The word has a phonological and semantic aspects b phonological and syntactic aspects

Basic problems of lexicology:
Semasiology and semantic classification of words;
Word groups and phraseological units;
Word structure;
Word formation;
Etymological survey of the English vocabulary;
aspects of vocabulary units and ways of
replenishment of Modern English word-stock;
• Variants and dialects of Modern English;
• Fundermentals of the English Lexicography;
• Methods and proceedures of lexicological analysis.
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The word as a basic unit of language
(semasiology)
• The definition of the word is one of the
most difficult questions in Linguistics.
• A word has different aspects: it is
simultaneously a phonological,
grammatical / morphological and
semantic unit.
Jackson and Z. Amvela:
Presented three approaches to a word
definition:
1) Word as a unit made up of letters with
spaces before and after it. But….
(phonograph record = one unit of
meaning);
2) Psycological approach: word is a unit of
thought , but ….phono – graph re-cord.
3) Formal analysis suggested by Bloomfield
in the 1920s does not handle relational
words, (conjunctions, particles,
prepositions, interjactions) and
grammatical morphems very well.
9 facets of the word:
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Phonology – the sound form
Orthography a word’s written form
Reference – what the word indicates
Semantics – word meaning
Register – how a word is used appropriately
Collocation – words that go together
• Word association – the network of
mental word links
• Syntax – how a word fits into grammar
• Morphology – the units that make up the
form of a word
Defining «word»
Jackson and Ze Amvela, 2007
«We shall consider a word as an
uninterruptible unit of structure consisting
of one or more morphemes and which
typically occurs in the structure of
phrases».
WORD
• A group of sounds with a grammatical
function. It is a semantic, phonological
and grammatical unit.
• Constantly changing in form and meaning
• Lexicologists study the contrasts and
similarities between words (and phrases)
and how these change over time.
Arthur Meillet:
«The word is the basic unit of a given
language, resulting from the association of
a particular meaning with a particular group
of sounds capable of a particular
grammatical
empolyment».
(how
to
distinguish a word from phrase?)
The word is the smallest unit of a given
language capable of functioning
independently /alone and characterized by
positional mobility within a sentence,
morphological uninterruptability and
semantic integrity.
A word is the smallest communicative unit
of a language, characterized by certain
syntactic distribution/ position in a
sentence, morphological unity and
semantic integrity.
• A word is the largest unit on the
morphological level and the smallest on
the syntactic level of the linguistic
analysis.
• A word is a two-facet unit, possessing a
form and a content (meaning), which is
used ready-made and not created in
speech.
Word as grammatical unity
A word possesses an ability to exist as a
system/unity of all its forms creating its
paradigm and variants: lexical-semantic,
morphological, phonetic and graphic.
PARADIGM
• The system showing a word in all its
word-forms;
• The lexical meaning of a word is the
same throughut its paradigm: give-givesgave-giving,given; ……
Lexical varieties = variants of
words
• A polysemantic word in one of its
meanings in which it is used in speech is
described as a lexiccal-semantic variant
(A.I.Smernitsky):
Lexical-semantic variants of a word:
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Learn
Learn
Learn
Learn
at school
the news
a language
about something/somebody
variants of a word:
• Often [often]/[ofen] – phonetic
• Birdy/birdie – graphic
• Phonetic/ phonetical – morphological,
(but : historic / historical)
lexeme
Within the language system the word
exists as a system and unity of all its forms
and variants:
to go- went- gone, have gone; good –
better – the best; badly – worse – the
worst.
• In actual speech a polyemantic word is
used in one of its variants.
• A slight change in its morphemic or
phonemic form does not affect its lexical
meaning.
Semantic relations in English
• Polysemy
• Homonymy
POLYSEMY
is a situation when a word has two or more
related meanings: mark (22)
HOMONYMY
• the words have the same form – written
identically and/or sound the same but
have entirely different meanings: bank,
TYPES OF HOMONYNY
• Homographs – bored (бурить)/bored
(скучающий): same spelling, same sound
form but different meaning;
• Homophones – board (доска)/bored
(бурить): same sound form, but the
spelling and meaning are different.
Determine relationships between these
homonyms
• Lead pipe
• Led the troops
• Led Zeppelin
SEMASIOLOGY
A branch of Lexicology devoted to the
study of meaning.
Lexical units: words, morphemes,
phraseological units, word-groups or
phrases – all have form and meaning and
therefore treated by semasiology
WORD-MEANING
• Referential approach seeks to establish
interdependence between words and
objects or notions of the objective reality
they denote.
• Functional approach studies the function
of the word in speech and is less
concerned with what the meaning is
than with how it works.
REFERENTIAL APPROACH
COMPONENTS
• THE SOUND FORM OF THE LINGUISTIC
SIGN
• THE CONCEPT
• THE ACTUAL REFERENT (belongs to
the actual reality)
• The meaning is in some form or other
connected with the referent.
Conventional and arbitrary
nature
• [kot] = cot / кот / cod
• Seal [si:l] = a sea animal / a piece of
wax = homonyms
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Sound form – concept- referent
Symbol- thought of reference – referent
Sign – meaning – thing meant
Sign – designatum — denotatum
Meaning and sound form are arbitrary
connected:
Sound form may change in the course of
time but it does not really change the
meaning:
Lufian [luvian] – love [lˆv] = hold dear,
cherish.
Meaning is not identical with concept or
concepts:
Fixed residence of family or household –
home (not house, which is a building)/ дом
Concept is a category of human cognition.
Synonyms express one and the same
concept but have different meanings: look,
stare, glare, gaze, watch, peep, etc.
Meaning and referent
• Meaning is a linguistic matter and
referent belongs to the extralinguistic
reality.
• We can denote one and the same object
or phenomenon by more than one word
of a different meaning: apple = fruit –
something , this, it; summer = season,
holiday time, part of the year,
june+july+august.
Meaning cannot be equated with the
actual properties of the referent
Water =H2O the meaning of water as a
substance we all know is not identical by
its chemical formular; salt = NaCl;
Angel, demon, phoenix, unicon – the
meanings are understood by the speakerhearer, but the objects they denote do not
exist. Hobbit, troll, ogre, …..
• Meaning is not to be identified with any
points of the referential/semantic
triangle
MEANING IN THE REFERENTIAL
APPROACH
A.I. Smirnitsky: «meaning ia a certain
reflection in our mind of objects,
phenomena or relations that makes part of
the linguistic sign – it’s so called inner
facet, whereas the sound form functions as
its outer facet».
The outer facet of a linguistic sign is
indispensable to meaning and
communication.
FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
The meaning of a linguistic unit may be
studied only through its relation to other
linguistic units and not through its relation
to either concept or referent.
To move / movement – are two different
words because they occupy different
positions in relation to other words and
function differently in communication:
• Move a chair; move house; do not move;
move slowly/ fast;
• Movement of something/sb; someone’s
movement, slow/fast; akward/graceful
movement, etc.
• But: indispensible = indispensable;
realize/realise
• As the distribution of the two words is
different, and they belong to different
word classes, their meanings are
different too:
• the birds are pecking at their food.
• finally Sandie understood the pecking
order in the family.
In the functional approach
1)semantic investigation is confined to the
analysis of the sameness or difference of
meaning; 2)
meaning is understood esentially as the
function of the use of linguistic units.
• Distribution = the position of a linguistic
unit in relation to other linguistic units.
Which approach to choose?
• The two approaches are applied together
and complement each other:
Fauw pas – commit a major faux pas;
Now came the moment to commit his
major faux pas – he asked David how his
wife was doing, not knowing they had
divorsed last week.
TYPES OF MEANING

ТЕСТ II

Выберите правильный ответ:

1. The concept “style”

1. is so broad that it is hardly possible to regard it as a term; b) has just one appropriate definition; c) has never been investigated before. e) doesn’t exist

1. The intensifying forms of the language which have been fixed in grammars and dictionaries and some of which are normalized are called

a)stylistic devices b)expressive means c)styles d)functions.

3. The repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words is the case of:

a) alliteration b) assonance c) onomatopoeia d) graphon

4. A sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing is the effect of:

a) alliteration b) cacophony c) euphony d) assonance

5. The intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called:

a) grapheme b) gradation c) graphis d) graphon

6. All changes of the type, spacing of graphemes and of lines we should refer to:

a) Lexical SDs b) Phonetic EMs c) Syntactical Ems d) Graphical EMs

7. Words imitating natural sounds that immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound are the cases of:

a) straight onomatopoeia b) indirect onomatopoeia c)strict onomatopoeia d) direct onomatopoeia 6.The repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words generally placed at a regular distance from each other is:

a) rhyme b)assonance c)rhythm d)alliteration

7. Lexical EMs in which a word combination is used figuratively are called:

a) tracks b) tropes c) metaphor d)metonymy

8. According to the degree of unexpectedness stylistic devices which are commonly used in speech and are fixed in dictionaries as EMs of language are called:

a) tracks b)tropes c)trite d)genuine

9. Define the nature of the semantic change in the word ―camp‖ (original meaning: ‗the place where troops are lodged in tents‘; acquired meaning: ‗temporary quarters, eg. of travellers, nomads, etc.‘)

A) specialization of meaning

B) generalization of meaning

C) similarity of meaning (metaphor)

D) contiguity of meaning (metonymy)

10. The words ―kolkhoz‖ and ―collective farm‖ are both borrowings from Russian with the same meaning. Still, they appeared in English due to two different processes. What were they?
ТЕСТ 2.

Вариант 1

1. What does Lexicology, a brunch of linguistics study?

A. It is the study of sentences.

B. It is the study of words.

C. It is the study of definitions.

D. It is the study of aspects.

E. It is the study of sounds.

2.What is the name of the area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word?

A. It is called semantics.

B. It is called phraseology.

C. It is called grammar.

D. It is called semasiology.

E. It is called sociolinguistics.

3.What do we mean by external structure of the word?

A. We mean its lexical meaning.

B. We mean its lexico-grammatical structure.

C. We mean its morphological structure.

D. We mean its semantic structure.

E. We mean its linguistic structure.

4. On what level is the word studied in its relationships with other words the vocabulary system?

A. It is studied on the simple level.

B. It is studied on the historical level.

C. It is studied on the modern level.

D. It is studied on the syntagmatic level.

E. It is studied on the paradigmatic level.

5.What is the smallest meaningful unit of speech?

A. The smallest meaningful unit of speech is a stem.

B. The smallest meaningful unit of speech is a word.

C. The smallest meaningful unit of speech is a sound.

D. The smallest meaningful unit of speech is a morpheme.

E. The smallest meaningful unit of speech is a root.

6.Which words do we call homonyms?

A. Homonyms are words which are identical in writing.

B. Homonyms are the words which are identical in pronunciation.

C. Homonyms are the words which are identical in speaking.

D. Homonyms are the words which are identical in sound and spelling.

E. Homonyms are the words which are identical in their meaning.

7. What is the leading semantic component in the semantic structure of the word?

A. The leading component is termed connotative component.

B. The leading component is called componential analysis.

C. The leading component in the word is termed transformational component.

D. The leading component is termed denotative component.

E. The leading component is called simple component.

8.What is the main way of enriching and enlarging the English vocabulary?

A. The main way of enriching the English vocabulary is word-building.

B. The main way of enriching the English vocabulary is affixation.

C. The main way of enriching the English vocabulary is conversion.

D. The main way of enriching the English vocabulary is composition.

E. The main way of enriching enlarging the English vocabulary is contraction.

Вариант 2

Выберите правильный ответ

1.What do we mean by derivation?

A. It is a structural type of Modern English words.

B. It is a process of developing English words.

C. It is one of the most productive ways of word-building.

D. It is a way of forming a new meaning.

E. It is a process of producing a new sound.

2. Which categories of parts of speech are especially affected by conversion?

A. The three categories affected by conversion are verbs, nouns and adverbs.

B. The category of parts of speech affected by conversion is nouns.

C. The category of parts of speech affected by conversion is verbs.

D. The two categories of speech affected by conversion are nouns and verbs.

E. All categories of parts of speech are affected by conversion.

3. Metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole are … .

A. types of grammar change.

B. types of literary change.

C. types of semantic change.

D. types of general change.

E. types of morphological change.

4 By borrowing (or loan-word) we mean a word which came …

A. into the vocabulary of one language from another language.

B. into the vocabulary of many languages from one language.

C. into the stock of words of different languages from any foreign language.

D. into the vocabulary of one language from 2 or 3 other languages.

E. into the vocabulary without any changes.

5. The conversion, derivation and composition are … .

A. the productive ways of word-building.

B. the productive ways of producing new words.

C. the productive ways of forming new meanings.

D. the productive ways of developing the language.

E. the productive ways of forming the vocabulary.

6. All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: …. and ….

A. stems and roots.

B. roots and suffixes.

C. suffixes and affixes.

D. roots and affixes.

E. prefixes and affixes.

7. The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by … .

A. deriving words from different languages to some root morpheme.

B. adding a suffix to some root.

C. adding a stem to some root.

D. adding an affix to some root.

E. adding some endings to some root.

8. ….. consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech.

A. Derivation.

B. Composition.

C. Affixation.

D. Conversion.

E. Formation.
ТЕСТ 3.

Вариант 1.

Выберите правильный ответ

1. This type of word-building consists in producing a new word by combining two or more stems.

A. It is conversion.

B. It is composition.

C. It is affixation.

D. It is derivation.

E. It is shortening.

2.What three aspects of composition are there in the English language?

A. They are grammar, neutral and syntactic.

B. They are syntactic, morphological and linguistic.

C. They are simple, neutral and morphological.

D. They are compound, simple and neutral.

E. They are neutral, morphological and syntactic.

3. What are the four types which represent the main structural types of Modern English words?

A. root words, derivatives, compounds and international words.

B. root words, derived words, loan words and shortenings.

C. root words, derived words, compounds and shortenings.

D. compounds, shortenings, homonyms and root words.

E. shortenings, loan words, synonyms and root words.

4. What is the common word for such terms as «set expressions, fixed word- groups, set phrases»?

A. Collocation.

B. Unit.

C. Phraseological unit.

D. Set word-group.

E. Phrase group.

5. What is the basis of the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological unit?

A. It is based on their associations.

B. It is based on their linguistic characteristics.

C. It is based on the semantic principle.

D. It is based on their structural characteristics.

E. It is based on their original content.

6. There are words which are avoided because they ….

A. are considered too simple.

B. are considered delicate.

C. are considered rude and impolite.

D. are considered ridiculous.

E. are considered funny and foolish.

7. How do we call the process of development of a new meaning?

A. We term it »similarity».

B. We term it «transference».

C. We term it «semantic process».

D. We term it «association».

E. We term it «slang».

8. Contracted words are produced in two different ways: the first is to make a new word from a syllable of the original word. What is the second?

A. to make a new word from the root of the original word.

B. to make a new word from the last letters of a word-group.

C. to make a new word from the stem of the word.

D. to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group.

E. to make a new word from the affixes of the original words.
Вариант 2.

Выберите правильный ответ

1. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which deals with…

a) the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words and with the patterns after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences

b) the outer sound form of the word

c) exical units and the vocabulary of a language

d) the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices and with the investigation of each style of language

2. What is Special Lexicology?

a) It is the lexicology of any language

b) It is the lexicology of a particular language

3. Synchronic lexicology deals with …

a) the change and development of vocabulary in the course of time

b) vocabulary at a given stage of language development, usually at the present time

4. The word has …

a) phonological and semantic aspects

b) phonological and syntactic aspects

c) phonological, semantic, syntactic aspects

5. By external structure of the word we mean …

a) its meaning

b) its morphological structure

6. Which branch of lexicology deals with the meaning of words and other linguistic units?

а) Onomasiology

b) Semasiology

c) Lexical Morphology

7. Which of the two main approaches to lexical meaning studies the connection between words and things or concepts they denote?

a) the referential approach

b) the functional approach

8. The content plane of the word includes …

a) lexical meaning

b) lexical and grammatical meaning

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Комплект заданий для контрольной работы
Контрольная работа 1

Вариант 1

1. Paraphrase the following sentences using an adjective with the suffix «-able (-ibie)». Make other necessary changes.

M o d e l I: We were prepared to accept the terms offered. The terms offered were acceptable.

1. She was used to living in comfort. 2. There seems to be a lot of sense in his suggestion. 3. He says that he has all the illnesses that one can only imagine. 4. Be careful with the vase, it’s easy to break. 5. The weather in England changes several times a day. 6. The old

coal mine can still be worked. 7. My advice is that you should get in touch with the manager. 8. The idea can be easily put into practice.

M o d e l II: I could hardly recognize him.

He was unrecognizable.

1. The child was difficult to manage. 2. I saw no reason in his demands. 3. He had no words to describe the joy he felt. 4. The beer tastes flat, it’s not fit to drink. 5. His sufferings were difficult to imagine. 6. There is no possibility to get a ticket for the show. 7. There was no mistaking the pride with which he spoke of his son. 8. The question had no answer. 9. His behaviour was impossible to explain.

2. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word from the list: below. asleep, awake, alone, alike, ashamed, alive

1. The pain in the leg kept her … all night. 2. He settled down comfortably in an armchair and never noticed how he fell… . 3. The two brothers were very much … . 4. The noisy company had departed and he was … at last. 5. He was more dead than … with fear. 6. He was … of his behaviour.

3. Give words of the same roots in Russian. Compare the meaning.

canary, palm (tree), breeze, platform, signal, comfortable, cement, separate, residence.

4. Translate the following, using suitable phrasal verbs from the list below.

L i s t: to set up; to fill up; to keep up; to clear up; to cheer up; to turn up (2); toj make up; to take up (2); to grow up; to wash-up;

1. Памятник герою был установлен на центральной площади города. 2. Бланк оказался заполненным неправильно. 3. Часы пробили семь, пора было вставать. 4. Дети выросли, но все еще часто обращались к родителям за практическим советом. 5. Когда он наконец появился, обсуждение уже подходило к концу. 6. Случай, описанный в книге, не придуман. Все так и было на самом деле. 7. Профессор почему-то настаивал, чтобы именно я занялся этой проблемой. 8. После ужина она сразу же пошла на кухню помочь матери вымыть посуду. 9. Ей не хотелось вступать в спор, не выяснив до конца всех подробностей дела. 10. Я несколько раз безуспешно пытался завести с ним разговор на тему о моей будущей поездке. Он каждый раз отмалчивался. 11. Иногда бывает достаточно одного слова, чтобы приободрить человека. 12. Наконец-то подвернулась работа, которая полностью отвечала его вкусам. 13. Уметь поддержать разговор — большое искусство.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

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  1 слайд

  Word as the basic unit of language
  Lecture 2.

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  2 слайд

  § 1. The Definition of the Word
  A successful definition should 1) contain essential features of a word and 2) draw a sharp borderline between various linguistic units:
  1.1. word and phoneme (Oh! I)
  1.2. word and morpheme (man, wise, ism)
  1.3. word and phrase (all right, alarm clock, the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another)

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  3 слайд

  1.1. Unity of form and meaning
  Word — Form

  phonetic/graphic morphological structure grammar form
  Essential features
  Word – Meaning

  denotational connotational lexico-grammatic grammatic

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  1.2. When used in sentences words are syntactically organized. Their freedom of entering into syntactic constructions is limited by rules and constraints
  They told me this story vs. They spoke me this story
  to deny smth categorically vs. to admit categorically

  1.3. Words are characterized by (in)ability to occur in different situations
  In a business letter: ‘I was a bit put out to hear that you are not going to place the order with us’
  To a friend: ‘I regret to inform you that our meeting will have to be postponed.

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  5 слайд

  Distinctive features: Within the scope of linguistics the word has been defined syntactically, semantically, phonologically and by combining various approaches.
  Syntactic: H. Sweet «the minimum sentence“
  L. Bloomfield «a minimum free form».
  Syntactic and semantic aspects:
  E. Sapir — «one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated ‘meaning’, into which the sentence resolves itself. It cannot be cut into without a disturbance of meaning”.
  Indivisibility criterion: A lion is a word-group because we can insert other words between them: a living lion. Alive is a word: it is indivisible, nothing can be inserted between its elements.
  Semantic:
  Stephen Ullmann: “words are meaningful units.»

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  6 слайд

  Semantic-phonological approach:
  A.H.Gardiner: «A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect of denoting something which is spoken about.»
  Thus, a satisfying word-definition should reflect the following features as borrowed from the above explanations:
  the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds
  capable of a particular grammatical employment
  the smallest significant unit, used in isolation
  capable of functioning alone
  characterized by morphological uninterruptability and
  having semantic integrity

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  7 слайд

  § 2. Types of lexical units
  The units/elements of a vocabulary are lexical units, which means that they are two-facet elements possessing form and meaning.
  Set expressions or groups of words into which words may be combined
  Morphemes which are parts of words, into which words may be analyzed
  They are, apart from words:

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  Morphemes are structural units which either form a new word or modify its meaning. Their meaning is of more abstract and general nature. Morphemes can’t function alone and deny grammar change.

  Set expressions are word groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated so that they are introduced in speech ready-made as units with a specialized meaning of the whole that is not understood as a mere sum total of the meanings of the elements.

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  9 слайд

  are the biggest units of morphology and the smallest of syntax
  embody the main structural properties and functions of the language (nominative, significative, communicative and pragmatic)
  can be used in isolation
  are thought of as having a single referent or represent a concept, a feeling, an action
  are the smallest units of written discourse: they are marked off by solid spelling
  segmentation of a sentence into words is easily done by an illiterate speaker, but that of a word into morphemes presents sometimes difficulties even for trained linguists
  are written as a sequence of letters bounded by spaces on a page (with exceptions)
  Wоrds are the central elements of language system = we speak in words and not otherwise, because they :

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  10 слайд

  Thus, the vocabulary of a language is not homogeneous, it’s made of sets with blurred boundaries
  WORDS
  morphemes
  set expressions
  phrasal verbs
  adaptive abstract system
  selective reflection
  Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
  Functional vs. referential approach

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  11 слайд

  § 3. Types of words
  Eight Kinds of Words by Tom McArthur:

  The orthographic word
  (a visual sign with space around: colour vs. color)
  The phonological word
  (a spoken signal: a notion vs. an ocean)
  The morphological word
  (a unity behind variants of form
  The lexical word
  (lexeme, full word as related to a thing, action or state in the world)

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  12 слайд

  The grammatical word
  (form word, a closed set of conj-s, determiners, particles, pronouns, etc.)
  The onomastic word
  (words with unique reference: Napoleon)
  The lexicographical word
  (a word as an entry in the dictionary)
  The statistical word
  (each letter or group of letters from space to space)

• 

  13 слайд

  Types of words as regards their structure, semantics and function (E.M. Mednicova):

  MORPHOLOGICALLY:
  Monomorphemic: root-words
  Polymorphemic: derivatives, compounds, compound-
  derivatives, derivational compounds

  SEMANTICALLY:
  Monosemantic: words having only one lexical meaning and denoting, accordingly, one concept

  Polysemantic: words having several meanings, thus denoting a whole set of related concepts grouped according to the national peculiarities of a given language

• 

  14 слайд

  SYNTACTICALLY:
  Categorematic: notional words
  Syncategorematic: form-words

  STYLISTICALLY:
  Neutral
  Elevated (bookish) (steed, to commence, spouse, slay, maiden)
  Colloquial (smart, cute, chap, trash, horny)
  Substandard words (vulgarisms, taboo, jargon argot, slang), etc (there are various other stylistic groupings).

  ETYMOLOGICALLY:
  Native
  Borrowed
  Hybrid
  international words

• 

  15 слайд

  Practical tasks # 2
  Which criterion can be used to distinguish word from other language units? Match:
  a) Phoneme1) meaningful unit able of functioning alone
  b) Morpheme2) unity of form and meaning
  c) Free phrase 3) semantic integrity
  2. Which units from the list below are not lexical units?
  Shchd) he is a genius
  To make firee) in a nutshell
  Did f) dogs

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  16 слайд

  3. How many lexemes are there in the phrase:
  Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you.
  4. Which one of these words is monosemantic?
  to get, a cat, an aspen-tree, to borrow, a ball, to follow.

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Word
– the basic unit of language. It directly corresponds to the object
of thought (referent) – which is generalized reverberation of a
certain “slice, piece” of objective reality and by immediately
referring to it names the thing meant. We distinguish
morphologically. 1. monomorphemic (root-words) 2. Polymorphemic
words, i.e. derivatives(производное
от
какого-либо
слова),
compounds, derivational compounds; semantically: monosemantic (one
meaning, one concept; Polysemantic:
words
having several meanings, thus denoting a whole set of related
concepts grouped according to the national peculiarities of a given
language; Syntactically:Categorematic:
notional
(значимые)
words
Syncategorematic: form-words
Stylistically:Neutral,
Elevated
(bookish) (steed,
to commence, spouse, slay, maiden) Colloquial
(smart,
cute, chap, trash, horny), Substandard
(не
соответствующий языковой норме)
words (vulgarisms,
taboo, jargon argot, slang),
etc (there
are various other stylistic groupings).
Etymologically:
Native, Borrowed,
Hybrid,
international
words

Wоrds
are the central elements of language system = we speak in words and
not otherwise, because they: 1) are
the biggest units of morphology and the smallest of syntax 2) embody
(воплощают
в
себе)
the main structural properties and functions of the language
(nominative, significative, communicative and pragmatic) 3) can be
used in isolation 4) are thought of as having a single referent or
represent a concept, a feeling, an action 5) are the smallest units
of written discourse: they are marked off by solid spelling 6)
segmentation of a sentence into words is easily done by an illiterate
speaker, but that of a word into morphemes presents sometimes
difficulties even for trained linguists 7) are written as a sequence
of letters bounded by spaces on a page (with exceptions)

word
and phoneme (Oh!
I)
word and morpheme (man,
wise, ism)
word and phrase (all
right, alarm clock, the reciprocal pronouns each other and one
another)

Essential
features 1.Unity
of form and meaning Word – Form:
phonetic/graphic
morphological structure grammar form; Word – Meaning:
denotational
connotational lexico-grammatic grammatic 2.
When used in sentences words are syntactically
organized. Their freedom of entering into syntactic constructions is
limited by rules and constraints (They told
me this story vs. They spoke
me this story) 3. Words are characterized by (in)ability to occur in
different situations
(In a business letter: ‘I was a bit put
out
to hear that you are not going to place the order with us’)

Distinctive
(отличительные)
features:
Within the scope of linguistics the word has been defined
syntactically, semantically, phonologically and by combining various
approaches.

Syntactic:
H. Sweet «the minimum sentence“, L. Bloomfield «a minimum
free form».

Syntactic
and semantic aspects:
E. Sapir — «one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of
isolated ‘meaning’, into which the sentence resolves itself. It
cannot be cut into without a disturbance of meaning”.
Indivisibility
criterion:
A
lion is
a word-group
because we can insert other words between them: a
living lion. Alive
is
a word:
it is indivisible, nothing can be inserted between its elements.

Semantic:
Stephen Ullmann: “words are meaningful
units.»

Semantic-phonological
approach:A.H.Gardiner:
«A word is an articulate sound-symbol
in its aspect of denoting
something
which is spoken about.»

Thus,
a satisfying word-definition should reflect the following features as
borrowed from the above explanations:
1. the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of
sounds 2. capable of a particular grammatical employment 3. the
smallest significant unit, used in isolation 4. capable of
functioning alone 5. characterized by morphological unint
erruptability and 6. having semantic integrity

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