The word of yoga

Yoga (;^[1] Sanskrit: योग, lit. ‘yoke’ or ‘union’ pronounced [joːɡɐ]) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciousness untouched by the mind (Chitta) and mundane suffering (Duḥkha). There is a wide variety of schools of yoga, practices, and goals^[2] in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism,^[3][4][5] and traditional and modern yoga is practiced worldwide.^[6]

Two general theories exist on the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga originated in the Vedic period, as reflected in the Vedic textual corpus, and influenced Buddhism; according to author Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, this model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars. According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of non-Vedic and Vedic elements; this model is favoured in Western scholarship.^[7][8]

Yoga-like practices are first mentioned in the Rigveda.^[9] Yoga is referred to in a number of the Upanishads.^[10][11][12] The first known appearance of the word «yoga» with the same meaning as the modern term is in the Katha Upanishad,^[13][14] which was probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE.^[15][16] Yoga continued to develop as a systematic study and practice during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE in ancient India’s ascetic and Śramaṇa movements.^[17] The most comprehensive text on Yoga, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, date to the early centuries of the Common Era;^{[18][19][note 1]} Yoga philosophy became known as one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (Darśanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.^{[20][web 1]} Hatha yoga texts began to emerge between the ninth and 11th centuries, originating in tantra.^[21][22]

The term «yoga» in the Western world often denotes a modern form of Hatha yoga and a posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and relaxation technique,^[23] consisting largely of asanas;^[24] this differs from traditional yoga, which focuses on meditation and release from worldly attachments.^[23][25] It was introduced by gurus from India after the success of Swami Vivekananda’s adaptation of yoga without asanas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.^[26] Vivekananda introduced the Yoga Sutras to the West, and they became prominent after the 20th-century success of hatha yoga.^[27]

Etymology

The Sanskrit noun योग yoga is derived from the root yuj (युज्) «to attach, join, harness, yoke».^[28] Yoga is a cognate of the English word «yoke».^[29] According to Mikel Burley, the first use of the root of the word «yoga» is in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rigveda, a dedication to the rising Sun-god, where it has been interpreted as «yoke» or «control».^{[30][31][note 2]}

Pāṇini (4th c. BCE) wrote that the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots: yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau («to concentrate»).^[33] In the context of the Yoga Sutras, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered the correct etymology by traditional commentators.^[34]

In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras)^[35] says that yoga means samadhi (concentration).^[36] In the Yoga Sutras (2.1), kriyāyoga is yoga’s «practical» aspect: the «union with the supreme» in the performance of everyday duties.^[37] A person who practices yoga, or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment, is called a yogi; a female yogi may also be known as a yogini.^[38]

Definitions in classical texts

The term yoga has been defined in different ways in Indian philosophical and religious traditions.^[39]

Source Text	Approx. Date	Definition of Yoga[40]
Vaisesika sutra	c. 4th century BCE	«Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs, the mind and objects. When that does not happen because the mind is in the self, there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga» (5.2.15-16)[41]
Katha Upanishad	last centuries BCE	«When the five senses, along with the mind, remain still and the intellect is not active, that is known as the highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away» (6.10-11)[42]
Bhagavad Gita	c. 2nd century BCE	«Be equal minded in both success and failure. Such equanimity is called Yoga» (2.48) «Yoga is skill in action» (2.50) «Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering» (6.23)[43]
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali	c. first centuries CE[18][44][note 1]	1.2. yogas chitta vritti nirodhah — «Yoga is the calming down the fluctuations/patterns of mind» 1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature. 1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).[45]
Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (Sravakabhumi), a Mahayana Buddhist Yogacara work	4th century CE	«Yoga is fourfold: faith, aspiration, perseverance and means» (2.152)[46]
Kaundinya’s Pancarthabhasya on the Pashupata-sutra	4th century CE	«In this system, yoga is the union of the self and the Lord» (I.I.43)
Yogaśataka a Jain work by Haribhadra Suri	6th century CE	«With conviction, the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence (sambandhah) of the three [correct knowledge (sajjñana), correct doctrine (saddarsana) and correct conduct (saccaritra)] beginning with correct knowledge, since [thereby arises] conjunction with liberation….In common usage this [term] yoga also [denotes the Self’s] contact with the causes of these [three], due to the common usage of the cause for the effect.» (2, 4).[47][48]
Linga Purana	7th-10th century CE	«By the word ‘yoga’ is meant nirvana, the condition of Shiva.» (I.8.5a)[49]
Brahmasutra-bhasya of Adi Shankara	c. 8th century CE	«It is said in the treatises on yoga: ‘Yoga is the means of perceiving reality’ (atha tattvadarsanabhyupāyo yogah)» (2.1.3)[50]
Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, one of the primary authorities in non-dual Kashmir Shaivism	6th-10th century CE	«Yoga is said to be the oneness of one entity with another.» (4.4–8)[51][52]
Mrgendratantravrtti, of the Shaiva Siddhanta scholar Narayanakantha	6th-10th century CE	«To have self-mastery is to be a Yogin. The term Yogin means «one who is necessarily «conjoined with» the manifestation of his nature…the Siva-state (sivatvam)» (yp 2a)[53][52]
Śaradatilaka of Lakshmanadesikendra, a Shakta Tantra work	11th century CE	«Yogic experts state that yoga is the oneness of the individual Self (jiva) with the atman. Others understand it to be the ascertainment of Siva and the Self as non-different. The scholars of the Agamas say that it is a Knowledge which is of the nature of Siva’s Power. Other scholars say it is the knowledge of the primordial Self.» (25.1–3b)[54][55]
Yogabija, a Hatha yoga work	14th century CE	«The union of apana and prana, one’s own rajas and semen, the sun and moon, the individual Self and the supreme Self, and in the same way the union of all dualities, is called yoga. » (89)[56]

Goals

The ultimate goals of yoga are stilling the mind and gaining insight, resting in detached awareness, and liberation (Moksha) from saṃsāra and duḥkha: a process (or discipline) leading to unity (Aikyam) with the divine (Brahman) or with one’s Self (Ātman).^[57] This goal varies by philosophical or theological system. In the classical Astanga yoga system, the ultimate goal of yoga is to achieve samadhi and remain in that state as pure awareness.

According to Knut A. Jacobsen, yoga has five principal meanings:^[58]

1. A disciplined method for attaining a goal
2. Techniques of controlling the body and mind
3. A name of a school or system of philosophy (darśana)
4. With prefixes such as «hatha-, mantra-, and laya-, traditions specialising in particular yoga techniques
5. The goal of Yoga practice^[59]

David Gordon White writes that yoga’s core principles were more or less in place in the 5th century CE, and variations of the principles developed over time:^[60]

1. A meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it to release any suffering, find inner peace, and salvation. Illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras, in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as Jain texts.^[61]
2. The raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything. These are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its epic Mahābhārata, the Jain Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts.^[62]
3. A path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reality. Examples of this are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways.^[63]
4. A technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments. These are, states White, described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta.^[64] James Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga’s goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions.^[65]

According to White, the last principle relates to legendary goals of yoga practice; it differs from yoga’s practical goals in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.^[66]

History

There is no consensus on yoga’s chronology or origins other than its development in ancient India. There are two broad theories explaining the origins of yoga. The linear model holds that yoga has Vedic origins (as reflected in Vedic texts), and influenced Buddhism. This model is mainly supported by Hindu scholars.^[67] According to the synthesis model, yoga is a synthesis of indigenous, non-Vedic practices with Vedic elements. This model is favoured in Western scholarship.^[68]

Speculations about yoga began to emerge in the early Upanishads of the first half of the first millennium BCE, with expositions also appearing in Jain and Buddhist texts c. 500 – c. 200 BCE. Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, traditions of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophy were taking shape; teachings were collected as sutras, and a philosophical system of Patanjaliyogasastra began to emerge.^[69] The Middle Ages saw the development of a number of yoga satellite traditions. It and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century.

Origins

Linear model

According to Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, Hindu researchers have favoured a linear theory which attempts «to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis»;^{[70][note 3]} traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas as the source of all spiritual knowledge.^{[72][note 4]} Edwin Bryant wrote that authors who support Indigenous Aryanism also tend to support the linear model.^[75]

Synthesis model

Heinrich Zimmer was an exponent of the synthesis model,^[72] arguing for non-Vedic eastern states of India.^[76] According to Zimmer, Yoga is part of a non-Vedic system which includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism:^[76] «[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems.»^{[77][note 5]} Richard Gombrich^[80] and Geoffrey Samuel^[81] believe that the śramaṇa movement originated in non-Vedic Greater Magadha.^[80][81]

Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model in which a pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and was refined during the Vedic period.^[82] According to Gavin D. Flood, the Upanishads differ fundamentally from the Vedic ritual tradition and indicate non-Vedic influences.^[83] However, the traditions may be connected:

[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.^{[84][note 6]}

The ascetic traditions of the eastern Ganges plain are thought to drew from a common body of practices and philosophies,^[86][87][88] with proto-samkhya concepts of purusha and prakriti as a common denominator.^[89][88]

Indus Valley Civilisation

The twentieth-century scholars Karel Werner, Thomas McEvilley, and Mircea Eliade believe that the central figure of the Pashupati seal is in a Mulabandhasana posture,^[13] and the roots of yoga are in the Indus Valley civilisation.^[90] This is rejected by more recent scholarship; for example, Geoffrey Samuel, Andrea R. Jain, and Wendy Doniger describe the identification as speculative; the meaning of the figure will remain unknown until Harappan script is deciphered, and the roots of yoga cannot be linked to the IVC.^{[90][91][note 7]}

Earliest references (1000–500 BCE)

The Vedas, the only texts preserved from the early Vedic period and codified between c. 1200 and 900 BCE, contain references to yogic practices primarily related to ascetics outside, or on the fringes of Brahmanism.^[94][9] The Rigveda‘s Nasadiya Sukta suggests an early Brahmanic contemplative tradition.^{[note 8]} Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Atharvaveda and in the Brahmanas (the second layer of the Vedas, composed c. 1000–800 BCE).^[94][97][98]

According to Flood, «The Samhitas [the mantras of the Vedas] contain some references … to ascetics, namely the Munis or Keśins and the Vratyas.»^[99] Werner wrote in 1977 that the Rigveda does not describe yoga, and there is little evidence of practices.^[9] The earliest description of «an outsider who does not belong to the Brahminic establishment» is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136, the Rigveda‘s youngest book, which was codified around 1000 BCE.^[9] Werner wrote that there were

… individuals who were active outside the trend of Vedic mythological creativity and the Brahminic religious orthodoxy and therefore little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements has survived. And such evidence as is available in the Vedas themselves is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless the indirect evidence is strong enough not to allow any doubt about the existence
of spiritually highly advanced wanderers.^[9]

According to Whicher (1998), scholarship frequently fails to see the connection between the contemplative practices of the rishis and later yoga practices: «The proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control practiced in conjunction with the recitation of sacred hymns during the ritual, the notion of self-sacrifice, impeccably accurate recitation of sacred words (prefiguring mantra-yoga), mystical experience, and the engagement with a reality far greater than our psychological identity or the ego.»^[100] Jacobsen wrote in 2018, «Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of (tapas), ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition»; ascetic practices used by Vedic priests «in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice» may be precursors of yoga.^[94] «The ecstatic practice of enigmatic longhaired muni in Rgveda 10.136 and the ascetic performance of the vratya-s in the Atharvaveda outside of or on the fringe of the Brahmanical ritual order, have probably contributed more to the ascetic practices of yoga.»^[94]

According to Bryant, practices recognizable as classical yoga first appear in the Upanishads (composed during the late Vedic period).^[86] Alexander Wynne agrees that formless, elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.^[101] An early reference to meditation is made in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), one of the Principal Upanishads.^[99] The Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE) describes the five vital energies (prana), and concepts of later yoga traditions (such as blood vessels and an internal sound) are also described in this upanishad.^[102] The practice of pranayama (focusing on the breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,^[103] and pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad.^{[103][note 9]} The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (probably before the 6th c. BCE) teaches breath control and repetition of a mantra.^[105] The 6th-c. BCE Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.^[106] According to Flood, «[T]he actual term yoga first appears in the Katha Upanishad,^[14] dated to the fifth^[107] to first centuries BCE.^[108]

Second urbanisation (500–200 BCE)

Systematic yoga concepts begin to emerge in texts dating to c. 500–200 BCE, such as the early Buddhist texts, the middle Upanishads, and the Mahabharata‘s Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva.^{[109][note 10]}

Buddhism and the śramaṇa movement

According to Geoffrey Samuel, the «best evidence to date» suggests that yogic practices «developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE.» This occurred during India’s second urbanisation period.^[17] According to Mallinson and Singleton, these traditions were the first to use mind-body techniques (known as Dhyāna and tapas) but later described as yoga, to strive for liberation from the round of rebirth.^[112]

Werner writes, «The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time.»^[113] He notes:^[114]

But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.^[114]

Early Buddhist texts describe yogic and meditative practices, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition.^[115][116] The Pāli Canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate to control hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.^[117] There is no mention of the tongue inserted into the nasopharynx, as in khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to evoke Kundalini.^[118] Suttas which discuss yogic practice include the Satipatthana Sutta (the four foundations of mindfulness sutta) and the Anapanasati Sutta (the mindfulness of breathing sutta).

The chronology of these yoga-related early Buddhist texts, like the ancient Hindu texts, is unclear.^[119][120] Early Buddhist sources such as the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation; the Aṅguttara Nikāya describes jhāyins (meditators) who resemble early Hindu descriptions of muni, the Kesin and meditating ascetics,^[121] but the meditation practices are not called «yoga» in these texts.^[122] The earliest known discussions of yoga in Buddhist literature, as understood in a modern context, are from the later Buddhist Yogācāra and Theravada schools.^[122]

Jain meditation is a yoga system which predated the Buddhist school. Since Jain sources are later than Buddhist ones, however, it is difficult to distinguish between the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools.^[123] Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded to in the Upanishads and some Buddhist texts have been lost.^{[124][125][note 11]}

Upanishads

The Upanishads, composed in the late Vedic period, contain the first references to practices recognizable as classical yoga.^[86] The first known appearance of the word «yoga» in the modern sense is in the Katha Upanishad^[13][14] (probably composed between the fifth and third centuries BCE),^[15][16] where it is defined as steady control of the senses which – with cessation of mental activity – leads to a supreme state.^{[99][note 12]} The Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of the early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines levels of existence by their proximity to one’s innermost being. Yoga is viewed as a process of interiorization, or ascent of consciousness.^[128][129] The upanishad is the earliest literary work which highlights the fundamentals of yoga. According to White,

The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE … [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).^[130]

The hymns in book two of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (another late-first-millennium BCE text) describe a procedure in which the body is upright, the breath is restrained and the mind is meditatively focused, preferably in a cave or a place that is simple and quiet.^{[131][132][129]}

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed later than the Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, mentions a sixfold yoga method: breath control, introspective withdrawal of the senses, meditation (dhyana), mental concentration, logic and reasoning, and spiritual union.^{[13][129][133]} In addition to discussions in the Principal Upanishads, the twenty Yoga Upanishads and related texts (such as Yoga Vasistha, composed between the sixth and 14th centuries CE) discuss yoga methods.^[11][12]

Macedonian texts

Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE. In addition to his army, he brought Greek academics who wrote memoirs about its geography, people, and customs. One of Alexander’s companions was Onesicritus (quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo in his Geography), who describes yogis.^[134] Onesicritus says that the yogis were aloof and adopted «different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless».^[135]

Onesicritus also mentions attempts by his colleague, Calanus, to meet them. Initially denied an audience, he was later invited because he was sent by a «king curious of wisdom and philosophy».^[135] Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogis consider life’s best doctrines to «rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure», that «man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened», that «there is no shame in life on frugal fare», and that «the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit».^[134][135] According to Charles Rockwell Lanman, these principles are significant in the history of yoga’s spiritual side and may reflect the roots of «undisturbed calmness» and «mindfulness through balance» in the later works of Patanjali and Buddhaghosa.^[134]

Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita

Nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation), an early form of yoga, is described in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the third-century BCE Mahabharata.^[136] Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from empirical consciousness, including thoughts and sensations, until purusha (self) is realized. Terms such as vichara (subtle reflection) and viveka (discrimination) similar to Patanjali’s terminology are used, but not described.^[137] Although the Mahabharata contains no uniform yogic goal, the separation of self from matter and perception of Brahman everywhere are described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated, and some verses describe them as identical.^[138] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.^[139] The Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman pervading all things.^[138]

The Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord), part of the Mahabharata, contains extensive teachings about yoga. According to Mallinson and Singleton, the Gita «seeks to appropriate yoga from the renunciate milieu in which it originated, teaching that it is compatible with worldly activity carried out according to one’s caste and life stage; it is only the fruits of one’s actions that are to be renounced.»^[136] In addition to a chapter (chapter six) dedicated to traditional yoga practice (including meditation),^[140] it introduces three significant types of yoga:^[141]

• Karma yoga: yoga of action^[142]
• Bhakti yoga: yoga of devotion^[142]
• Jnana yoga: yoga of knowledge^[143][144]

The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses);^[145] each chapter is named for a different form of yoga.^{[145][146][147]} Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections; the first six chapters (280 shlokas) deal with karma yoga, the middle six (209 shlokas) with bhakti yoga, and the last six (211 shlokas with jnana yoga. However, elements of all three are found throughout the work.^[145]

Philosophical sutras

Yoga is discussed in the foundational sutras of Hindu philosophy. The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, composed between the sixth and second centuries BCE, discusses yoga.^{[note 13]} According to Johannes Bronkhorst, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes yoga as «a state where the mind resides only in the Self and therefore not in the senses».^[148] This is equivalent to pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses). The sutra asserts that yoga leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), describing meditative steps in the journey towards spiritual liberation.^[148]

The Brahma Sutras, the foundation text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, also discusses yoga.^[149] Estimated as completed in its surviving form between 450 BCE and 200 CE,^[150][151] its sutras assert that yoga is a means to attain «subtlety of body».^[149] The Nyaya Sutras—the foundation text of the Nyaya school, estimated as composed between the sixth century BCE and the secondcentury CE^[152][153]—discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. It includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation) and samadhi, noting that debate and philosophy are also forms of yoga.^{[154][155][156]}

Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)

The Indic traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking shape during the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE – 500 CE), and systems of yoga began to emerge;^[69] a number of texts from these traditions discussed and compiled yoga methods and practices. Key works of the era include the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, the Yoga-Yājñavalkya, the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, and the Visuddhimagga.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

One of the best-known early expressions of Brahminical yoga thought is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (early centuries CE,^{[18][44][note 1]} the original name of which may have been the Pātañjalayogaśāstra-sāṃkhya-pravacana (c. 325–425 CE); some scholars believe that it included the sutras and a commentary.^[157] As the name suggests, the metaphysical basis of the text is samkhya; the school is mentioned in Kauṭilya’s Arthashastra as one of the three categories of anviksikis (philosophies), with yoga and Cārvāka.^[158][159] Yoga and samkhya have some differences; yoga accepted the concept of a personal god, and Samkhya was a rational, non-theistic system of Hindu philosophy.^{[160][161][162]} Patanjali’s system is sometimes called «Seshvara Samkhya», distinguishing it from Kapila’s Nirivara Samkhya.^[163] The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so close that Max Müller says, «The two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord.»^[164] Karel Werner wrote that the systematization of yoga which began in the middle and early Yoga Upanishads culminated in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.^{[note 14]}

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[166]
Pada (Chapter)	English meaning	Sutras
Samadhi Pada	On being absorbed in spirit	51
Sadhana Pada	On being immersed in spirit	55
Vibhuti Pada	On supernatural abilities and gifts	56
Kaivalya Pada	On absolute freedom	34

The Yoga Sutras are also influenced by the Sramana traditions of Buddhism and Jainism, and may be a further Brahmanical attempt to adopt yoga from those traditions.^[157] Larson noted a number of parallels in ancient samkhya, yoga and Abhidharma Buddhism, particularly from the second century BCE to the first century AD.^[167] Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras are a synthesis of the three traditions. From Samkhya, they adopt the «reflective discernment» (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), their metaphysical rationalism, and their three epistemological methods of obtaining knowledge.^[167] Larson says that the Yoga Sutras pursue an altered state of awareness from Abhidharma Buddhism’s nirodhasamadhi; unlike Buddhism’s «no self or soul», however, yoga (like Samkhya) believes that each individual has a self.^[167] The third concept which the Yoga Sutras synthesize is the ascetic tradition of meditation and introspection.^[167]

Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras are considered the first compilation of yoga philosophy.^{[note 15]} The verses of the Yoga Sutras are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE).^[168] Patanjali defines the word «yoga» in his second sutra, and his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as «Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)».^[169] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as «Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis).»^[170] Edwin Bryant writes that to Patanjali, «Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object.»^{[171][172][173]}

Baba Hari Dass writes that if yoga is understood as nirodha (mental control), its goal is «the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process)».^[174] «Yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state … as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation.»^[174]

Patanjali defined an eight-limbed yoga in Yoga Sutras 2.29:

1. Yama (The five abstentions): Ahimsa (Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),^[175] Satya (truthfulness, non-falsehood),^[176] Asteya (non-stealing),^[177] Brahmacharya (celibacy, fidelity to one’s partner),^[177] and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possessiveness).^[176]
2. Niyama (The five «observances»): Śauca (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),^[178] Santosha (contentment, acceptance of others and of one’s circumstances),^[179] Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),^[180] Svādhyāya (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),^[181] and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).^[179]
3. Asana: Literally means «seat», and in Patanjali’s Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama («Breath exercises»): Prāna, breath, «āyāma», to «stretch, extend, restrain, stop».
5. Pratyahara («Abstraction»): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
6. Dharana («Concentration»): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana («Meditation»): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samadhi («Liberation»): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In Hindu scholasticism since the 12th century, yoga has been one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (darsanas): traditions which accept the Vedas.^{[note 16][note 17][182]}

Yoga and Vedanta

Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. Although they share many principles, concepts, and the belief in Self, they differ in degree, style, and methods; yoga accepts three means to obtain knowledge, and Advaita Vedanta accepts.^[183] Yoga disputes Advaita Vedanta’s monism.^[184] It believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta teaches that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is transcendent, liberated and self-aware. Advaita Vedanta also encourages the use of Patanjali’s yoga practices and the Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good and ultimate freedom.^[184]

Yoga Yajnavalkya

The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga, attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, in the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and the renowned philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi.^[186] The origin of the 12-chapter text has been traced to the second century BCE and the fourth century CE.^[187] A number of yoga texts, such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads, have borrowed from (or frequently refer to) the Yoga Yajnavalkya.^[188] It discusses eight yoga asanas (Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura),^[189] a number of breathing exercises for body cleansing,^[190] and meditation.^[191]

Abhidharma and Yogachara

The Buddhist tradition of Abhidharma spawned treatises which expanded teachings on Buddhist theory and yoga techniques which influenced Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. At the height of the Gupta period (fourth to fifth centuries CE), a northern Mahayana movement known as Yogācāra began to be systematized with the writings of Buddhist scholars Asanga and Vasubandhu. Yogācāra Buddhism provided a systematic framework for practices which lead a bodhisattva towards awakening and full Buddhahood.^[193] Its teachings are found in the encyclopedic Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (Treatise for Yoga Practitioners), which was also translated into Tibetan and Chinese and influenced East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions.^[194] Mallinson and Singleton write that the study of Yogācāra Buddhism is essential to understand yoga’s early history, and its teachings influenced the Pātañjalayogaśāstra.^[195] The South India and Sri Lankan-based Theravada school also developed manuals for yogic and meditative training, primarily the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga.

Jainism

According to Tattvarthasutra, a second-to-fifth century Jain text, yoga is the sum of all activities of mind, speech and body.^[5] Umasvati calls yoga the generator of karma,^[196] and essential to the path to liberation.^[196] In his Niyamasara, Kundakunda describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.^[197] Haribhadra and Hemacandra note the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity in yoga. According to Robert J. Zydenbos, Jainism is a system of yogic thinking which became a religion.^[198] The five yamas (constraints) of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are similar to Jainism’s five major vows, indicating cross-fertilization between these traditions.^{[198][note 18]} Hinduism’s influence on Jain yoga may be seen in Haribhadra’s Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali’s eightfold yoga.^[200]

Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)

The Middle Ages saw the development of satellite yoga traditions. Hatha yoga emerged during this period.^[201]

Bhakti movement

In medieval Hinduism, the Bhakti movement advocated the concept of a personal god or Supreme Personality. The movement, begun by the Alvars of South India during the 6th to 9th centuries, became influential throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries.^[202] Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of the Yoga Sutras (such as meditative exercises) with devotion.^[203] The Bhagavata Purana elucidates a form of yoga known as viraha (separation) bhakti, which emphasizes concentration on Krishna.^[204]

Tantra

Tantra is a range of esoteric traditions which had begun to arise in India by the 5th century CE.^{[205][note 19]} Its use suggests that the word tantra in the Rigveda means «technique». George Samuel wrote that tantra is a contested term, but may be considered a school whose practices appeared in nearly-complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about the 10th century CE.^[207] Tantric yoga developed complex visualizations, which included meditation on the body as a microcosm of the cosmos. It included mantras, breath control, and body manipulation (including its nadis and chakras. Teachings about chakras and Kundalini became central to later forms of Indian yoga.^[208]

Tantric concepts influenced Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Elements of Tantric rituals were adopted by, and influenced, state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia.^[209] By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.^[21][210]

Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism

Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts began to be compiled during the seventh century CE, and Tibetan translations were completed the following century. These tantra texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge imported into Tibet,^[211] and were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages. The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras.^[212] Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.^{[213][214][215]}

Tantra yoga practices include postures and breathing exercises. The Nyingma school practices yantra yoga, a discipline which includes breath work, meditation and other exercises.^[216] Nyingma meditation is divided into stages,^[217] such as Kriya Yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, mahā yoga, Anu yoga and atiyoga.^[218] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called «Charya»), and yoga, with anuttara yoga replacing mahayoga and atiyoga.^[219]

Zen Buddhism

Zen, whose name derives from the Sanskrit dhyāna via the Chinese ch’an,^{[note 20]} is a form of Mahayana Buddhism in which yoga is an integral part.^[221]

Medieval hatha yoga

The first references to hatha yoga are in eighth-century Buddhist works.^[223] The earliest definition of hatha yoga is in the 11th-century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha.^[224] Hatha yoga blends elements of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises.^[225] It marks the development of asanas into the full-body postures in current popular use^[210] and, with its modern variations, is the style presently associated with the word «yoga».^[226]

Sikhism

Yogic groups became prominent in Punjab during the 15th and 16th centuries, when Sikhism was beginning. Compositions by Guru Nanak (the founder of Sikhism) describe dialogues he had with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga. Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals associated with hatha yoga, advocating sahaja yoga or nama yoga instead.^[227] According to the Guru Granth Sahib,

O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination.^[228]

Modern revival

Introduction in the West

Yoga and other aspects of Indian philosophy came to the attention of the educated Western public during the mid-19th century, and N. C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851.^[229] Swami Vivekananda, the first Hindu teacher to advocate and disseminate elements of yoga to a Western audience, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.^[230] His reception built on the interest of intellectuals who included the New England Transcendentalists; among them were Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), who drew on German Romanticism and philosophers and scholars such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845) and Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), Max Mueller (1823–1900), and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860).^[231][232]

Theosophists, including Helena Blavatsky, also influenced the Western public’s view of yoga.^[233] Esoteric views at the end of the 19th century encouraged the reception of Vedanta and yoga, with their correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.^[234] The reception of yoga and Vedanta entwined with the (primarily neoplatonic) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Mircea Eliade brought a new element to yoga, emphasizing tantric yoga in his Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.^[235] With the introduction of tantra traditions and philosophy, the conception of the «transcendent» attained by yogic practice shifted from the mind to the body.^[236]

Yoga as exercise

The postural yoga of the Western world is a physical activity consisting of asanas (often connected by smooth transitions, sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises and usually ending with a period of relaxation or meditation. It is often known simply as «yoga»,^[237] despite older Hindu traditions (some dating to the Yoga Sutras) in which asanas played little or no part; asanas were not central to any tradition.^[238]

Yoga as exercise is part of a modern yoga renaissance,^[239] a 20th-century blend of Western gymnastics and haṭha yoga pioneered by Shri Yogendra and Swami Kuvalayananda.^[240] Before 1900, hatha yoga had few standing poses; the Sun Salutation was pioneered by Bhawanrao Shrinivasrao Pant Pratinidhi, the Rajah of Aundh, during the 1920s.^[241] Many standing poses used in gymnastics were incorporated into yoga by Krishnamacharya in Mysore between the 1930s and the 1950s.^[242] Several of his students founded schools of yoga. Pattabhi Jois created ashtanga vinyasa yoga,^[243] which led to Power Yoga;^[244] B. K. S. Iyengar created Iyengar Yoga and systematised asanas in his 1966 book, Light on Yoga;^[245] Indra Devi taught yoga to Hollywood actors; and Krishnamacharya’s son, T. K. V. Desikachar, founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandalam in Chennai.^{[246][247][248]} Other schools founded during the 20th century include Bikram Choudhury’s Bikram Yoga and Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh’s Sivananda yoga. Modern yoga has spread around the world.^[249][250]

The number of asanas used in yoga has increased from 84 in 1830 (as illustrated in Joga Pradipika) to about 200 in Light on Yoga and over 900 performed by Dharma Mittra by 1984. The goal of haṭha yoga (spiritual liberation through energy) was largely replaced by the goals of fitness and relaxation, and many of its more esoteric components were reduced or removed.^[251] The term «hatha yoga» also refers to gentle yoga, often for women.^[252]

Yoga has developed into a worldwide, multi-billion-dollar business involving classes, teacher certification, clothing, books, videos, equipment, and holidays.^[253] The ancient, cross-legged lotus position and Siddhasana are widely-recognised symbols of yoga.^[254] The United Nations General Assembly established 21 June as the International Day of Yoga,^{[255][256][257]} and it has been celebrated annually around the world since 2015.^[258][259] On 1 December 2016, yoga was listed by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage.^[260]

The effect of postural yoga on physical and mental health has been a subject of study, with evidence that regular yoga practice is beneficial for low back pain and stress.^[261][262] In 2017, a Cochrane review found that yoga interventions designed for chronic low back pain increased function at the six month mark, and modestly decreased pain after 3–4 months. The decrease in pain was found to be similar to other exercise programs designed for low-back pain, but the decrease is not large enough to be deemed clinically significant.^[263] Theories of the mechanism underlying these changes include the increase in strength and flexibility, physical and mental relaxation and increased body awareness.

Traditions

Yoga is practised with a variety of methods by all Indian religions. In Hinduism, practices include jnana yoga, bhakti yoga, karma yoga, kundalini yoga, and hatha yoga.

Jain yoga

Yoga has been a central practice in Jainism. Jain spirituality is based on a strict code of nonviolence, or ahimsa (which includes vegetarianism), almsgiving (dāna), faith in the three jewels, austerities (tapas) such as fasting, and yoga.^[264][265] Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self from the forces of karma, which binds the self to the cycle of reincarnation. Like yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a number of individual selves bound by their individual karma.^[266] Only through the reduction of karmic influences and the exhaustion of collected karma can one become purified and released.^[267] Early Jain yoga seems to have been divided into several types, including meditation, abandonment of the body (kāyotsarga), contemplation, and reflection (bhāvanā).^[268]

Buddhist yoga

Buddhist yoga encompasses a variety of methods which aim to develop the 37 aids to awakening. Its ultimate goal is bodhi (awakening) or nirvana (cessation), traditionally seen as the permanent end of suffering (dukkha) and rebirth.^{[note 21]} Buddhist texts use a number of terms for spiritual praxis in addition to yoga, such as bhāvanā («development»)^{[note 22]} and jhāna/dhyāna.^{[note 23]}

In early Buddhism, yoga practices included:

• the four dhyānas (four meditations or mental absorptions),
• the four satipatthanas (foundations or establishments of mindfulness),
• anapanasati (mindfulness of breath),
• the four immaterial dwellings (supranormal states of mind),
• the brahmavihārās (divine abodes).
• Anussati (contemplations, recollections)

These meditations were seen as supported by the other elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, such as ethics, right exertion, sense restraint and right view.^[269] Two mental qualities are said to be indispensable for yoga practice in Buddhism: samatha (calm, stability) and vipassanā (insight, clear seeing).^[270] Samatha is a stable, relaxed mind, associated with samadhi (mental unification, focus) and dhyana (a state of meditative absorption). Vipassanā is insight or penetrative understanding into the true nature of phenomena, also defined as «seeing things as they truly are» (yathābhūtaṃ darśanam). A unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena (dhammas) as being empty of a self.^[271][272]

Later developments in Buddhist traditions led to innovations in yoga practice. The conservative Theravada school developed new ideas on meditation and yoga in its later works, the most influential of which is the Visuddhimagga. Mahayana meditation teachings may be seen in the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, compiled c. 4th century. Mahayana also developed and adopted yoga methods such as the use of mantras and dharani, pure land practices aiming at rebirth in a pure land or buddhafield, and visualization. Chinese Buddhism developed the Chan practice of Koan introspection and Hua Tou. Tantric Buddhism developed and adopted tantric methods which are the basis of the Tibetan Buddhist yoga systems, including deity yoga, guru yoga, the six yogas of Naropa, Kalacakra, Mahamudra and Dzogchen.^[273]

Classical yoga

What is often referred to as classical yoga, ashtanga yoga, or rāja yoga is primarily the yoga outlined in the dualistic Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.^[274] The origins of classical yoga are unclear, although early discussions of the term appear in the Upanishads.^[167] Rāja yoga (yoga of kings) originally denoted the ultimate goal of yoga; samadhi,^[275] but was popularised by Vivekananda as a common name for ashtanga yoga,^{[note 24]} the eight limbs attain samadhi as described in the Yoga Sutras.^[276][274] Yoga philosophy came to be regarded as a distinct orthodox school (darsanas) of Hinduism in the second half of the first millennium CE.^{[20][web 1]}

Classical yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development for body, mind and spirit.^[171] Its epistemology (pramana) and metaphysics are similar to the Sāṅkhya school. The Classical yoga’s metaphysics, like Sāṅkhya’s, primarily posits two distinct realities: prakriti (nature, the eternal and active unconscious source of the material world composed of three Gunas) and puruṣa (consciousness), the plural consciousnesses which are the intelligent principles of the world.^[277] Moksha (liberation) results from the isolation (kaivalya) of puruṣa from prakirti, and is achieved through meditation, stilling one’s thought waves (citta vritti) and resting in pure awareness of puruṣa.^[277] Unlike Sāṅkhya, which takes a non-theistic approach,^[160][278] the yoga school of Hinduism accepts a «personal, yet essentially inactive, deity» or «personal god» (Ishvara).^[279][280]

In Advaita Vedanta

Vedanta is a varied tradition, with a number of sub-schools and philosophical views. It focuses on the study of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras (one of its early texts), about gaining spiritual knowledge of Brahman: the unchanging, absolute reality.^[281]

One of the earliest and most influential sub-traditions of Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta, which posits non-dualistic monism. It emphasizes jñāna yoga (yoga of knowledge), which aims at realizing the identity of one’s atman (individual consciousness) with Brahman (the Absolute consciousness).^[282][283] The most influential thinker of this school is Adi Shankara (8th century), who wrote commentaries and other works on jñāna yoga. In Advaita Vedanta, jñāna is attained from scripture, one’s guru, and through a process of listening to (and meditating on) teachings.^[284] Qualities such as discrimination, renunciation, tranquility, temperance, dispassion, endurance, faith, attention, and a longing for knowledge and freedom are also desirable.^[285] Yoga in Advaita is a «meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness».^[286]

Yoga Vasistha is an influential Advaita text^[287] which uses short stories and anecdotes to illustrate its ideas. Teaching seven stages of yoga practice, it was a major reference for medieval Advaita Vedanta yoga scholars and one of the most popular texts on Hindu yoga before the 12th century.^[288] Another text which teaches yoga from an Advaita point of view is the Yoga Yajnavalkya.^[289]

Tantric yoga

According to Samuel, Tantra is a contested concept.^[207] Tantra yoga may be described as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometric arrays and drawings (mandalas), male and (particularly) female deities, life-stage-related rituals, the use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques aimed at aiding one’s health, longevity and liberation.^[207][290]

Hatha yoga

Hatha yoga focuses on physical and mental strength-building exercises and postures described primarily in three Hindu texts:^{[292][293][294]}

1. Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Svātmārāma (15th century)
2. Shiva Samhita, author unknown (1500^[295] or late 17th century)
3. Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (late 17th century)

Some scholars include Gorakshanath’s 11th-century Goraksha Samhita on the list,^[292] since Gorakshanath is considered responsible for popularizing present-day hatha yoga.^{[296][297][298]} Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,^[299] has a series of asanas and pranayamas (such as tummo)^[213] which resemble hatha yoga.

Laya and kundalini yoga

Laya and kundalini yoga, closely associated with hatha yoga, are often presented as independent approaches.^[37] According to Georg Feuerstein, laya yoga (yoga of dissolution or merging) «makes meditative absorption (laya) its focus. The laya-yogin seeks to transcend all memory traces and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm, the mind, in the transcendental Self-Consciousness.»^[300] Laya yoga has a number of techniques which include listening to the «inner sound» (nada), mudras such as Khechari and Shambhavi mudra, and awakening kundalini (body energy).^[301]

Kundalini yoga aims to awaken bodily and cosmic energy with breath and body techniques, uniting them with universal consciousness.^[302] A common teaching method awakens kundalini in the lowest chakra and guides it through the central channel to unite with the absolute consciousness in the highest chakra, at the top of the head.^[303]

Reception by other religions

Christianity

Some Christians integrate physical aspects of yoga, stripped from the spiritual roots of Hinduism, and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer, meditation and Jesus-centric affirmations.^[304][305] The practice also includes renaming poses in English (rather than using the original Sanskrit terms), and abandoning involved Hindu mantras as well as the philosophy of Yoga; Yoga is associated and reframed into Christianity.^[305] This has drawn charges of cultural appropriation from various Hindu groups;^[305][306] scholars remain skeptical.^[307] Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.^{[308][309][310]}

In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and «A Christian reflection on the New Age,» that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican’s position.^[311] The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation «can degenerate into a cult of the body» and that equating bodily states with mysticism «could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations.» Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics’ belief that salvation came not through faith but through mystical inner knowledge.^[304] The letter also says, «one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures»^[312] but maintains the idea that «there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality.»^[304] Some^[which?] fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.^[313]

Islam

Early-11th-century Persian scholar Al-Biruni visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and (with their help) translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian; one of these was Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras.^[314][315] Although Al-Biruni’s translation preserved many core themes of Patañjali’s yoga philosophy, some sutras and commentaries were restated for consistency with monotheistic Islamic theology.^[314][316] Al-Biruni’s version of the Yoga Sutras reached Persia and the Arabian Peninsula by about 1050. During the 16th century, the hatha yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and Persian.^[317] Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga postures and breath control.^[318][319] Muhammad Ghawth, a 16th-century Shattari Sufi and translator of yoga text, was criticized for his interest in yoga and persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.^[320]

Malaysia’s top Islamic body imposed a legally-enforceable 2008 fatwa prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga, saying that it had elements of Hinduism and its practice was haram as blasphemy.^[321][322] Malaysian Muslims who had been practicing yoga for years called the decision «insulting.»^[323] Sisters in Islam, a Malaysian women’s-rights group, expressed disappointment and said that yoga was a form of exercise.^[324] Malaysia’s prime minister clarified that yoga as exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is not.^[325]

The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) imposed a 2009 fatwa banning yoga because it contains Hindu elements.^[326] These fatwas have been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.^[327] Similar fatwas banning yoga for its link to Hinduism were imposed by Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.^[328][329]

According to Iran’s yoga association, the country had about 200 yoga centres in May 2014. One-quarter were in the capital, Tehran, where groups could be seen practising in parks; conservatives were opposed.^[330] In May 2009, Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs head Ali Bardakoğlu discounted personal-development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures which could lead to extremism. According to Bardakoğlu, reiki and yoga could be a form of proselytizing at the expense of Islam.^[331] Nouf Marwaai brought yoga to Saudi Arabia in 2017, contributing to making it legal and recognized despite being allegedly threatened by her community who asserts yoga as «un-Islamic».^[332]

See also

• List of asanas
• Modern yoga gurus
• List of yoga schools
• Sun Salutation
• Yoga tourism
• Yogis

Notes

References

Sources

Printed sources

Websources

External links

Quotations related to Yoga at Wikiquote

• Yoga media on Commons
• Yoga Wikibooks

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Modern yoga is most commonly associated with the physical practice of asana, a series of postures often weaved together in styles such as Vinyasa Flow or Ashtanga. Asana practice is generally intended to build strength and stamina, to improve flexibility, coordination and balance, and to relax the body. However, this provides only one small aspect of the tradition of yoga as a whole.

Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras provide the traditional foundation of yoga, in which he outlines an eightfold path of the practice. Known as the ‘Eight Limbs of Yoga,’ this path offers a guide to individuals who are dedicated to creating a union between body, mind and spirit.

Each of the Eight Limbs offers a means of living with more integrity, self-discipline, respect for nature and connection with the spiritual aspects of life. These eight practices are intended to be carried out in a holistic and integrative manner:

1. Yamas — Five universal, ethical and moral observances to live by (nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence and non-covetousness)
2. Niyamas — Five spiritual and self-discipline observances (cleanliness, contentment, spiritual austerities, study of scriptures and surrender to God)
3. Asana — physical posture, originally intended only for seated meditation, but more recently adapted to encompass all physical yoga practices
4. Pranayama — breathing exercises to control the flow of prana (vital life force)
5. Pratyahara — Withdrawal of the senses
6. Dharana — Single pointed concentration
7. Dhyana — Meditation
8. Samadhi — Liberation or blissful union with the Divine

The four traditional paths of yoga are:

1. Bhakti (devotion)
2. Karma (action/selfless service)
3. Jnana (knowledge/self-study)
4. Raja (self discipline/practice).

Although modern schools of yoga such as Jivamukti, Bikram and Sivananda offer alternative interpretations, most are rooted in the same philosophical concepts and practices as Patanjali’s Eight Limbs.

Yoga is also used as a therapeutic tool for many physical and mental conditions, and mind-body research is now demonstrating its effectiveness as a treatment for chronic pain, anxiety, depression, cardiovascular disease and diabetes, to name but a few.

Quick, picture yoga

Thanks for playing along. What did you come up with?

I’m betting you chose either a yoga pose or pants. It always comes back to pants.

Now imagine you are “doing yoga?” Where are you and what are you doing?

Again, a yoga posture was probably involved, and a “yoga mat,” and pants. Some vivid depictions might envision a Sun Salutation or eclectic arm balance—but most likely it was physical.

Why This is Important

I ask these questions because they go to the heart of how we think about yoga. In turn, this colors our approach to the practice.

But if we change our understanding of the meaning of yoga, then we will change not only what we associate with yoga but also what we do on the mat.

And that’s what we’ll be exploring. We’ll move from the most common, definition of yoga in the West, to the more helpful, and prevalent definition in the East.

Dictionary Definitions of Yoga

Two of the dictionaries I trust most are Merriam-Webster and Oxford. Unsurprising they give a similar definition of yoga.

Merriam-Webster

Definition of yoga

1: capitalized : a Hindu theistic philosophy teaching the suppression of all activity of body, mind, and will in order that the self may realize its distinction from them and attain liberation

2: a system of physical postures, breathing techniques, and sometimes meditation derived from Yoga but often practiced independently especially in Western cultures to promote physical and emotional well-being

Oxford Dictionary

A Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, a part of which, including breath control, simple meditation, and the adoption of specific bodily postures, is widely practised for health and relaxation.

Both of these explanations take on a distinct Patanjali flavor, as in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and this is important.

Yoga as in Yoke Not Yolk

Patanjali, who we know next to nothing about, is credited with compiling his (most likely his) yoga sutras. What we do know, from the text he put together, is that he was an ascetic.

Ascetics come from the second period of yoga and approach the world by turning away from it. This is known as Nivrtti yoga or the yoga of renunciation. You can see this language in both of the definitions of yoga above.

Both dictionaries also add an interesting “fact.”

Merriam-Websters states the first known use of yoga is 1785, but in their help section mentions that:

1. The date may not represent the very oldest sense of the word.
2. The date most often does not mark the very first time that the word was used in English.
3. The date is subject to change. Many of the dates provided will undoubtedly be updated as evidence of still earlier use emerges.

The first known use of the word yoga anywhere comes from the Rig Veda, dating back to 1700-1100 BCE, or about 3000 years before it appeared in English. The Oxford Dictionary gives the origin of yoga as:

Sanskrit, literally ‘union.’

The definition of yoga as “union” is also associated with Patanjali, and more precisely, the union between you and the divine called Purusha. This is where the term theistic, relating to god, applies.

Let’s move beyond Patanjali and even god to explore the earlier meaning of yoke.

The Sanskrit word for yoke is yuj, a physical device used to join cattle. They are big, and heavy and strong. What they were yoking long ago, were war horses. Yoga was both the device and technique to calm the horses down so that you could focus them and do the work of war.

I love that they were war horses for they are the perfect symbol of frenetic beings “chomping at the bit.” If you couldn’t control them, then there weren’t useful.

But why were we at war in the first place? In the Vedic period it was the priestly Brahmans who practiced yoga through ritual and mantra. But with the advent of the Upanishads, we move to the warrior caste and with that comes warring metaphors.

The Katha Upanishad, for example, compares these same high energy horses with our mind. In a famous passage, the Katha says that we should seek to understand because without it the mind runs “hither and thither like wild horses.”

This was a significant change because they took the external act of yoking aggressive out-of-control horses and applied it to the internal act of calming the mind. They recognized how stubborn our minds are and that the salve is to calm. In both cases, bringing equines or minds into equanimity was for another purpose—to go to war or move through the world with skill.

And the stakes were high because it doesn’t get more intense or life-and-death than in an epic war. This bodes well for us because if yoga works in such dire circumstances, it can work for us today.

The Meaning of Yoga

In the time of Patanjali, yoga became a noun. But before that yoga was a verb. It was something you do.

Yoga means:

• To Engage
• To Get Involved
• To Participate
• To Connect

Yoga is a process. It’s active. It’s the way you engage with the world to create harmony. Yoga is how we participate and create relationship.

“There are (to be precise) 884 references to Yoga in the Mahābhārata, “and the common denominator of all the epic definitions is disciplined activity…by active means” rather than the more popular translation and cognate “union”. Bryant, Edwin F.. The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary

The Mahābhārata is one of the two great Indian epic poems. While war and battle is a prominent feature it’s subject matter is so vast it is said that if it’s not in the Mahābhārata, then it’s not anywhere.

The key to understanding the meaning of yoga is in understanding yoga is a verb rather than a noun.

Verbs are actions, conditions or experiences.

In an insightful paper by Colleen McDonough, Lulu Song, Kathy Hirsh Pasek, Roberta Michnick Golinkoff and Robert Lannon entitled “An Image is worth a thousand words: Why nouns tend to dominate verbs in early world learning” in Developmental Science they examine why nouns are easier to acquire than verbs.

They state that nouns are more concrete whereas verbs are “fleeting and dynamic and unfold in time and space.” “Learning the name of an action requires that children perceptually abstract the invariants of the action (e.g., running) across multiple exemplars that show wide variation.”

To illustrate this, think about the term “dancing.”  All kinds of different activities and body movements count as dancing.  And even though your idea of it might involve lederhosen while mine needs electric slides, we eventually come to agree they are both forms of dance.

It’s easier to put a label on something that is stable rather than a dynamic activity. There are exceptions, though.  Nouns such as “idea or passenger” are typically learned after verbs like “hug” and “kiss.” McDonough et al. say that this may boil down to the idea of “imageability”; how easy it is to evoke a mental image. We can conjure up a hug easier than imagining an idea.

This “imageability” is why I asked you to picture yoga. It’s easy for us to think of yoga as a noun. But engaging in a process is harder for us to get our heads around.

The Benefit of Yoga as Something You Do

When we engage, we change how the situation unfolds. Instead of things simply happening to us, we become an active participant. We exercise our agency, the ability to act.

Yoga is an invitation to get off the sidelines and act. As we do so we can now affect how the game turns out. Our participation creates the possibility of change and gives us different options than if we just stood by.

If you were to break down the process of “doing yoga” it would be:

1. Act. Engage, Create Yoga by getting involved.
2. Pay Attention
3. This will give you choices.
4. Make a choice.
5. Learn from that choice then repeat 1

Engage doesn’t mean to dive into a situation without thinking. On the contrary, you endeavor to see what’s going on. You want to understand.

In the Indian mind, actions are the ways we think, move and speak. By training our attention on something, we are engaging with it. We are connecting through yoga.

This connection is not only physical but mental, emotional and even spiritual. It involves your whole being and differs from getting on a treadmill and staring at a TV.

As you practice yoga you ask, how does this feel in my body? What thoughts or emotions am I having? How can I work with this? Elite athletes know about the importance of connecting your physical being with your mental and emotional state. They call it the mental game.

Why Is This Important?

Once we understand that:

Yoga is something we do; to connect and engage with the world; and that it takes our entire mind/body attention

…then it changes what we are doing when we “do yoga.”

We don’t practice yoga by jumping on a mat or going to a yoga class. It’s what we do on the mat, or in the class that matters. We do yoga when we connect with the process of acting and paying attention. It is a back-and-forth activity where one drives the other and vice-versa.

This also helps us understand the different “types of yoga”. If yoga isn’t a noun, then we can practice “yoga” in lots of different ways. And that perfectly describes the spectrum of yoga.

Some create the process of yoga through asana, physical postures, as is more common in the West. Others participate through meditation, breath work or chanting. They are all yoga.

What we are doing in asana is using the postures as a tool to help us pay attention. This is valuable if we have difficulty sitting still and cannot imagine ourselves meditating. Or, we are short on time and want to get maximum value, by “working out” our body at the same time we calm our mind. We move our bodies to pay attention to what is going on within.

Yoga is the process we can engage in to understand our body, the way it moves and the way we use it. We can engage with our mind and understand it, where it habitually goes and how to focus it. And we can work with our emotions and notice how we tend to react. Then we can build upon that and bring space so that we are not just responding to stimuli all of the time.

And finally, we wear attire that helps us engage in the process of relating to the world—the yoga pants. It always comes back to pants.

Индуизм

История Пантеон

Направления

Вайшнавизм Шиваизм Шактизм Смартизм

Верования и практики

Дхарма Артха Кама Мокша Карма Сансара Йога Бхакти Майя Пуджа Киртан Мандир Тиртха и кшетра

Священные писания

Веды Упанишады Агамы и тантры Рамаяна Махабхарата Бхагавадгита Пураны Сутры другие

Родственные темы

Индуизм по странам Архитектура Календарь Праздники Креационизм Монотеизм Атеизм Обращение в индуизм Аюрведа Джьотиша

Портал «Индуизм»

п • о • р

Йо́га (дев. योग) — понятие в индийской культуре, в широком смысле означающее совокупность различных духовных, психических и физических практик, разрабатываемых в разных направлениях индуизма и буддизма и нацеленных на управление психическими и физиологическими функциями организма с целью достижения индивидуумом возвышенного духовного и психического состояния^[1]. В более узком смысле, йога — это одна из шести ортодоксальных школ (даршан) философии индуизма^[2].

Основные направления йоги — это раджа-йога, карма-йога, джнана-йога, бхакти-йога и хатха-йога^[3][4][5]. В контексте философии индуизма, под йогой понимается система раджа-йоги, изложенная в «Йога-сутрах» Патанджали и тесным образом связанная с основополагающими принципами санкхьи^[6]. Йога обсуждается в различных писаниях индуизма, таких как Веды, Упанишады, «Бхагавадгита», «Хатха-йога-прадипика», «Шива-самхита» и Тантры. Конечная цель йоги может быть совершенно разной: от улучшения физического здоровья и до достижения мокши^[1]. За пределами Индии термин «йога» зачастую ассоциируется лишь с хатха-йогой и её асанами — физическими упражнениями, что не отражает духовного и душевного аспектов йоги. Того, кто изучает и практикует йогу, именуют йогом или йогином.

В 2016 году ЮНЕСКО, отметив существенное влияние на многочисленные аспекты жизни индийского общества в сфере здравоохранения, медицины, образования и искусства, включила йогу в репрезентативный список нематериального культурного наследия человечества^[7].

Этимология

Слово «йога» произошло от санскритского корня йодж или йудж, имеющего много смысловых значений^[8]: «соединение», «единение», «связь», «гармония», «союз», «упряжка», «упражнение», «обуздание», и т. п.^[9] Впервые встречается в «Ригведе» — древнейшем из сохранившихся памятников индийской литературы, но не в значении практики йоги, а как обозначение упряжи. В значении йоги как практики слова йога описано в тексте Катха-упанишады в строке 11 третьей главы^[10]. Аналогичное слову «йога» значение имеет латинское слово «religare», от которого, по одной из версий, произошло слово «религия»^[11].

История йоги

История йоги уходит своими корнями в древние времена. На нескольких печатях, найденных в долине реки Инд и относящихся к периоду Индской цивилизации (3300-1700 года до н. э.), изображены фигуры в медитативных или йогических позах. Эти археологические находки указывают на возможность того, что население Хараппской цивилизации практиковало одну из древних форм йоги или родственный ей ритуал^[12]. Считается, что йога развилась из аскетических практик (тапаса) ведийской религии, которые упоминаются в ранних комментариях к Ведам — Брахманах (датируемых периодом с X по VI века до н. э.)^[13]. В Брахманах, в частности, в «Шатапатха-брахмане», присутствуют идеи единения ума, тела и души с Абсолютом. В Упанишадах, наиболее раннее упоминание йоги и медитации можно обнаружить в «Брихадараньяка-упанишаде»^[13] — одной из древнейших упанишад, датируемой учёными X — IX веком до н. э. и в Катха-упанишаде^[14]:

तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरमिन्द्रियधारणाम् ॥३.११॥

tāṃ yogamiti manyante sthiramindriyadhāraṇām ॥3.11॥

Йога — это устойчивый контроль чувств

Основным источником, в котором отражено развитие концепции йоги, являются так называемые «средние» Упанишады (датируемые VI веком до н. э.), «Махабхарата» и «Бхагавад-гита», а также «Йога-сутры» Патанджали (II век до н. э.). В «Йога-сутрах» йога впервые была изложена как одна из школ («даршан») индуистской философии. Эта ранняя школа йоги ретроспективно получила известность под ретронимом раджа-йога с целью отличить её от других, более поздних школ.

Индская цивилизация

На нескольких печатях, обнаруженных при раскопках в долине реки Инд и датируемых периодом с 3300 по 1700 год до н. э., были найдены изображения людей в медитативных и йогических позах, занимающихся «одним из видов ритуальной практики, возможно древней формой йоги». Из всех артефактов Хараппской культуры, археолог Грегори Поссель выделяет 16 специфических фигурок в йогических позах. По мнению учёного, они свидетельствуют о том, что обитатели Хараппской цивилизации занимались ритуальными практиками йоги и медитации. При этом были найдены изображения в йогических позах не только людей, но и божеств^[12].

Наиболее известным из хараппских йогических изображений является «печать Пашупати»^[15], обнаруженная британским археологом Джоном Маршаллом, который полагал, что на ней изображена одна из древних форм Шивы^[16]. Некоторые учёные, однако, подвергают сомнению идею того, что изображённый на печати «Пашупати» («Господь животных»)^[17] представляет фигуру Шивы или Рудры^[18][19][20].

«Йога-сутры» Патанджали

В индийской философии, йогой называют одну из шести ортодоксальных философских школ индуизма^[21][22]. Философская система йоги тесно связана со школой санкхьи^[23]. Согласно учению Патанджали, школа йоги принимает психологический и метафизический аспекты философии санкхьи и по сравнению с санкхьей является более теистической. Примером теистичности йоги может служить факт добавления Божественного Существа к 25 элементам бытия санкхьи^[24][25]. Йога и санкхья очень близки друг к другу; по этому поводу Макс Мюллер говорил, что «данные философии в просторечьи называют санкхьей с Богом и санкхьей без Бога…»^[26]. Тесную связь между санкхьей и йогой также объясняет Генрих Циммер:

Основным текстом школы йоги являются «Йога-сутры» Патанджали, который считается основателем философии йоги^[28]. Йога Патанджали известна как раджа-йога, или йога управления умом^[29]. Патанджали даёт определение слова йога во второй сутре^[30], которая является ключевой сутрой всего текста:

योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध:
yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ ^IAST
Йога — обуздание волнений, присущих уму.
— «Йога-сутры» 1.2

Это определение базируется на значении трёх санскритских терминов. И. К. Таимни даёт следующий перевод: «Йога — это обуздание (ниродхах) изменчивости (вритти) ума (читта)»^{[31][неавторитетный источник?]}. Вивекананда переводит сутру как «Йога заключается в недозволении уму (читта) принимать различные формы (вритти)»^[32]. Также существуют и другие переводы данной сутры^[33].

«Йога-сутры» Патанджали также выступили основой для системы аштанга-йоги («восьмиступенчатой йоги»), определение которой даётся в 29-й сутре 2-й книги. Аштанга-йога является основной отличительной чертой практически всех современных вариаций раджа-йоги. Восемь ступеней, или уровней аштанга-йоги:

1. Яма — принципы взаимодействия с внешней средой
2. Нияма — принципы взаимодействия с внутренней средой
3. Асана — объединение ума и тела посредством физической деятельности
4. Пранаяма — контроль над праной («жизненной энергией») посредством особых дыхательных практик
5. Пратьяхара — отвлечение чувств от контакта с их объектами
6. Дхарана — целенаправленная сосредоточенность ума
7. Дхьяна — медитация (внутренняя деятельность, которая постепенно приводит к самадхи)
8. Самадхи — умиротворённое сверхсознательное состояние блаженного осознания своей истинной природы

Иногда их делят на четыре низшие и четыре высшие ступени, из которых низшие сопоставляют с хатха-йогой, в то время как высшие ступени принадлежат специфически к раджа-йоге. Одновременная практика трёх высших ступеней называется самьяма.

Бхагавадгита

«Бхагавадгита» описывает йогу как контроль ума, искусство деятельности, осознание высшей природы души (атмы) и трансцендентности верховного божества (Бхагавана). Кришна учит, корнем всех страданий является возбуждённый эгоистическими желаниями ум. Единственным способом остановить пламя желаний является контроль ума посредством самодисциплины с одновременным вовлечением в возвышенную духовную деятельность. Воздержание от деятельности, однако, считается таким же нежелательным, как и чрезмерное вовлечение в неё. Согласно «Бхагавад-гите», высшей целью является освобождение ума и разума от материальной деятельности и их сосредоточение на духовном уровне через посвящение всех действий Богу.

Вдобавок к 6-й главе, целиком посвящённой традиционным практикам йоги, включая медитацию^[1], «Бхагавад-гита» описывает три наиболее важные вида йоги^[34]:

• Карма-йога — «йога деятельности»
• Бхакти-йога — «йога преданности», или «йога преданного служения»
• Джнана-йога — «йога знания»

Хотя эти пути отличны друг от друга, их основная цель практически одна и та же — осознать, что Бог в своей личностной форме (Бхагаван) является изначальной истиной, на которой зиждется всё бытие, что материальное тело временно, и что сверхдуша (параматма) вездесуща. Конечной целью йоги является мокша — освобождение из круговорота рождения и смерти (самсары) через осознание Бога и своих отношений с ним. Этой цели можно достичь практикуя любой из трёх видов йоги, хотя в шестой главе Кришна говорит о превосходстве бхакти над другими путями достижения высшей цели.

Известный комментатор «Бхагавад-гиты» Мадхусудана Сарасвати в конце XV века разделил её по содержанию на три основные части: первые шесть глав в основном посвящены карма-йоге, средние шесть глав — бхакти-йоге, и последние шесть — джнана-йоге^{[35][неавторитетный источник?]}. Другие комментаторы предложили свой вариант деления, приписав определённую йогу каждой из глав и выделив 18 видов йоги^[36]. Подобное деление впоследствии было принято многими комментаторами «Бхагавад-гиты».

Хатха-йога

Хатха-йога — направление йоги, сформированное в X—XI веке Матсьендранатхом и, в большей степени, его учеником Горакшанатхом^{[37][38][неавторитетный источник?][39]}. Основанная ими традиция натхов сыграла значительную роль в развитии классической хатха-йоги в средневековой Индии^[40][41].

Основы системы хатха-йоги описаны в таких текстах, как «Хатха-йога-прадипика», «Гхеранда-самхита» и «Шива-самхита».

Хатха-йога значительно отличается от раджа-йоги Патанджали: она сосредоточена на шаткарме, очищении тела, приводящего к очищению ума (ха), и праны, или жизненной энергии (тха)^{[42][неавторитетный источник?][43][неавторитетный источник?]}. Хатха-йога даёт дальнейшее развитие сидящим йогическим позам (асанам) раджа-йоги Патанджали^{[44][неавторитетный источник?]}, добавляя к ним гимнастические йогические элементы^[45]. В настоящее время хатха-йога в её многочисленных вариациях представляет собой стиль йоги, наиболее часто ассоциируемый с понятием «йога»^[46].

История йоги на Западе

В Европе впервые философию йоги начал изучать Шопенгауэр, одним из основных источников философских взглядов которого были Упанишады. После выступления Вивекананды на Чикагском конгрессе религий в Нью-Йорке и прочтения цикла лекций по йоге в конце XIX века, интерес к ней на Западе не ослабевал. Следующий всплеск интереса пришёлся на первую половину-середину XX в.

Отражением популярности йоги на Западе можно считать тот факт, что самая большая современная скульптура из золота (работы Марка Куинна, 50 кг, 1,5 млн фунтов стерлингов, Британский музей) изображает Кейт Мосс, садящуюся в позу «голова в коленях» (дви пада ширшасана)^[47].

История йоги в России

Йогой в России интересовались ещё до революции 1917 года. В советское время йогой заниматься было опасно, поскольку идеологически она была запрещена, но энтузиасты были и занимались они, в основном, по уцелевшим книгам и самиздату.

Б. Л. Смирнов (1891—1967) — известный врач, знаток иностранных языков. В молодости увлекался восточной философией, прочитал в Киеве в 1930 г. лекцию о передаче мысли .. и был сослан на несколько лет в Йошкар-Олу. На склоне лет, уже будучи тяжело больным и оставив основную профессию, перевёл на русский язык «Махабхарату». Качество перевода высоко оценено специалистами.

В. В. Бродов (1912—1996) — индолог и философ, профессор, первый председатель Ассоциации йоги СССР. Тема его докторской диссертации по философии — «Прогрессивная философская и социологическая мысль Индии в Новое Время (1850—1917)» (1964). Затем он в качестве учёного секретаря в 1965 г. принимает участие в подготовке к изданию «Истории философии», где им написаны отдельные главы по истории индийской философии и ряда других книг по этому направлению. В те же годы (начало 1960-х) в СССР был приглашён для изучения возможностей применения йоги при подготовке советских космонавтов видный индийский йог Дхирендра Брахмачари, который читал космонавтам лекции и проводил практические занятия в закрытой группе, куда удалось попасть и Василию Бродову. Ощутив на себе благотворное влияние йоги (здоровье получившего во время Великой Отечественной войны ранения В. В. Бродова уже давало о себе знать), Василий Бродов становится поклонником и пропагандистом йоги. Обнародует целый ряд статей и книг по этому вопросу. Одно из самых известных начинаний профессора Бродова — его участие в качестве соавтора и главного консультанта научно-популярного фильма «Индийские йоги — кто они?», вышедшего в прокат в СССР в 1970 году и вызвавшего взрыв интереса и к йоге, и к самой Индии^[48][49].

В. И. Воронин — писатель, журналист (автор цикла статей по хатха-йоге в журнале «Наука и жизнь» за 1980-81 годы и позже автор книги по хатха-йоге^[50].

Ю. Н. Полковников на начало 1960-х был корреспондентом журнала «Сельская молодёжь», после встречи в одной из командировок с А. Н. Зубковым воодушевился йогой и уговорил свою редакцию напечатать цикл статей А. Н. Зубкова по этому направлению. Из намеченных 6 статей на закате хрущёвской оттепели успели обнародовать только 4, но и это было событием в советское время. Позже Ю. Н. Полковников издал и собственные работы по популяризации йоги, в частности, в 1995 г. книгу «Как продлить годы жизни: целительная йога»^[51].

Инженер-изобретатель в области ракетной техники Я. И. Колтунов (1927—2016)^[52] с молодости увлекался физической культурой. В годы учёбы в МАИ стал мастером спорта, заинтересовался самосовершенствованием в более широком смысле этого слова, что логично привело его к йоге и ушу. Как и многие инженеры тех лет, многие месяцы проводил на полигонах с ненормированным и очень напряжённым режимом работы. Физкультура и йога помогала ему выдержать это напряжение^[53]. После 50 лет ощутил потребность делиться накопленным опытом самосовершенствования и оздоровления с людьми, основал в подмосковном Болшево группу (на основе медитативного бега, йоги и ушу), затем клуб (естественно, «Космос»), занятия в котором пользовались всё возрастающим успехом, привлекали сотни, а порой и более тысячи людей. В связи с этим в 1983 г. исключён из рядов КПСС, уволен с работы с «волчьим билетом» (не мог никуда устроиться трудиться в течение следующих 3,5 лет). После Перестройки возобновил занятия клуба, участвовал в организации и проведении более 20 слётов, пропагандировал лично и в печати методики клуба, стремился создать общественное движение соответствующей направленности, организуя филиалы в других городах и областях страны (включая Украину и Казахстан)^[54][55].

Г. Г. Стаценко в 1963 году открыл школу Йогов в г. Москве. В 1989 году при школе открыл Академию йоги — высшее профессиональное учебное заведение. В 1994 году Академию переименовали в Институт Йога Гуру Ар Сантэма (ИЙГАС). В настоящее время является Учителем Школы и ректором ИЙГАС^[56].

Первым сертифицированным преподавателем йоги в СССР стал А. Н. Зубков^[57]. Будучи в долгосрочной командировке в Индии, он познакомился с Шри Рам Кумар Шармой (учеником Свами Шивананды), под руководством которого и начал практиковать упражнения йоги. По окончании обучения Шри Рам Кумар выписал Зубкову сертификат, дающий право преподавать йогу и лечить с помощью йоги. Вернувшись на родину, Зубков стал настоящим миссионером и проделал огромную работу по популяризации йоги в СССР. В 1970-е годы Зубков написал сценарий фильма^[57] «Индийские йоги — кто они?». Интерес к йоге в 1970-е годы существовал и со стороны советского правительства, которое пригласило в страну Дхирендру Брахмачарьи для внедрения техник йоги в подготовку космонавтов.

В конце 1980-х годов в Москве появилась лаборатория по изучению нетрадиционных методов оздоровления, по инициативе которой в 1989 году на первую Конференцию по йоге был приглашён Б. К. С. Айенгар. В том же 1989 году в СССР впервые приехал гуру кундалини Йоги Бхаджан. Позже он дал инициацию Якову Маршаку, который начал с помощью техник кундалини-йоги помогать наркозависимым подросткам^[58].

Йога и буддизм

Йога тесно связана с верованиями и практиками индийских религий^[59]. В частности, влияние йоги присутствует в буддизме, для которого характерны аскетические практики, духовные упражнения и состояния транса^[60][61]. В буддизме йогачара (в переводе с санскрита: «практика йоги»^[62]), философской школе буддизма махаяны появившейся в Индии в V веке, йога является основой практики, ведущей на путь бодхисаттвы^[63]. В этой школе йога практикуется ради достижения просветления^{[64][страница не указана 424 дня]}.

Близость к йоге является отличительной чертой дзэн-буддизма, который представляет собой одну из форм буддизма махаяны^[61][65]. На Западе дзэн существует параллельно йоге, и между двумя школами, очевидно, существует большое сходство^[66]. Этот феномен заслуживает особого внимания по причине того, что школа медитации дзэн-буддизма уходит своими корнями в йогические практики^[67]. Некоторые основные элементы йоги играют большую роль как для буддизма в целом, так и для дзэна в частности^[68]. Тем не менее профессор философии Д. Т. Судзуки отстаивал позицию противоположности йоги и дзэн по той причине, что видел склонность западных исследователей «сваливать все азиатские способы медитации <…> в один котёл»^[69]. Профессор философии и истории религии Г. Дюмулен также указывал, что хотя существуют «внешние параллели» между двумя традициями и их «внутреннее родство», но существуют и отличия в целях и способах практики^[70].

Йога также занимает важное место в тибетском буддизме. В традиции ньингма практикующие йогу постепенно прогрессируют до всё более и более высоких уровней, начиная с маха-йоги, продолжая с ану-йогой и в конце концов достигая наивысшей стадии ати-йоги. В других традициях эквивалентом этой стадии выступает ануттара-йога. К другим тантрическим йогическим практикам принадлежит система 108 поз, практикуемых с контролем дыхания и ритма сердца. Темп йогических упражнений называется трул-кхором или единением энергий луны и солнца праджня. Йогические позы древнетибетских йогов изображены на стенах летнего храма Далай Ламы в Лакханге.

Йога и тантра

Предполагается, что практика тантризма способна изменить отношение индивидуума к социальной, религиозной и логической реальности, в которой он обитает. Посредством тантрической практики индивидуум осознаёт иллюзорную природу реальности, освобождается из оков майи и достигает мокши^[71]. Именно этот путь к мокше, среди ряда других путей предлагаемых различными традициями индуизма, связывает тантризм с такими практиками индийских религий как медитация и социальное отречение, которые основаны на временном или постоянном удалении от социальных отношений^[71]. В ходе обучения тантрическим практикам индивидууму даются наставления в медитационных техниках, в особенности в техниках медитации на чакры. Это считается одним из видов кундалини-йоги, целью которой является помещение Богини в сердечную чакру с целью медитации и поклонения^[72].

Согласно Джону Вудроффу^[73], йога разделяется на хатха-йогу (гхатастха-йогу) и самадхи-йогу. Последняя, в свою очередь, согласно «Гхеранде-самхите» бывает шести видов: дхьяна-йога-самадхи, нада-йога, расананда-йога, лайя-сиддхи-йога, бхакти-йога и раджа-йога.

Йога и ислам

Индийские йогические практики оказали заметное влияние на развитие суфизма^[74]. Древнеиндийский текст по йоге, «Амритакунда», («Озеро нектара») ещё в XI веке был переведён на арабский и персидский языки^[75].

В 2008 году лидеры исламского духовенства в Малайзии издали фетву против мусульман, занимающихся йогой. В ней утверждалось, что в йоге содержатся элементы индуистского религиозного учения и, следовательно, практика йоги для мусульман является богохульной и харамной. Мусульманские учителя йоги Малайзии подвергли это решение критике, расценив его как оскорбительное^[76]. В фетве разрешается практика йоги как физических упражнений, но запрещаются такие практики, как повторение мантр^[77].

Йога и христианство

Йога и православие

Историк религии Мирча Элиаде в своём фундаментальном труде под названием «Йога: свобода и бессмертие» отметил, что между используемыми православными монахами-последователями исихазма методами подготовки к аскетизму и способами молитвы, с одной стороны, и йогическими техниками (в особенности пранаямой), с другой стороны, имеется определённое сходство. Он подтверждает данное мнение отрывками из произведений православных мыслителей — Иринея Лионского, Никифора Затворника, Никодима Святогорца, Симеона Нового Богослова. При этом Мирча Элиаде высказал мнение, что не следует обманываться внешним сходством этих методов с йогическими техниками, поскольку в классической индийской йоге Богу (в отличие от православия) отводится относительно небольшая роль. В то же время Элиаде указал, что между исихазмом и йогой имеется достаточное феноменологическое сходство, чтобы можно было выдвинуть гипотезу о вероятном влиянии индийской мистики на исихазм^[78].

Религиовед Е. А. Торчинов высказал мнение, что для утверждений о существовании генетической связи между йогой и исихазмом в настоящее время оснований не существует, однако экстаз в аскезе православия имеет очень близкое сходство с состоянием самадхи индийских традиций. Он также отметил сходство психотехнических процедур, используемых в исихазме (задержки дыхания, особые позы, визуализация, концентрация внимания на определённых участках своего тела), с психотехническими процедурами, используемыми в йоге. В частности, Торчинов указал, что умная молитва исихастов («Господи, Иисусе Христе, Сыне Божий, помилуй нас грешных») является сильным универсальным психотехническим методом, аналогичным повторению «великой мантры» «Харе Кришна» в индийском вишнуистском бхакти или повторению имени будды Амитабхи в амидаизме^[79].

В 2015 году, в связи с провозглашением ООН «Всемирного дня йоги», Священный Синод Элладской православной церкви выступил с заявлением, в котором назвал йогу «фундаментальной частью религии индуизма», несовместимой с православной верой и жизнью христиан^[80][81].

В сборнике статей «Православный взгляд на йогу»^[82] его составитель — священник Русской православной церкви Георгий Максимов отвечая на вопрос о том допустимо ли христианину заниматься йогой, со ссылками на Священное Писание и на мнение ряда архипастырей Поместных православных церквей, пришёл к выводу о несовместимости йоги и христианства.

Йога и католичество

Папа Римский Франциск в своей проповеди поставил йогу в один ряд тех вещей, которые не следует рассматривать в качестве средства обретения таинственной силы Святого Духа, способной преобразить человеческое сердце, отметив^[83][84]:

Вы можете пройти миллион катехизаторских курсов, миллион курсов духовности, миллион курсов йоги, дзена и им подобных вещей. Но вся эта сила никогда не даст вам свободу быть детьми Божьими.

Оригинальный текст (англ.)

You can take a million catechetical courses, a million courses in spirituality, a million courses in yoga, Zen and all these things. But all this power will never be able to give you the freedom of being children of God.

Цель йоги

Конечная цель йоги может быть совершенно разной: от улучшения физического здоровья йогатерапией и до достижения мокши^[1]. В монистических школах адвайта-веданты и шиваизме, конечной целью практики йоги является мокша — освобождение из круговорота рождения и смерти (сансары) и всех страданий материального существования посредством осознания своего единства как атмана с Брахманом (Шивой). В школах бхакти вайшнавизма, сама бхакти, или «любовное преданное служение Богу», является конечной целью практики йоги. В гаудия-вайшнавизме, одним из основных направлений вайшнавизма, высшей формой бхакти выступает према-бхакти или «чистая любовь к Богу». В вайшнавизме, достигнув совершенства в бхакти-йоге, вайшнав отправляется в духовный мир (Вайкунтху или Голоку) и наслаждается там блаженным служением Вишну в одной из его форм^[85].

Травматизм

Некоторые люди, практикующие йогу, могут получать физические травмы, аналогичные спортивным травмам^{[86][87][88][89]}. Опрос, проведенный среди практикующих йогу в Австралии, показал, что порядка 20% практикующих получали физические травмы в результате занятий йогой^[86]. В течение предшествующих 12 месяцев 4.6% опрошенных получили травму, которая вызвала продолжительные боли или потребовала медицинской помощи. Стойки на голове и плечах, позы лотоса и полу-лотоса, наклоны вперед и назад, стойки на руках послужили причиной наибольшего количества травм^[86].

Среди главных причин, вызывающих негативные последствия, эксперты приводят «дух соперничества» новичков и недостаточную квалификацию инструкторов^[87]. Поскольку потребность в курсах йоги растет, многие люди часто получают сертификаты инструкторов йоги после недостаточного обучения. Не каждый новый сертифицированный инструктор может оценить состояние каждого нового ученика на своем курсе и рекомендовать воздержаться от определенных поз или использовать соответствующие опоры, чтобы избежать травм^[87]. В свою очередь, начинающий ученик курса йоги может переоценить возможности своего тела и стремиться выполнить сложные позы, прежде чем его тело достаточно гибко или сильно для их выполнения^[87].

Вращение шеи в момент ее растягивания может вызывать повреждение позвоночных артерий, которые снабжают кровью головной мозг. Хотя это может происходить в различных ситуациях, тем не менее, это событие может быть результатом практики йоги. Данное заболевание является очень серьезным и может вызвать инсульт^[90][91].

Кроме того, по некоторым данным разрывы суставной губы тазобердренного сустава, а также травмы тазобедренных костей, могут являться результатом посещения курсов йоги^[92].

См. также

	Фото и Видео на Викискладе
	Фото и Видео в Викиновостях

• Авадхута
• Айенгар-йога
• Гимнософисты
• Даяты
• Дживамукти-йога
• Йога-Васиштха
• Йога-спорт
• Йогатерапия
• Йогическая отвисающая стопа
• Мантра
• Медитация
• «Чакры»

Примечания

Литература

на русском языке

• Булич С. К. Йога // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907.
• Дюмулен Г.  Глава 2. Элементы йоги в буддизме // История дзэн-буддизма. Индия и Китай. — СПб.: ОРИС, 1994. — 336 с. — ISBN 5-88436-026-6.
• Казак О.  Йога в СССР // Yoga Journal. — 2010. — № 36 за ноябрь/декабрь. Архивировано 5 июня 2012 года.
• Борислав (Борис Мартынов). Йога. Источники и течения. Хрестоматия. — М.: Йогин, 2009. — 440 с.
• Клюев Б. И. Йога: философия и практика // Вопросы научного атеизма. Вып. 38. Мистицизм: проблемы анализа и критики / Редкол. В. И. Гараджа (отв. ред.) и др.; Акад. обществ. наук ЦК КПСС. Ин-т научного атеизма. — М.: Мысль, 1989. — С. 167—190. — 335 с. — 22 765 экз. — ISBN 0321-0847.
• Йога / Пахомов С. В. // Исландия — Канцеляризмы. — М. : Большая российская энциклопедия, 2008. — С. 285. — (Большая российская энциклопедия : [в 35 т.] / гл. ред. Ю. С. Осипов ; 2004—2017, т. 12). — ISBN 978-5-85270-343-9.
• Ферштайн Г. (нем.)русск.  Энциклопедия йоги / Пер. с англ. А. Гарькавого. — М.: ФАИР-ПРЕСС, 2002. — 728 с. — ISBN 5-8183-0397-7. — С. 637.
• Фойерштейн Г. (нем.)русск.  Глубинное измерение йоги / Пер. с англ. И. А. Забелиной. — М.: РИПОЛ классик, 2006. — 432 с. — (В поисках истины). — ISBN 5-7905-4315-4.
• Элиаде М.  Йога. Бессмертие и свобода. — СПб.: Лань, 1999. — 448 с. — ISBN 5-8114-0184-1.

на других языках

• Apte, Vaman Shivram. The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. — Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1965. — ISBN 81-208-0567-4. (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
• Burley M. Haṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice. — Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. — 321 p. — ISBN 81-208-1706-0.
• Chatterjee, Satischandra. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. — Eighth Reprint Edition. — Calcutta : University of Calcutta, 1984.
• Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. — Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1996. — ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
• Gambhirananda, Swami. Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. — Calcutta : Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1998. — ISBN 81-7505-194-9.
• Jacobsen, Knut A. (Editor). Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. — Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. — ISBN 9004147578. (Studies in the History of Religions, 110)
• Keay, John. India: A History. — New York : Grove Press, 2000. — ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
• Levy, Robert. Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. — University of California Press (англ.)русск., 1991. — ISBN 0520069110.
• Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. — Princeton, New Jersey : Princeton University Press, 2004. — ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
• Müller, Max (1899), Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika, Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd., ISBN 0-7661-4296-5 Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
• Patañjali (2001), Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, Studio 34 Yoga Healing Arts, <http://www.studio34yoga.com/yoga.php#reading>. Проверено 5 декабря 2008.
• Possehl, Gregory (2003), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, AltaMira Press (англ.)русск., ISBN 978-0759101722
• Radhakrishnan, S. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. — Princeton, 1967. — ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
• Taimni, I. K. The Science of Yoga. — Adyar, India : The Theosophical Publishing House, 1961. — ISBN 81-7059-212-7.
• Vivekananda, Swami. Raja Yoga. — Calcutta : Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1994. — ISBN 81-85301-16-6. 21st reprint edition.
• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, New York, New York: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01758-1 Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell.
• Arya, Usharbudh. Philosophy of Hatha Yoga. — Pennsylvania : Himalayan Institute Press, 1985. — ISBN 089389088X.
• Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. — Boston & London : Shambhala, 1996. — ISBN 157062142X.

Ссылки

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