1. Match the words make words combination.
1. adventure a) asleep
2. be fast b) cave
3. exlore a c) cut
4. gust of d) hat
5. hear a e) match
6. hidden f) noise
7. power g) pipe
8. smoke a h) story
9. strike a i) treasure
10. wear a j) wind
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Главная » Английский язык » 1. Match the words make words combination. 1. adventure a) asleep 2. be fast b) cave 3. exlore a c) cut 4. gust of d) hat 5. hear a e) match 6. hidden f) noise 7. power g) pipe 8. smoke a h) story 9. strike a i) treasure 10. wear a j) wind
Word Formation
Word Forms
Put each of the following words into its correct place in the sentences.
E.g. decide
(a) We must come to a ………. very soon.
(b) We beat them ………. We won 7:0.
(c) He can never make up his mind. He’s very ……….
Answers:
(a) decision (b) decisively (c) indecisive
1. beauty
(a) She is very ……….
(b) She’s training to be a ……….
(c) They’re going to ………. the town with more trees and parks.
2. pay
(a) To buy this car I made a monthly ………. of £280 for two years.
(b) Please make your cheque ………. to John Watson.
(c) The person a cheque is made out to is called the ……….
3. receive
(a) She works as a ………. at a hotel in Scotland.
(b) Ask for a ………. when you buy something, in case you need to return it.
(c) I made several suggestions to improve production, but the management was not very ………. to my ideas.
4. hero
(a) He received a medal for his ……….
(b) They fought ………. in the war.
(c) She was described as a ……….
5. produce
(a) ………. of the new sports car has been halted by a strike.
(b) China is one of the world’s leading ………. of rice.
(c) I’m afraid the talks were totally ………. We didn’t reach agreement on anything.
6. explain
(a) An ………. leaflet is given to all purchasers of the machine.
(b) His disappearance is very strange, in fact quite ……….
(c) I think you owe me an ………. for your behaviour.
7. compare
(a) This is ………. better than that. In fact, there is really no ……….
(b) Scientists have made ………. tests on the new drugs.
8. advise
(a) Until the situation has settled down, it is ………. to travel to that country.
(b) The government set up an ………. body on the use of drugs in sport.
(c) I doubt the ………. of drinking alcohol while undergoing that medical treatment
9. admire
(a) She was a pleasant, attractive girl, always surrounded by ……….
(b) I am full of ………. for what she has achieved.
(c) I approve of him wholeheartedly. He is an ………. man.
10. stable
(a) To ………. the boat in rough sea, we redistributed the weight.
(b) Between 1860 and 1900 the country had a number of revolutions and uprisings. It was a time of great ……….
(c) The exchange rate is going up and down dramatically. It’s very ………. at the moment.
11. economy
(a) We’re spending too much. We must ……….
(b) This car uses a lot of petrol. It’s terribly ……….
(c) The Chancellor (Minister of Finance) is responsible for ………. affairs.
12. reside
(a) This is the President’s official ……….
(b) There’s no industry or entertainment here. It’s a ………. district.
(c) All ………. of the neighbouring houses were warned of the gas leak.
13. comfort
(a) In that tense situation I found the good news very ……….
(b) I felt rather ………. , so I put a soft cushion behind me.
(c) She sat in terrible ………. on the hard chair for over an hour
14. dead
(a) The increasing number of ………. in traffic accidents is alarming.
(b) Be careful! That’s a ………. poison!
(c) The doctor gave him an injection to ………. the pain.
15. demonstrate
(a) The ………. marched through the streets chanting slogans.
(b) Grandfather rarely showed the affection he felt for his family. He was a very ………. , person.
(c) What you say is ………. false. Let me show you the facts.
16. imitate
(a) The bag is made of ………. leather.
(b) Small children ,ne very ………. in their behaviour. They just copy what they see.
(c) His acting style is ………. No one can copy him.
17. argue
(a) She had an ………. . with her husband last night.
(b) He’s a very bad-tempered, ………. chap. He’s always quarrelling.
(c) She is ………. the finest pianist in the world.
18. repeat
(a) He lost his temper and used disgusting, ………. language.
(b) In this essay you’ve said the same thing several times. It’s very ……….
(c) I hope there will be no ………. of this shocking behaviour.
19. fail
(a) She is very efficient, and ………. polite to the customers.
(b) He considered himself a ………. He had succeeded in nothing.
(c) It was difficult to see much in the ………. light.
20. courage
(a) His friends tried to ………. him from attempting the dangerous climb.
(b) She ………. stood in the way of the escaping robbers.
(c) His parents gave him a lot of ………. in his studies.
21. real
(a) I chunk it’s a bit ………. to hope that world peace can be gained so easily.
(b) He spends all his time in romantic daydreams. He’s lost touch with ……….
(c) Ladies and gentlemen, I am a ………. and I think we must face facts.
22. false
(a) She was accused of ………. the financial accounts.
(b) It is a ………. to say he did it when you know he didn’t.
(c) The ………. of his argument was obvious to everyone.
23. prophesy
(a) i am not a ………. and I would not like to make a ………. on whether the world can survive this age of nuclear weapons.
(b) What he wrote in 1930 was ………. Much of what he described has come true.
24. describe
(a) The damage caused by the earthquake cannot be imagined. It was ……….
(b) The teacher asked them to write a ………. passage about their home towns.
(c) The witness was able to give a full ………. of the wanted man.
25. friend
(a) The ………. between the two soon developed into love.
(b) In London she was ………. by a rich woman who looked after her and helped her.
(c) The desert is a dangerous ………. place.
26. sense
(a) He felt a strange, painful ………. in his back.
(b) Even the most ………. person ought to appreciate the beauty of this music.
(c) What an idiotic, ………. thing to do!
27. famous
(a) The ………. of the Beatles soon spread outside Britain.
(b) The day of the massacre will go down in history as a terrible, ………. day It was a day of ……….
28. defend
(a) I just want to ask you a few ordinary questions, so why don’t you relax? Why are you so ………. ?
(b) The government’s policy on arms is shocking. It is quite ……….
(c) We must do all we can for the ………. of this nation against possible attack.
29. agree
(a) What an unpleasant, ………. old woman she is!
(b) We finally reached ………. on the matter at midnight.
(c) I liked the place. I found the people, the weather and the food very ……….
30. possess
(a) In his will he left all his money and ………. to his wife.
(b) She was a very ………. mother. She gave her son very little freedom.
(c) The actor playing the main part should be the ………. of a very good voice, good looks and a very strong physique.
31. different
(a) I’m afraid I have to ………. I don’t agree with you at all.
(b) Politeness is one thing. Real kindness is another. You must learn to ………. between the two.
(c) We get along pretty well, although of course we have our ………. from time to time.
32. active
(a) The strike was organised by a group of political ……….
(b) The fire-prevention system is ………. by any small increase in temperature
(c) It is quite safe to go near the volcano. It has been ………. for years.
33. form
(a) It is especially important for children to have love and affection in their ………. years.
(b) The slight ………. in his left hand was corrected by surgery.
(c) The police are considering the ………. of a new anti-drugs unit.
34. compel
(a) Military service is no longer ………. in South Africa.
(b) Membership of the Students’ Club is entirely voluntary. There is no ………. whatsoever.
(c) All staff should attend the meeting. Only the most ………. reasons for absence will be accepted.
35. create
(a) Ian Fleming, the ………. of James Bond, died in 1964.
(b) Although she is very able technically, she isn’t ………. enough for this kind of work.
(c) The ………. of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation took place in 1949.
36. enthusiasm
(a) They threw themselves ………. into the new project.
(b) He’s a real golf ………. He loves the game.
(c) They didn’t really ………. over my idea. In fact there was some opposition.
37. necessary
(a) We regret that the present economic difficulties will ………. a reduction in our work force
(b) I sympathise with his point of view, but I don’t always ………. agree with him
(C) He lives very simply, with just the basic ………. of life
38. destroy
(a) The control centre is deep underground and completely ………. except by a direct hit from a nuclear missile
(b) War plans include the immediate ………. of all enemy military bases
(c) His criticism of my work was entirely ………. There was nothing useful or constructive m it at all
39. manage
(a) Talks between workers and ………. have broken down and a strike now seems unavoidable
(b) The boy was very violent and his parents found him ……….
(c) To improve his qualifications he’s taking a course in ………. skills
40. believe
(a) It was an incredible story, quite ……….
(b) She is a person of very strong religious ……….
(c) His explanation was obviously false and the judge made no attempt to hide his ……….
PORTMANTEAU WORDS
New expressions are often created by combining parts of two words. ‘Smog’ is a combination of ‘smoke’ and ‘fog’ A film about someone’s life is sometimes called a ‘biopic’ (biographical picture). A ‘bedsit’ is a room which serves as both a bedroom and sitting room These combinations are called ‘portmanteau’ words. Can you explain the following?
Swatch
hazchem
Chunnel
vegeburger
fantabulous
brunch
Oxbridge
camcorder
shopaholic
ginormous
motel
Interpol
guesstimate
ScotRail
Amex
Oxfam
Eurovision
fanzine
ecotastrophe
docudrama
Answers :
1 a) beautiful b) beautician c) beautify
2 a) payment b) payable c) payee
3 a) receptionist
b) receipt c) receptive
4 a) heroism b) heroically c) heroine
5 a) production b) producers c) unproductive
6 a) explanatory b) inexplicable c) explanation
7 a) incomparably, comparison b) comparative
8 a) inadvisable b) advisory c) advisability
9 a) admirers b) admiration c) admirable
10 a) stabilise b) instability c) unstable
11 a) economise b) uneconomical c) economic
12 a) residence b) residential c) residents
13 a) comforting b) uncomfortable c) discomfort
14 a) deaths b) deadly c) deaden
15 a) demonstrators b) undemonstrative c) demonstrably
16 a) imitation b) imitative c) inimitable
17 a) argument b) argumentative c) arguably
18 a) unrepeatable b) repetitive c) repetition
19 a) unfailingly b) failure c) failing
20 a) discourage b) courageously c) encouragement
21 a) unrealistic b) reality c) realist
22 a) falsifying b) falsehood c) falsity
23 a) prophet, prophecy b) prophetic
24 a) indescribable b) descriptive c) description
25 a) friendship b) befriended c) unfriendly
26 a) sensation b) insensitive c) senseless
27 a) fame b) infamous, infamy
28 a) defensive b) indefensible c) defence
29 a) disagreeable b) agreement c) agreeable
30 a) possessions b) possessive c) possessor
31 a) differ b) differentiate c) differences
32 a) activists b) activated c) Inactive
33 a) formative b) deformity c) formation
34 a) compulsory b) compulsion c) compelling
35 a) creator b) creative c) creation
36 a) enthusiastically b) enthusiast c) enthuse
37 a) necessitate b) necessarily c) necessities
38 a) indestructible b) destruction c) destructive
39 a) management b) unmanageable c) managerial / management
40 a) unbelievable b) beliefs c) disbelief
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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups
KEY TERMS
Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.
Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur
Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words
Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).
Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.
The syntagmatic relation explains:
• The word position and order.
• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.
The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)
Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words
The adjective yellow:
1. color: a yellow dress;
2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;
3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS
Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.
Some examples of collocations:
- Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
- Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
- Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
- Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
- Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
- Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.
Idioms
Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.
Idioms are distinct from collocations:
- The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
- The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom
It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.
Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:
- Break a leg.
- Miss the boat.
- Call it a day.
- It’s raining cats and dogs.
- Kill two birds with one stone.
Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.
Compare,
a) read books
b) read many books
c) read very many books.
In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).
The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.
The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.
The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.
Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.
It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.
With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.
It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero
(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.
Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.
Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:
• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;
• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:
• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);
• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.
• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Types of word combinations:
- Semantically:
- free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
- set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
- Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
- noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
- verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
- adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
- adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
- pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
- According to the number of the components:
- simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
- Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.
Classifications of word-groups:
- through the order and arrangement of the components:
• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);
• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);
- by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:
• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);
• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);
- according to the headword:
• nominal (beautiful garden);
• verbal (to fly high);
• adjectival (lucky from birth);
- according to the syntactic pattern:
• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);
• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:
(a) subordinative (modern technology);
(b) coordinative (husband and wife).
4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.
The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements
Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;
To fall into a rage – to get angry.
Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.
A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.
Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.
Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:
- My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
- The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
- If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)
Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:
- Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
- i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
- I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
- Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)
Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:
- It was a dark and stormy night
- Once upon a time
- There I was
- All’s well that ends well
- They lived happily ever after
6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word
Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.
The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:
- trains run — поезда ходят;
- a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
- It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
- Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.
Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».
«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».
«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».
The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:
«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.
| Worth & Worthy | |
| Worth is used to say that something has a value:
• Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency:
|
Worthy:
• If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency:
|
| Ensure, insure, assure | ||
| Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’.
Valency:
|
Insure — make sure
Valency:
|
Assure:
• to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency:
|
| Observance & Observation | |
| Observance:
• the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day. |
Observation:
• the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency:
|
| Go & Walk | |
|
Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’:
• A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency:
|
| Influence & Влияние | |
| Influence:
• A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency:
|
Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо.
Сочетаемость:
|
| Hold & Держать | |
| Hold:
• to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency:
|
Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть
Сочетаемость:
|
- Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:
| Chance | Шанс |
|
|
| Situation | Ситуация |
|
|
| Partner | Партнёр |
|
|
| Surprise | Сюрприз |
|
|
| Risk | Риск |
|
|
| Instruction | Инструкция |
|
|
| Satisfaction | Сатисфакция |
|
|
| Business | Бизнес |
|
|
| Manager | Менеджер |
|
|
| Challenge | Челлендж |
|
|
10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:
- acute, keen, sharp (knife, mind, sight):
• acute mind;
• keen sight;
• sharp knife;
- abysmal, deep, profound (ignorance, river, sleep);
• abysmal ignorance;
• deep river;
• profound sleep;
- unconditional, unqualified (success, surrender):
• unconditional surrender;
• unqualified success;
- diminutive, miniature, petite, petty, small, tiny (camera, house, speck, spite, suffix, woman):
• diminutive suffix;
• miniature camera/house;
• petite woman;
• petty spite;
• small speck/camera/house;
• tiny house/camera/speck;
- brisk, nimble, quick, swift (mind, revenge, train, walk):
• brisk walk;
• nimble mind;
• quick train;
• swift revenge.
11. Collocate deletion: One word in each group does not make a strong word partnership with the word on Capitals. Which one is Odd One Out?
1) BRIGHT idea green
smell
child day room
2) CLEAR
attitude
need instruction alternative day conscience
3) LIGHT traffic
work
day entertainment suitcase rain green lunch
4) NEW experience job
food
potatoes baby situation year
5) HIGH season price opinion spirits
house
time priority
6) MAIN point reason effect entrance
speed
road meal course
7) STRONG possibility doubt smell influence
views
coffee language
SERIOUS
advantage
situation relationship illness crime matter
- Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.
| Sentence | Meaning |
| The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon. | The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon |
| Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores. | Animals whose main diet is meat |
| A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods. | deliberately avoid |
| After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country. | full of incessant or frantic activity. |
| Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say. | grasp mentally; understand.to perceive |
| The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him. | to calm down someone |
| It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry. | necessary |
| The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors. | The dream about some achievements |
| In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.” | The person who have a lot of power |
| After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request. | to Agree with some request |
| He is devoid of human feelings. | Someone have the lack of something |
| This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes. | produce or provide |
| It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students. | good relationship |
The word smog comes from smoke and fog. Smog is a sort of fog with other substances mixed in. Smog has been here a long time. Billions of years ago, volcanoes sent millions of tons of ash and smoke into the air. Winds whipped up dust clouds. Animal and vegetable matter decayed, adding polluting gases.
When people came along, they began to produce their own kind of air pollution. They discovered fire. In the Middle Ages, people in cities such as London used soft coal to heat their homes. The smoke from these fires, combined with moisture in the air, produced dense lavers of smog. The smog would blanket the city for days, particularly in winter. The heat generated in large cities tends to circulate air within a dome-like shape. This traps the smog and holds it over the city.
Smog, and the chemicals and other substances in it, can be harmful, even deadly. Smog blurs vision. It irritates the eyes, the throat, and the lungs. Eyes water, throats get sore, people cough. Smog can make people ill. And it can make sick people sicker. Air pollution has been linked to eczema, asthma, emphysema, cardiovascular difficulties, and lung and stomach cancer. It also has a harmful effect on the environment. Food crops and animals suffer. Paint may peel from houses. It is obvious that we must do everything possible to reduce man-made atmospheric pollutants and smog.
Smog, along with smoke, is the most visible evidence of atmospheric pollution. But some atmospheric pollution is not visible and may not become visible until it is mixed with moisture. Lead compounds from leaded gasoline, hydrocarbons (unburned gasoline), carbon monoxide, and other gases may pollute the air without being seen. All air is polluted to some extent. That is, all air carries some polluting substances. Much of it is natural: smoke and ash from volcanoes, dust stirred up by the wind, compounds given off by growing vegetation, gases given off by rotting animal and vegetable matter, salt particles from the oceans, and so on.
Man adds to these pollutants by burning coal, oil, gas, gasoline, and many other things.
Before we get to the automobile, however, let us review what we know about combustion. Most fuels, such as coal, gasoline, and wood, contain hydrogen and carbon in various chemical combinations. During combustion oxygen unites with the hydrogen and carbon to form water, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
In addition, many fuels contain sulfur; this burns to produce sulfur oxides. Also, in the heat of combustion, some of the nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides. Some of the fuel may not burn completely, so that smoke and ash are formed. Smoke is simply particles of unburned fuel and soot, called particulates, mixed with air.
Altogether, it is estimated that 200 million tons of man-made pollutants enter the air every year in the United States alone. This is about a ton for every man, woman, and child in the country!
This man-made pollution is what clean-air laws are aimed at.
Consider Los Angeles a large city set in basin with about 7,000,000 inhabitants. It is surrounded on three sides by mountains and on the fourth by the Pacific Ocean. When the wind blows out over the ocean, it sweeps away pollutants. But at other times, the air is stagnant. Smoke and other pollutants from industry and automobiles do not blow away. They just build up into a thick, smelly, foggy layer of smog. The location of Los Angeles, plus all the people and industry there, make it one of the biggest “smog centers” in the country. And it is Los Angeles which has led in measures to reduce smog.
Los Angeles has banned unrestricted burning, for example, burning trash. Incinerators without controls were outlawed. Industry was forces to change combustion processes and add controls to reduce pollutants coming from their chimneys. Laws were passed that required the addition of emission controls on automobiles. All these measures have significantly reduced atmospheric pollution in the Los Angeles area.
If not controlled, the automobile can give off pollutants from four places. Pollutants can come from the fuel tank, the carburetor, the crank-case, and the tail pipe. Pollutants fro the fuel tank and carburetor consist of gasoline vapors. Pollutants from the crankcase consist of partly burned air-fuel mixture that has blown by the piston rings. Pollutants from the tail pipe consist of partly burned gasoline, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and- if there is sulfur in the gasoline – sulfur oxides.