T In words: Human Impact (I) on the environment equals the product of P= Population, A= Affluence, T= Technology This describes how our growing population, affluence, and technology contribute toward our environmental impact.

35

Making Informed Decisions
Decision Making Model

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Making Informed Decisions

English term or phrase: The word “science” comes from the latin word “scientia”, which means “knowledge”

The word “science” comes from the latin word “scientia”, which means “knowledge”. Scientists make observations and collect facts in field they work in. Then they arrange facts ordelly and try to express the connaction between the facts and try to work out theories. Then they have to prove the facts or theory correct and make sufficient and sound evidence. So sientific knowledge is always growing and improving. Science has great influence on our life. It provides with base of modern technology, materials, sources of power and so on. Modern science and technology have changed our life in many different ways. During the present century our life changed greatly. Thanks to radio and television we can do a great number of jobs; it was radio and TV that made it possible to photograph the dark side of the moon and to talk with the first cosmonaut while he was orbiting the Earth. On of the wonders og our age is the “electronic brain”, or giant calculating mashine, which can to some extent duplicste human sences. The desk computer is expected to function as your personal librarian, to carry out simple optimization computations, to control your budget or diet, play several hundred games, etc. further development of the computer is bellieved to lead to a situation in which most of the knowledge accepted by mankind will be stored in the computers and made accessible to anyone with the home computers. It is natural that the advent of minicomputers with extensive memories and possibilities will lead to a new higher level in information culture. Among other things, we shall be able to organise educational process in the country’s colleges and universities and also in the system of school education on a new basic. Knowledge is the most valuable wealth, and minicomputers will help us to make it accessible for everyone. Agrycultiral sientists develop better varietives of plants. The development of antibiotics and other drugs has helped to control many diseases. Studies in anatomy and physiology have let to amazing surgical operations and the inventions of lifesaving mashines, that can do the work of such organs as heart, lungs and so on. Nuclear fission when a tremendous amount if energy is setting free is very important discovery. Science improved the living standarts, communications, promoted contact between people and government, knowledge and culture, made it possible to discover and develop new sources of energy, made it possible to prolong man’s life. But science also has some disadvantages. It produces mass culture: painting, music, literature. Some scientific inventions increase the ecological problems, provide with new diseases like AIDS, increased the danger of violent death. The greatest scientists were very persistent and were sure in their success. Even without any serious education they made great inventions. Even during times of disappointing experiments and unacknowledgement by other scientists, they didn’t give up and went on working out theories. Also they were always ready to begin everything from the very beginning. They worked a lot, and this work wasn’t for money. The aim, the main object of the greatest scientists of all times was always to find out the trith and no personal prejudices can be allowed. So the science grows and prospers and is the engine of progress. The problem of learning languages very important today. Foreign languages are socially demanded especially at the present time when the progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of knowledge and has contributed to an overflow of information. The total knowledge of mankind is known to double every seven years. Foreign languages are needed as the main and the most efficient means of information exchange of the people of our planet. Today English is the language of the world. Over 300 million people speak it as mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, the South African Republic. As the second language it is used in the former British and US colonies. It is not only the national or the official language of some thirty states which represents different cultures, but it is also the major international language for communication in such areas as science, technology, business and mass entertainment. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organisation and other political organisations. It is the language of literature, education, modern music, international tourism. Russia is integrating into the world community and the problem of learning English for the purpose of communication is especially urgent today. So far there is no universal or ideal method of learning languages. Everybody has his own way. Sometimes it is boring to study grammar or to learn new words. But it is well known that reading books in the original, listening to BBC news and English speaking singers, visiting an English speaking country, communicating with the English speaking people will help a lot. When learning a foreign language you learn the culture and history of the native speakers.

Английское слово “science” происходит от латинского слова “scientia”, которое означает “знание”

Explanation: . ————————————————— Note added at 2002-12-27 13:09:40 (GMT) ————————————————— Если Ваш вопрос, Аскер, состоял именно в этом, то я перевела фразу в заголовке. Мы часто сетуем, что Аскеры дают мало контекста или вообще не дают. А Вы наоборот — дали много контекста. Но это ничего — в таком деле лучше много, чем мало. С наступающим Новым годом, Алексей!

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