The word one in different languages

Languages
differ not only in their phonological and grammatical systems. Their
systems of meaning are also different. As J. С
Catford puts it, «Meanings, in our view, is a property of a
language. An S.L. (Source Language) text has an S.L. MEANING, and a
T.L.
(Target Language) text has a T.L. meaning». (J.C. Catford A
Linguistic Theory of Translation, L.-1965* p.35) Hence it follows
that semantic structures of correlated words of the Source Language
and the Target Language cannot be co-extensive, can never «cover
each
other». A careful analysis invariably shows that semantic
relationship between correlated words, especially polysemantic words,
is
very complex.

Therefore
it seems to be necessary first to consider here the three types of
lexical meaning which can be distinguished and are to be rendered
in translation: referential,
emotive
and stylistic.

Referential
meaning
(also called logical, denotative) has direct reference to things or
phenomena of objective reality, naming abstract notions
and processes as well. It is also necessary to distinguish between
primary and secondary referential meaning.

Emotive
meaning,
unlike referential meaning, has reference not directly to things or
phenomena of objective reality but to the feelings and
emotions, associated with them. It is a connotative meaning created
by connotations raised in the mind of the speaker and reader; it is
inherent in a definite group of words even when they are taken out of
context.

Stylistic
meaning
is based on stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary and is
formed by stylistic connotations. Stylistic and emotive
meanings are closely connected. As a rule, stylistically coloured
words, i.e., words belonging to certain stylistic strata, except the
neutral, possess a considerable element of emotive meaning. The
slang-words «mug», «phiz» are undoubtedly more
expressive than
their neutral counterpart «face» and have a pejorative
emotive meaning. In addition to the emotive and stylistic meanings,
proper to
the word as a linguistic unit, some emotive connotations may be
acquired in the context. Both are to be rendered in translation.

1. Referential Meaning and Its Rendering in Translation

Causes
of lexical transformations in the rendering of referential meaning

1. Different
   vision
   of objects of reality and different
   usage;

2. Different
   semantic structure
   of a word in the source language and the target-language;

3. Different
   valency
   or collocabilitv.

1. Different vision and usage

One and the same object of
reality can be seen by different languages in different aspects. This
is reflected in different usage, e.g.

Hot
milk with skin
on it — Горячее
молоко
с
пенкой.

English singles out the outer
covering and Russian the boiling form.

School-leavers
— выпускники
школы

In
English teenagers leave
the school while in Russian the school «releases» them into
the world.

The
city is built on terraces rising
from the lake (The Times, 1957) — Город
построен
на
террасах,
спускавшихся
к
озеру.
Не
folded his
arms across
his chest, crossed
his knees
(Taylor Caldwell) — Он
сложил
руки
на
груди,
положил
ногу
на
ногу.

This
factor presents less difficulty for the translator into Russian than
for the translator into English. The difficulty arises when such
words
are used figuratively as part of some lexical stylistic device.

«Instant
history, like instant coffee,
can sometimes be remarkably palatable, at least it is in this memoir
by a former White House aide who
sees L.B.J. as «an extraordinary gifted President who was the
wrong man from the wrong place at the wrong time under the wrong
circumstance», (Time, 1969). «Современная
история, как и такой же современный
продукт, как растворимый кофе, иногда
бывает удивительно приятна, по крайней
мере это так в рецензируемых мемуарах
бывшего помощника президента, который
характеризует Джонсона как «удивительно
способного президента, который был
неподходящим человеком, родом из
неподходящего места, в неподходящее
время, при неподходящих обстоятельствах».

То
render the simile the translator is forced to resort to an addition:
такой
современный
продукт,
как…

Sometimes,
due to a different vision the meaning of a word in the
source-language is wider and less differentiated and corresponds to
two or more correlated words in the target language. E.g. «Blue»
corresponds to two Russian words: синий,
голубой.

The
Russian equivalents of «purple» are «пурпурный,
фиолетовый,
синий».
The choice of the equivalent depends on the linguistic or
extra-linguistic context: purple robes of Roman emperors — пурпурные
одеяния
римских
императоров;
purple ink — фиолетовые
чернила;
purple shades — синие
тени.

2.
Divergences
in the Semantic Structure

Divergence
in the semantic structure is one of the primary causes of lexical
transformations. These divergences are connected with peculiar
features of a word or a group of words. Even words, which seem to
have the same meaning in the source language and the target
language are not identical. Most often primary meanings of such words
coincide while their derivative meanings do not. «Semantic
correlation between two languages is not to be interpreted as
semantic identity. Due to complexity of semantic structure
«one-to-one» correspondence between the semantic structure
of correlated polysemantic words in the S.L. and T.L. is scarcely
possible.

Not
infrequently similar meanings of Russian and English words differ in
some components. This phenomenon is usually reflected
in dictionaries where more than one Russian equivalent is listed
under the same meaning of the English word. For example, the
primary and the secondary meanings of the adjective «gloomy»
are rendered in English-Russian dictionaries by two Russian words: 1)
тёмный,
мрачный
2) мрачный,
унылый.
The use of two Russian equivalents proves that the semantic volume of
the English meaning is wider and requires two Russian words for an
adequate rendering.

The
analysis of the polysemantic word «mellow» shows that it
can apply to a variety of objects and notions: fruit, wine, soil,
voice, man.
Each sphere of its application corresponds to a different derivative
meaning and each meaning has two or more Russian equivalents.

1.
спелый, мягкий, сладкий, сочный /о
фруктах/; 2. а. выдержанный, старый; б.
приятный на вкус/о вине/; 3. подобревший,
смягчившийся
с возрастом /о человеке/; 4. мягкий, сочный,
густой /о голосе и красках/; 5. а) рыхлый;
б) плодородный, жирный /о
почве/; 6. разгов.
весёлый,
подвыпивший. /БАРС/

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Heard of hygge? How about fika or abbiocco? It appears we are familiar with some words in different languages but not others.

Why do some words in different languages just happen to end up in our everyday use and stay there? Who knows, but that’s not to say we can’t learn others that are equally expressive.

I love the English language. So I have to say that it pains me to admit that sometimes, English lacks descriptive adjectives, nouns, or verbs. Here’s one example; you know that lovely sleepy feeling you get after you’ve eaten a full meal? The Italians call that ‘abbiocco’, the desire to nap when you’ve finished a big dinner.

So, in the interests of knowledge, I’m putting my personal pain aside to find those perfect words in different languages that sum up emotions and situations. Let’s hope that some of the following become as popular as hygge!

20 Untranslatable Words in Different Languages

1. Anake (Greek)

This word describes a “binding force or necessity which the classical Greeks knew could not be resisted”. Or, in other words, a powerful force that leads us to our soulmate.

2. Craic (Irish)

This is a term for a great laugh or a good time with other people. You can use it as a noun to describe the fun you had, or to ask ‘Where’s the craic tonight?’

3. Fika (Swedish)

Fika today at 10 am anyone? Don’t worry, it’s nothing painful. Fika is a Swedish word for a scheduled coffee break. It happens twice a day and allows you to ‘pause and reconnect’.

4. Utepils (Norwegian)

Who fancies utepils after work today? The English would have to use far more words than necessary to convey this word. It means going for a nice drink outside after a hard day at work. Those clever Norwegians only have to mention ‘utepils’ and the coats are already on.

5. Treppenwitz (German)

Have you ever been caught with a severe bout of ‘Treppenwitz’? Translated from German it means staircase joke. It represents the situations where you think of a witty response but far too late to use it. Hence, you are on the staircase on your way out when you come up with your funny retort.

6. Schnapsidee (German)

This is another German word that literally translated into English means ‘Schnapps Idea’. Or, in other words, any kind of silly plan one comes up with when drunk.

7. Saudade (Portuguese)

Saudade is a beautiful word of Portuguese origins that is quite difficult to fully explain. It’s the love we feel when a person has gone. The precious memories we have that evoke happiness and joy, but also the emptiness of knowing that person is gone forever.

It can also be used to describe a feeling of loss for something we never had, like unrequited love.

8. Desenrascanco (Portuguese)

This is another Portuguese word and loosely originates from the words ‘des’ which means “un” and ‘enrascar’ meaning “to entangle.” The literal translation is to cleverly disentangle oneself from a bad situation, but, with the ability to use one’s imagination in ingenious ways.

9. Sitzfleisch (German)

The literal translation of this German word is ‘sit flesh’. Germans also translate this word as ‘sit meat’ and ‘butt flesh’. However, the meaning of the word is the ability to endure a boring task whilst sitting.

10. Sitzpinkler (German)

Another German word beginning with ‘sitz’, or sit. But this one is a derogatory term for a man who sits down when he has a pee.

11. Gigil (Philippines)

Tagalog is a language spoken in the Phillippines. In Tagalog, gigil means an extreme urge to hug and squeeze someone. It works as a positive emotion, for example, “That baby is so adorable, I just want to squeeze her!” or a negative one, “You’re so irritating I could squeeze some sense into you!”

12. Tampo (Philippines)

No, it’s not what you think. Tampo is a pretend tantrum, thrown in order to elicit an apology from someone. To throw a good tampo try stamping your feet, pouting your lips and crossing your arms.

13. Cafune (Portuguese)

There’s something very relaxing about a spot of cafune. This is a Portuguese word and it means caressing or tenderly running your fingers through your loved one’s hair. You can also use this word for cats and dogs.

14. Viitsima (Estonian)

Have you ever felt like you just can’t be bothered to do anything? That feeling of laziness and lethargy where you have no interest and don’t want to make an effort? Viitsima is Estonian for this emotion.

15. Gezelligheid (Dutch)

Gezelligheid is a Dutch word and has a similar meaning to hygge. It is the warm, cozy, pleasant feeling of being at home, surrounded by good friends and family.

16. Dar un toque (Spanish)

Ever called a mobile and then quickly cut off the call so that the other person will call you back, thus saving you money? Dar un toque, or ‘give a touch’ is Spanish and used for all kinds of fast communications, such as a quick ‘thinking of you’, ‘I’m home safely’, or ‘I’m on my way’.

17. Мерзлячка (Russian)

Some words in different languages are definitely harder to pronounce than others. But if you know someone that hates the cold, you might want to learn this word. In Russian, a ‘Merzlyachka’ is usually a female who is extremely sensitive to cold environments and does not tolerate freezing temperatures.

18. Aktivansteher (German)

How good are you at spotting the right queue to join? If you’re anything like me, you’ll get stuck behind the person that ends up with a problem and takes ages to sort it out.

However, the aktivansteher is a person with an uncanny skill of spotting the fastest queue. They move with zen-like efficiency and are gone before we have even started taking our shopping out of our trollies.

19. Hüftgold (German)

I realize that in this list of words in different languages, there are many German words that made the cut. But there were just so many amazing ones I couldn’t resist.

For example, people that love their food in Germany are celebrated. As a result, the extra weight people carry on their hips is known as Hüftgold, or ‘hip gold’.

20. Wortschatz (German)

My final example and my favorite in this list of words in different languages is Wortschatz. It is German, the literal meaning is ‘word treasure’ and it is the German word for vocabulary.

References:

1. https://thoughtcatalog.com
2. https://www.scientificamerican.com

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International Words in the Russian and English Languages

Introduction

Expanding global contacts and the development of mass media, especially the Internet, result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary. International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture.

The research question:to find out the percentage of international words used in the Lifestyle-Politics category via analysis of the news article.

The objectives of this research are:

to identify the difference between internationalisms and cognates

to study the origin of some international words

to design an educational wall poster on the top ten words in the Lifestyle-Politics category.

Topicality of the project

The percentage of internationalisms in the news articles and in the scientific texts is rather high, e.g. according to some linguists, in the Russian vocabulary there are more than 10 per cent of international words. They are the most easily recognizable and perceived when reading these kinds of texts. The study of international words and their origin can be very useful for those who are interested in politics and science.

Definitions

Internationalism – or international word in linguistics is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in ‘several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source’ [http://en.academic.ru/].

Cognate — A word either descended from the same base word of the same ancestor language as the given word, or strongly believed to be a regular reflex of the same reconstructed root of proto-language as the given word [ http://en.wiktionary.org/ ].

Background information

One of the first linguists to pay attention to the existence of some similar words in European languages was Antoine Meillet, a French linguist of the early 20th century, one of the most influential comparative linguists of his time. He steadily emphasized that any attempt to account for linguistic change must recognize that language is a social phenomenon. He supported the use of an international auxiliary language and at the beginning of the 20h century he studied the origin of some international words. A lot of internationalisms were considered to have originated from Latin and Greek.

The cross-linguistic influence was the subject of investigation of Lev Shcherba, a Russian linguist and lexicographer specializing in phonetics and phonology.

Uriel Weinreich, a Polish-American linguist, first noted that learners of second languages consider linguistic forms from their first language equal to forms in the target language. However, the essential inequality of these forms leads to speech which the native speakers of the target language consider unequal.

Einar Haugen, Armin Schwegler, А.А. Bukov, L.A. Tarasova and some other linguists made a contribution to the study of cross-linguistic influence.

The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international word stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc.

Nowadays a great number of English words are to be found among the internationalisms e.g. bank, business, consult, design, disk, drive, hit, man, market, media, net, style, test etc. The English vocabulary penetrates into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, volley-ball, basketball, cricket, golf, time in different parts of the world.It is due to the prestigious of the English language and its status of a global language.

Internationalisms vs Cognates

In the 1950^th it was decided to differentiate the internationalisms and the cognates. It was stated that the word could be described as international if:

no fewer than three languages use it.

its spelling and pronunciation is completely or partly similar in different languages so that the word is understandable between the different languages.

its meaning is the same in different languages.

So, Internationalism – or international word in linguistics is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in ‘several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source’ [http://en.academic.ru/].

European internationalisms originate primarily from Latin or Greek, but from other languages as well. Many non-European words have also become international, often by the way of one or more European languages.

Internationalisms often spread together with the innovations they designate. Accordingly, there are semantic fields of internationalisms that are dominated by specific languages, e.g. the computing vocabulary which is mainly English with internationalisms such as computer, disk, spam. New inventions, political institutions, food stuffs, leisure activities, science, and technological advances have all generated new lexemes and continue doing it.

Internationalisms are often spread by speakers of one language living in geographical regions where other languages are spoken.

In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term

derives from the Latin cognatus (blood relative).

Cognates do not need to have the same meaning, which may have changed as the languages developed separately. For example, consider English starve and Dutch sterven or German sterben («to die»); these three words all derive from the same Proto-Germanic root, *sterbaną («die»). English dish and German Tisch («table»), with their flat surfaces, both come from Latin discus, but it would be a mistake to identify their later meanings.

Cognates also do not need to have obviously similar forms: e.g., English father, French père, and Armenian hayr all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr.

So, Cognate — A word either descended from the same base word of the same ancestor language as the given word, or strongly believed to be a regular reflex of the same reconstructed root of proto-language as the given word [ http://en.wiktionary.org/ ].

Analysis of the News Article

The following article is taken from the CNN official site (homepage). The underlined words can be described either as internationalisms or cognates. Some of them are proper names, geographical names or numerals.

Ukraine crisis centerstage as Obama, EU leaders meet in Belgium

By Laura Smith-Spark, CNN

March 26, 2014 — Updated 1243 GMT (2043 HKT)

(CNN)— The rapidly unfolding crisis in Ukraine is set to be the focus of talks between U.S. PresidentBarack Obama and European Union leaders Wednesday in Brussels, Belgium.

Russia’s formal annexation last week of Ukraine’s Crimea region has sparked the biggest East-West confrontation since the end of the Cold War.

Meanwhile, Moscow’s massing of troops near Ukraine’s eastern borders has worried the interim government in Kiev, as well as causing ripples of concern in other former Soviet republics that now belong to the EU and NATO.

Wednesday’s EU-U.S. summit in Brussels comes on the heels of talks on the sidelines of a nuclear security summit in The Hague, the Netherlands.

Obama will also meet with NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen while in Brussels.

Speaking at The Hague on Tuesday, Obama said Russia had a way out of tensions over the crisis: Negotiate with Kiev and be prepared to «act responsibly» and respond to international norms, such as respecting Ukraine’s territorial integrity.

If Russia doesn’t act responsibly, «there will be additional costs» that could hurt the global economy but will affect Russia most of all, Obama said.

The U.S. president said Russia’s annexation of Crimea «is not a done deal» because it’s not internationally recognized.

But he acknowledged that the Russian military controls Crimea, and said the world can make sure, through diplomacy and sanctions, that Russia pays a price.

Ukraine: We need support

Russia insists its actions are legitimate and denies having used its armed forces in Crimea, saying the troops that took control of key installations were local «self-defense» forces.

Russia also insists the government in Kiev is illegitimate because ousted President ViktorYanukovych, a close ally of Moscow’s, was forced out in an armed coup. Yanukovych’s ouster followed months of street protests sparked by his decision to ditch an EU trade deal in favor of closer ties to Russia.

In an interview Tuesday with PBS, acting Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk said Ukraine is struggling to maintain a fighting capability after it was «deliberately dismantled» under Yanukovych.

«What we need is support from the international community. We need technology and military support to overhaul the Ukrainian military and modernize — to be ready not just to fight, but to be ready to win,» Yatsenyuk said.

With an estimated 30,000 Russian troops now positioned near Ukraine’s eastern border, Yatsenyuk repeated his pledge to defend Ukrainian territory.

His government ceded Crimea without a shot to demonstrate to the world that Russia was the aggressor, he said — but if Moscow moves against another portion of Ukraine, the duty of all Ukrainians is «to protect our country,» he said. «We will fight.»

Moscow tightens grip

The United States and EU are seeking to exert pressure on Russia through a combination of sanctions and diplomatic isolation.

But Moscow has so far doggedly pursued its own course, even as Western leaders have denounced its actions as violations of Ukraine’s sovereignty and a breach of international law.

Amid heightened tensions within Ukraine, the Russian Foreign Ministry on Wednesday accused the Ukrainianborderservice of refusing to let air crew off Aeroflot jets for rest periods after landing in Ukraine. Aeroflot is the Russian national carrier.

This «breaks the international acts in compliance with flight safety requirements,» the ministry said in an online statement.

Meanwhile, Russia is tightening its grip on Crimea.

Crimea belonged to Russia until 1954 when it was given to Ukraine, which was then part of the SovietUnion. The region has a majority ethnic Russian population and other historic ties to Russia.

A large majority of its population voted in favor of joining Russia in a controversial referendum 10 days ago. Russian lawmakers in turn swiftly voted to absorb the Black Sea peninsula, where Russia has a major naval base, into the Russian Federation, and President Vladimir Putin signed the treaty into law.

In another step to cement the process, the vice-speaker of the Crimean parliament, Sergei Tsekov, was made a senator in Russia’s upper house Wednesday, Russia’s state-run ITAR-Tass news agencyreported.

At the same time, Kiev has ordered the withdrawal of Ukrainian armed forces from Crimea, citing Russian threats to the lives of military staff and their families effectively yielding the region to Moscow’s forces. They stormed one of Kiev’s last bases there Monday.

Aleksey Chaly, often referred to as Sevastopol’s new de facto mayor, announced Tuesday the dismissal of all «self-defense» teams, saying the «enemy» was now gone, as no forces loyal to Kiev remain in the city.

«I would like to draw the attention of some commanders of the self-defense units to the fact that the revolution is over,» he said in a video published on YouTube. «This week, federal agencies are being established, and we’re beginning to live by the laws of the Russian Federation.»

The G7 group of leading industrialized countries has condemned both the Crimean vote to secede and Russia’s annexation of Crimea. As a result, Russia has now been excluded from what was the G8.

Total: 859 words

Internationalisms Appendix I

	word	translation	origin	definition
1	aggressor (1)	агрессор, нападающая сторона	from late Latin aggredi — атака	a person or country that attacks another first
2	agency (1)	агентство	from medieval Latin agentia — агентство	a business or organization providing a particular service on behalf of another business, person, or group
3	annexation (3)	аннексия	from Latin annexus – соединение	the action of appropriating something, especially territory
4	action (2)	акция, действие	from Latin actio(n-) — действие	the fact or process of doing something, typically to achieve an aim
5	centre (1)	центр	from Latin centrum, from Greek kentron, центр	the point from which an activity or process is directed, or on which it is focused
6	commander (1)	командир	from Old French comandeor, from late Latin commandare — командир	a person in authority, especially over a body of troops or a military operation
7	combination (1)	комбинация	from late Latin combinatio(n-) – объединение	the process of combiningdifferent parts or qualities or the state of being combined
8	confrontation (1)	конфронтация	from medieval Latin confrontare – сопоставлять, сравнивать	a hostile or argumentative situation or meeting between opposing parties
9	control (2)	контроль	from medieval Latin contrarotulare – копиясвитка	the power to influence or direct people’s behaviour or the course of events
10	crisis (3)	кризис	from ancient Greek κρίσις — решение, поворотный пункт	any event that is expected to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, community, or whole society
11	de facto (2)	фактический, реальный	from Latin, literally ‘of fact’	in fact, whether by right or not
12	demonstrate (1)	демонстрировать	from Latin demonstrat -шоу	clearly show the existence or truth of (something) by giving proof or evidence
13	diplomatic (1)	дипломатический	from Greek diplōma, —atis– официальное письмо, грамота	of or concerning diplomacy
14	effectively (1)	эффективно	from Latin ‘efficere ‘ accomplish	In such a manner as to achieve a desired result
15	federal (1)	федеральный	from Latin foedus — договор	having or relating to a system of government in which several states form a unity but remain independent in internal affairs
16	federation (2)	федерация	from late Latin foederatio(n-), from the verb foederare ‘to ally’, from foedus ‘league’.	a group of states with a central government but independence in internal affairs
17	focus (1)	фокус	from Latin focus – очаг, центр	the centre of interest or activity
18	formal (1)	формальный	from Latin formalis – формальный	done in accordance with convention or etiquette
19	General (1)	генеральный	from Latin generalis – всеобщий	chief or principal
20	global (1)	глобальный	from Latin globus — шар	relating to the whole world; worldwide
21	group (1)	группа	from French groupe, from Italian gruppo — группа	a number of people or things that are located, gathered, or classed together
22	industrialize (1)	индустриализировать	from French industriel — промышленные	develop industries in (a country or region) on a wide scale
23	installation (1)	инсталляция	from medieval Latin installare — устанавливать	The action of installing someone or something, or the state of being installed
24	integrity (1)	интеграция — связанность	from Latin integritas – сохранность, нетронутость	the state of being whole and undivided
25	international (5)	интернациональный	from French inter – между, national — национальный	agreed on by all or many nations
26	interview (1)	интервью	from French entrevue — встреча	a meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation.
27	isolation (1)	изоляция	mid 19th century: from isolate, partly on the pattern of French isolation — изоляция	the process or fact of being apart from others
28	leader (3)	лидер	from English lead – вести за собой	the person who leads or commands a group, organization, or country
29	legitimate (2)	легитимный	from Latin legitimus — законный	conforming to the law or to rules
30	local (1)	локальный	from late Latin localis — местный	relating or restricted to a particular area or one’s neighbourhood.
31	military (4)	милитаристский, военный	from French militaire or Latin militaris — военный	relating to or characteristic of soldiers or armed forces
32	ministry (2)	министерство	from Latin ministerium – служба, должность	a government department headed by a minister
33	modernize (1)	модернизировать	from late Latin modernus — современность	adapt (something) to modern needs or habits, typically by installing modern equipment or adoptingmodern ideas or methods
34	norm (1)	норма	from Latin norma — правило	a standard or pattern, especially of social behavior
35	online (1)			available on or performed using the Internet or other computer network:
36	parliament (1)	парламент	from Old French parlement ‘speaking’, from the verb parler	the highest legislature
37	period (1)	период	via Latin from Greek periodos — период	a length or portion of time
38	President (4)	президент	from Latin praesident – ‘sitting before’ – председательствующий	the elected head of a republican state
39	Prime Minister (1)	премьер-министр	from Latin primus- первый, minister –служитель, соратник	the head of an elected government; the principal minister of a sovereign or state
40	position (1)	позиция, положение	from Old French, from Latin positio -положение	a place where someone or something is located or has been put
41	process (1)	процесс	from Latin processus ‘progression, course’ — прогресс	a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end
42	protest (1)	протест	from Latin protestari — утверждение	a statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something
43	referendum (1)	референдум	mid 19th century: from Latin, gerund ( ‘referring’) or neuter gerundive ( ‘something to be brought back or referred’) of referre	a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision
44	region (3)	регион	from Latin regio(n-) ‘ – регион	an administrative district of a city or country
45	republic (1)	республика	from Latin respublica, from res – суть+publicus – народ	a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives
46	result (1)	результат	from medieval Latin resultare — отражаться	a thing that is caused or produced by something else; a consequence or outcome
47	revolution (1)	революция	from Old French, or from late Latin revolutio(n-) — революция	a forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favour of a new system
48	sanctions (2)	санкции	from Latin sanctio(n-) — санкция	measures taken by a state to coerce another to conform to an international agreement or norms of conduct, typically in the form of restrictions on trade or official sporting participation
49	Secretary (1)	Секретарь	from late Latin secretarius – пользующийся доверием чиновник	an official in charge of a US government department
50	security (1)	секьюрити	from Latin secures – безопасный, надежный	the safety of a state or organization.
51	senator (1)	сенатор	from Latin senator	a member of a senate
52	Soviet (2)	советский	early 20th century: from Russian совет – орган государственной власти в СССР	of or concerning the former Soviet Union
53	sovereignty (1)	суверенитет	from Old French sovereinete – суверенитет	the authority of a state to govern itself or another state
54	summit (2)	саммит	From Latin summum, neuter of summus – высочайший, главный	a meeting between heads of government
55	technology (1)	технология	from Greek tekhnologia — технология	the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry
56	territory (2)	территория	from Latin territorium – территория, область	of or relating to the ownership of an area of land or sea
57	vice-speaker (1)	вице-спикер	from Old English sprecan	The presiding officer in a legislative assembly, especially the House of Commons
58	video (1)	видео	from Latin videre — видеть	the recording, reproducing, or broadcasting of moving visual images

The number of internationalisms found in the text – 58. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of international words in the text is – 86, i.e. 10 per cent.

Cognates Appendix II

	word	translation	origin	definition
1	absorb (1)	абсорбировать, впитывать, поглощать	from Latin absorbere, from ab- ‘from’ + sorbere ‘suck in’ — впитывать	take control of (a smaller or less powerful entity) and make it a part of a larger one
2	act (1)	акт, соглашение	from Latin actus ‘event, thing done’	a thing done;   a legal document codifying the result of deliberations of a committee or society or legislative body
3	base (2)	база	from Latin basis ‘base, pedestal’	A place used as a centre of operations by the armed forces or others; a headquarters
	border service	пограничная служба		a branch of State Security Service tasked with patrol of the state border
4	border (3)	бордюр, граница	from Old French bordeure — край	a line separating two countries, administrative divisions, or other areas
5	service (1)	сервис	from Latin servitium – рабство	a public department or organization run by the state
6	breach (1)	брешь, нарушение закона	from Old French breche -нарушать	an act of breaking or failing to observe a law, agreement, or code of conduct
7	cement (1)	цементировать, скреплять	from Latin caedere — высекать	to settle or establish firmly
	centerstage	основная позиция, положение		(mainly journalism) a position in which someone or something is attracting a lot of attention
8	stage (1)	стадия, период, этап	based on Latin stare – стоять. Current senses of the verb date from the early 17th century.	a scene of action or forum of debate, especially in a particular political context
9	community (1)	коммуна, сообщество	from Old French comunete — сообщество	the people of a district or country considered collectively, especially in the context of social values and responsibilities; society
10	сontroversial (1)	контроверсивный, спорный, противоречивый	from late Latin controversialis – относящийсякспору	giving rise to public disagreement
11	course (1)	курс	from Latin cursus- курс	the way in which something progresses or develops
12	ethnic (1)	этничский	from Greek ethnos ‘nation’	relating to a population subgroup with a common national or cultural tradition
13	favor (2)	фавор, протекция	from Latin favor — доброжелательность	approval, support, or liking for someone or something:
14	historic (1)	исторический	via Latin from Greek historikos	famous or important in history, or potentially so
15	mayor (1)	мэр	from the Latin adjective major ‘greater’, used as a noun in late Latin.	the head of a town
16	portion (1)	порция	from Old French porcion, from Latin portio — часть	a part of something divided between people
17	publish (1)	публиковать	from Latin publicare ‘make public	print (something) in a book or journal so as to make it generally known
18	report (1)	сообщать	from Latin reportare ‘bring back’	give a spoken or written account of something
19	respect (1)	респект, уважение	From Latin respectus – уважение	avoid harming or interfering with
20	respond (1)	отвечать, респондент –отвечающий	from Latin respondere – отвечать	say something in reply

The number of cognates found in the text – 20. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of cognates in the text is – 24, i.e. about 3 per cent.

The definitions of some Russian words were taken from the following dictionaries:

Словарь иностранных слов.- Комлев Н.Г.,2006.

РЕСПОНДЕНТ- соц. лицо, отвечающее на анкету социологического, демографического или психологического исследования.

САММИТ — полит. встреча, переговоры глав государств; встреча в верхах.

СЕКЬЮРИТИ — государственная безопасность; контрразведка (обычно об англосаксонских странах).

Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка.- Чудинов А.Н.,1910.

БОРДЮР (франц. bordure, от bord — край). Украшение по краям чего-либо.

Толковый словарь С.И. Ожегова

II. А́КЦИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Действие, предпринимаемое для достижения какой-н. цели. Дипломатическая а. Военная а.

АННЕ́КСИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Насильственное присоединение государства или части его к другому государству.

КОНФРОНТА́ЦИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Противостояние, противоборство. Политическая к.

ЛЕГИТИ́МНЫЙ, -ая, -ое (спец.). Признаваемый законом, соответствующий закону.

ЛОКА́ЛЬНЫЙ, -ая, -ое; -лен, -льна (книжн.). Местный, не выходящий за определённые пределы. Локальная война.

СА́НКЦИЯ, -и, жен. 2. Мера, принимаемая против стороны, нарушившей соглашение, договор, а также вообще та или иная мера воздействия по отношению к правонарушителю (спец.). Уголовные, административные, дисциплинарные санкции.

ФАВО́Р, -а, муж. (устар.). Покровительство, протекция (употр. теперь в нек-рых выражениях). Барский ф. Быть в фаворе у кого-н. (пользоваться чьим-н. покровительством; разг.). Он сейчас не в фаворе (разг.).

Толковый словарь Д.Н.Ушакова

БРЕШЬ, бреши, жен. 2. перен. Ущерб, ничем не возмещенная утрата, недостача (книжн.). Брешь в бюджете.

ИЗОЛЯ́ЦИЯ, изоляции, мн. нет, жен. 2. Состояние по гл. изолироваться; разобщенность с другими, изолированное положение (книжн.). Обвиняемый приговорен к лишению свободы со строгой изоляцией.

РЕСПЕ́КТ и (ирон. шутл.) решпект, респекта, муж. ( (устар.). Уважение, почтение.

СУВЕРЕНИТЕ́Т, суверенитета, мн. нет, муж. (полит.). || Независимость государства в его внутренних делах, право собственного законодательства.

Энциклопедический словарь 2009г.

ИНСТАЛЛЯ́ЦИЯ -и; ж. 2. Установочные работы, монтаж сооружений, проводка осветительной сети, сборка системы кондиционирования воздуха и т. п.

ИНТЕГРА́ЦИЯ [тэ], -и; ж. 1) Понятие, означающее состояние связанности отдельных дифференцированных частей и функций системы, организма в целое, а также процесс, ведущий к такому состоянию.

Proper names Appendix III

	word	translation	definition
1	Aeroflot (2)	Аэрофлот	the largest airline in Russia
2	Aleksey Chaly (2)	Алексей Чалый
3	Anders Fogh Rasmussen (3)	Андерс Фог Расмуссен
4	Arseniy Yatsenyuk (4)	Арсений Яценюк
5	Barack Obama (6)	Барак Обама
6	Belgium (2)	Бельгия
7	Brussels (3)	Брюссель	the capital and largest city of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union
8	Crimea (11)	Крым	the peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea that is almost completely surrounded by water
9	European Union, EU (8)	ЕС, Европейский союз	a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe
10	G7 (1)	Большая Семерка	the Group of 7 (G7) is a group consisting of the finance ministers and central bank governors of seven major advanced economies
11	G8 (1)	Большая Восьмерка
12	ITAR-TASS (1)	ИТАР-ТАСС	Russian News Agency
13	Kiev (6)	Киев	the capital of Ukraine
14	Moscow (6)	Москва	the capital of Russia
15	NATO (2)	НАТО	North Atlantic Treaty Organization
16	PBS (1)	Служба общественного вещания	Public Broadcasting Service
17	Russia (29)	Россия
18	Sevastopol (1)	Севастополь	a federal city within the Crimean Federal District
19	The Hague (2)	Гаага	one of the major cities hosting the United Nation
20	the Netherlands (1)	Нидерланды
21	Sergei Tsekov (2)	Сергей Чехов
22	Viktor Yanukovych (4)	Виктор Янукович
23	Vladimir Putin (2)	Владимир Путин
24	Ukraine (13)	Украина
25	U.S. (3)	США
26	YouTube (2)		a video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California

The number of proper names found in the text – 26. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of proper names in the text is – 117, i.e. about 13 per cent.

Lexical Analysis of the News Article

All in all, in the presented article there are 227 words (26 per cent), which can be understood by speakers of different European languages. Taking the definite articles the (57 in the news article) into consideration, the number of easily understood words amounts to 33 per cent. This fact highlights how languages and societies are becoming ever more interwoven because of globalization.

The Origin of Internationalisms

Analysis of the data in appendix I demonstrates that most international words originated from Latin (38 out of 58, that is 65 per cent). The other international words originated from Old French – 11 words out of 58, that is 19 per cent; from Ancient Greek – 5 words out of 58, that is – 9 per cent; from English – 3 words out of 58, that is 5 per cent; from Russian – 1 word out of 58, that is 2 per cent.

Top Ten International Words in the Lifestyle-Politics Category

English	Russian	French	definition
annexation	аннексия	annexion	the action of appropriating something, especially territory
confrontation	конфронтация	confrontation	a hostile or argumentative situation or meeting between opposing parties
integrity	интеграция	intégrité	the state of being whole and undivided
international	интернациональный	international	agreed on by all or many nations
isolation	изоляция	isolation f; isolement m	the process or fact of being apart from others
protest	протест	protêt	a statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something
referendum	референдум	referendum	a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision
sanction	санкция	sanction	measures taken by a state to coerce another to conform to an international agreement or norms of conduct, typically in the form of restrictions on trade
sovereignty	суверенитет	souveraineté	the authority of a state to govern itself or another state
Soviet	советский	soviétique	of or concerning the former Soviet Union

Conclusion

This research work reveals that the share of international words in the Lifestyle-Politics category is considerable and amounts to 10 per cent. Most of these words originated from Latin. But with the development of communication and contacts the number of Internationalisms taken from other languages is growing.

Languages are the essential medium in which the ability to communicate across culture develops. Knowledge of one or several languages enables us to perceive new horizons, to think globally, and to increase our understanding of ourselves and of our neighbors. Languages are, then, the very lifeline of globalization: without language (or communication), there would be no globalization; and vice versa, without globalization, there would be no world languages (e.g. English, Chinese, French, Spanish, and so on).

The global language system is very much interconnected. And the existence of international words proves it.

References

Schwegler Armin Language and Globalization. University of California, Irvine, 2006

Быков А.А. Анатомия терминов 400 словообразовательных элементов из латыни и греческого. Словообразование и заимствование. http://coollib.net/b/103116/read

Тарасова Л.А. Интернациональная лексика как частный случай заимствований. http://www.rusnauka.com/23_SND_2008/Philologia/26333.doc.htm

Словарь иностранных слов.- Комлев Н.Г.,2006

Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка.- Чудинов А.Н.,1910.

Толковый словарь С.И. Ожегова

Толковый словарь Д.Н. Ушакова

Энциклопедический словарь 2009г.

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/

http://lingvo.mail.ru/

http://useful_english.enacademic.com

http://www.globalization101.org/uploads/File/Syllabus-Lang-Globalization.pdf

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