You may know some words for “country” in French, including le pays and la patrie. But how do you say “France” in French, specifically? It turns out you have several options.
Let’s look at the most common.
Here are six common ways the French refer to their country, whether in literary or formal language, speeches, or in everyday life and conversations.
1. The standard “France”: la France
The most common way to say “France” in French is….la France. The word originally comes from Francia, the empire of the Franks, one of the groups that were ancestors of the modern-day French. Famous Franks include Charles Martel and Charlemagne.
Important: It’s “La France” and not “Le France” because “France” is a feminine word.
Today, this is the standard way to refer to the modern-day country of France. The term is neutral in context and can be used in formal as well as informal situations. Pretty easy, right?
Oh, another easy thing for speakers of English: France is always capitalized in French, just like in our language. (This rule goes for all countries in French.)
The only thing to keep in mind is that when you talk about countries in French, you usually have to use an article or preposition in front of them. So while you’d say “France” in English, it’s la France in French.
The iconic phrase Vive la France (Long live France!) is a perfect way to remember this rule.
That said, the article usually goes away when you use a preposition. For instance: en France (in France).
Just one quick note about that: Using the preposition de (of, from) and a singular feminine country in French can be a bit confusing. Most of the time, you’ll see de and the country name, with no article. For instance, C’était un roi de France (He was a king of France).
But if you are talking about the country as a physical place, not a general entity, you would use the article. For example: Nous avons voyagé de la France à l’Allemagne en vélo. (We travelled by bike from France to Germany).
This rule doesn’t apply to masculine or pluralized countries. For instance, you’d always say or write des États-Unis, du Japon, etc.
2. The principled “France”: la République/la République Française (The French Republic)
France has had many different forms of government in its long history, from monarchy, to republic, to empire, to republic again…and so on and so forth. Years of revolutions and reforms place us currently in the fifth French Republic.
The term la République or la République Française (sometimes capitalized la République française) is a formal one that would be used in speeches and official documents. Probably the most famous place you’ll hear it is at the end of a presidential address.
Famously, the French president always concludes his speeches by saying Vive la République, vive la France. This is the rough equivalent to “God bless America” or “God save the queen”. But the République part also implies a strong agreement with the principles of the current form of government. This includes the droits de l’homme (human rights) and the three foundational principles of the French Republic: Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité (Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood).
Referring to France this way is at once a common formal phrase and something charged with meaning. You probably won’t use it or hear it used in everyday life and casual situations.
3. The proud “France”: Le pays des droits de l’homme (The country of human rights)
In the previous entry on our list, I talked about the principles of the French Republic. This moniker for France evokes the origins of the Republic. The phrase le pays des droits de l’homme is a formal or literary way to refer to the fact that France was one of the first countries to champion the basic rights of its citizens, all the way back when the French First Republic was founded in 1792, as a result of the French Revolution of 1789 (yes, there have been multiple French Revolutions).
The droits de l’homme being referred to in this phrase comes from la Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen (The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen), written in 1789. Similar to (and influenced by) the Preamble of the United States’ Declaration of Independence, the major takeaway of this foundational document is the idea that all men are created equal (as opposed to a king or ruling class having more privileges).
Unfortunately, as with the Declaration of Independence, the original document didn’t include certain minority groups, not to mention women. But that’s no longer the case; today la Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen includes all French citizens (and, in a larger sense, all human beings).
Using this phrase to describe France is a proud and grandiose one – but usually reserved for formal or literary contexts.
4. The claim to fame “France”: Le Pays des Lumières (The Country of the Enlightenment)
The Enlightenment, referred to somewhat more poetically in French as le siècle des Lumières (the century of Lights – that is bright, illuminated thinkers), was an intellectual movement that occurred throughout the Western world in the 18th century and resulted in revolutionary thinking in fields like philosophy, science, medicine, education, and human rights.
France was once the home of Enlightenment superstars like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot (among many, many others!) and the French are still enormously proud of their illustrious intellectual past. In fact, it’s even a part of the French national identity. Today, French culture still places a high value on science, research, logical and critical thinking and debate, and philosophy. The latter is even a required subject in French high schools!
So, the name Le Pays des Lumières for France is a fitting one, although it’s a literary one, not something used in everyday language
5. The historical “France”: La Gaule (Gaul)
From ancient times until around the early Middle Ages, France was referred to as “Gaul”, for the Gauls, a group of Celtic tribes that had inhabited most of it until the Romans invaded (then, these groups integrated and the dominant culture was Gallo-Roman).
Although the Gauls are long gone, as we saw in our related post about how the French say “French”, Gaulois(e) (literally Gaulish or Gallic) is a super-patriotic way some French people may refer to themselves. This is fairly rare, though.
Calling France La Gaule in a historical context (including in the iconic Astérix comics) is totally normal and understandable. But doing it in a modern context shows extreme patriotism and may come off a bit silly or even nationalistic, depending on who’s listening.
6. The geometric France: L’Hexagone (The Hexagon)
Apart from la France, the most common way to say “France” in everyday French is also the strangest and most creative choice on this list!
Mainland France is often referred to as l’Hexagone on the news, in French newspapers and French magazines, and even sometimes in everyday spoken language. You can do an online search for “l’Hexagone actualités” to see the vast number of headlines that use this term.
Why, you may ask? Mainland France can be divided into six coastlines or borders – thus making it technically a hexagon. You can see an image of that in this helpful Wikipedia entry.
This isn’t a new trend or realization: the same article points out that mainland France has been referred to as l’Hexagone since the late 19th century, when French geography teachers started describing it to their students this way.
Even if you don’t see the resemblance, you’re almost guaranteed to come across this term at some point. Luckily, unlike regular, non-country shapes, when it refers to France, l’Hexagone is always capitalized, so there shouldn’t be any confusion.
How the French talk about mainland vs. overseas France
When most of us think of France, we picture, well, l’Hexagone. But the nation of France has several overseas territories and regions, including Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Polynesia.
In addition to l’Hexagone, you’ll likely come across three other terms that you can use to differentiate between mainland and overseas France. These are:
La métropole
Short for la France métropolitaine (metropolitan/continental France), the term la métropole describes the traditional country of France, located in Europe, plus Corsica.
Note that métropole can have other meanings – it depends on the context.
Les DOM-TOM
An acronym for les Départements d’outre-mer, Territoires d’outre-mer, this collective term refers to all French overseas departments and territories.
This article points out that the term is no longer technically correct, since some of these territories have different degrees of autonomy than others. Nevertheless, les DOM-TOM is still an extremely common phrase that you’re sure to come across in French media and that you may even hear in informal conversations.
L’outre-mer
L’outre-mer (overseas [territories]) is another way you might hear French overseas countries and territories referred to, especially in spoken language, although the exact political definition may be inaccurate or imprecise.
Those are the most common ways to say “France” in French.
Did any of these terms surprise you? Which one is your favorite?
What Is France In French: A Little Guide
What is ‘France’ in French? This might be an easy question for francophiles and francophones to answer. But we should never take for granted that for many the answer is not so obvious. So here is how French speakers say it… with further interesting facts to learn about the word.
What is ‘France’ in French?
The answer is simply… FRANCE!
For those of you who can read IPA, pronunciation in French is: fʁɑ̃s.
The translation of the word ‘French’ in French is français (masc.) and française (fem.).
France in French: Interesting facts
Historical Facts
- When the Romans conquered Gaul, Latin quickly spread among the Celts. By the 4th century A.D., “Vulgar Latin” had replaced the Celtic dialects in all of the country except Brittany. This Latin spoken by the merchants, soldiers, and slaves derive the five romance languages: French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian.
- Langue d’oc and Langue d’oïl? For many centuries, the people of today’s France have spoken many dialects, depending on the region they lived in. North of the Loire, a group of eight dialects made up the Langue d’oïl. In the south, however, the Langue d’Oc gathered seven groups of dialects.
- In 1066, William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquérant) invaded England successfully. The Duke of Normandy made French the official language of the court of England. This explains why English often has two words to describe the same meaning. One derived from the Old English (or Teutonic) and the other from Norman French or Latin origins. Example: Swine vs. Pork, to help vs. to aid.
- Funnily enough, the opposite is also true today with the use of franglais. That is American-English words used by French people nowadays: le shampoing, le soda, le cocktail, le sandwich, le football, le parking…
- France derives from Latin Francia which referred to a Germanic tribe, the Franks (or gens Francorum). In the 3rd century AD, the Franks were living in the Rhineland before merging with the Gauls in the following centuries. Pope Leo III crowned their ruler Charlemagne as Emperor in 800 AD.
- New France (Nouvelle-France) refers to the area colonised by France in North America (1534-1763). It once included Quebec, Acadia, Newfoundland (Plaisance), and Louisiana. Today, two tiny islands are remnants of this vast French colonial territory: Saint-Pierre and Miquelon (off the coast of Newfoundland).
More facts!
- The country has a different name in other languages: Frankreich in German, Frankrijk in Dutch, Francia in Italian and Spanish, and França in Portuguese.
- The proper noun has many related terms such as francophile (a person who loves France), francophone (a person who speaks French), French without forgetting the popular Tour de France bicycle race!
- The official name of the country is ‘The French Republic’ (République française).
- The name can be used as a female first name: France Gall, Marie-France…
- France is also a surname: Anatole France (1844-1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist.
- The country gave its name to first names François and Françoise.
- The verlan word for France is Céfran. Verlan is a type of slang in which the order of the syllables or sounds of words is changed.
- In France, French toast is known as “pain doré” (literally roasted bread)
- France 24: French version of CNN! You can watch and listen to France 24 in the French language (by the way France 24 in French is pronounced France vingt-quatre!)
- In France French fries are not French but… Belgian!
- The capital of France is Paris. And by the way, the French don’t pronounce the ‘s’ in Paris:
How do you say in French?
- Go France in French? => Allez la France !
- Long live France is Vive la France in French!
- The French call the French Riviera “La Côte d’Azur”.
- I love France in French is “J’aime la France”… pretty easy, isn’t it?
- Christmas in France => “Noël en France”
What to read in French?
Check out my blog Mon Grand-Est, 100% in French with interesting articles on the eastern regions of France (Alsace, Lorraine, Burgundy, French Alps, Provence).
If you really want to learn more about cultural aspects… To understand what the French really think. How to get on with them. And, most importantly, how to get the best out of them: take a look at these two best-sellers from Stephen Clarke. You’ll find the reading entertaining!!
A YEAR IN THE MERDE
British journalist Stephen Clarke describes the misadventures of Paul West in France in a highly entertaining way.
TALK TO THE SNAIL
Talk to the Snail gives a hysterical look at understanding the French. The book is based on Stephen Clarke’s own funny experiences.
France in French: Find out more!
- Germany in French: A Little Guide!
- England in French: A Little Guide!
- How France got its name: A French History Trivia!
Pierre is a French/Australian who is passionate about France and its culture. He grew up in France and Germany and has also lived in Australia and England. He has a background teaching French, Economics and Current Affairs, and holds a Master of Translating and Interpreting English-French with the degree of Master of International Relations, and a degree of Economics and Management. Pierre is the author of the Discovery Course on the Secrets of the Eiffel Tower and the Christmas book «Voyage au Pays de Noël».
You might want to read these related posts…
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These examples may contain rude words based on your search.
These examples may contain colloquial words based on your search.
Suggestions
Take President Macron, educated in the best schools in France.
Prenez le Président Macron, formé dans les meilleures écoles françaises.
France‘s doctrine of nuclear dissuasion was one such assurance.
La doctrine française de dissuasion nucléaire est l’une de ces garanties.
The delegation of France will present a draft Standard for Shallots.
La délégation française présentera un projet de norme pour les échalotes.
Such revolting practices were reported during a recent trial in France.
Un récent procès en France fait état de ces conduites révoltantes.
Still little developed in France but that meeting a great success.
Encore peu développée en France mais qui rencontre un franc succès.
Thus its scenery becomes everywhere flammable like a college in France.
Ainsi son décor devient partout inflammable comme un collège de France.
Several countries including France are now considering taking similar measures.
Plusieurs pays, dont la France, imaginent désormais des mesures similaires.
The machines are fully assembled, wired and calibrated in France.
Les machines sont entièrement assemblées, câblées, calibrées en France.
It has always favored the manufacture of its products in France.
Elle a toujours privilégié la fabrication de ses produits en France.
Propellet France is the national association of wood pellet heating.
Propellet France est l’association nationale du chauffage au granulé de bois.
Implanted in France, the federation represents nearly 1000 musicians.
Implantée en France, la fédération réunit ainsi près de 1000 artistes.
Despite the recent elections in France, the mood remains grim.
Malgré les dernières élections en France, l’ambiance reste maussade.
Back in France, he discovered different approaches to his work.
De retour en France, il découvre différentes manières de travailler.
Religious television programme broadcast on the public service station France 2.
Emission religieuse de télévision diffusée sur la chaine publique France 2.
10 billion people in France are suffering from excessive cholesterol.
10 millions de personnes en France souffrent d’un excès de cholestérol.
My film focuses on the fragility of certain immigrants in France.
Mon film traite de la précarité de certains immigrés en France.
This year the series of national elections starts with France.
Cette année, la série des élections nationales commence avec la France.
In France, these prostheses are provided by the social welfare.
En France, ces prothèses sont remboursées par la sécurité sociale.
The modern brasserie offers all sorts of delicacies from France.
La brasserie moderne propose toute une série de délices venant de France.
Degree: The notion of natural obligation is often overlooked in France.
La notion d’obligation naturelle passe assez inaperçue en doctrine.
Suggestions that contain France
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The name France comes from Latin Francia («land of the Franks»).
Originally it applied to the whole Empire of the Franks, extending from southern France to eastern Germany. Modern France is still called Frankreich in German and similar names in some other Germanic languages (such as Frankrijk in Dutch), which means «Frank Reich», the Realm of the Franks.
BackgroundEdit
GaulEdit
Before being named France, the land was called Gaul (Latin: Gallia; French: Gaule). This name continued to be used even after the beginning of the reign of the Franks’ Kings Clovis I, Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, and Charlemagne. In fact, for as long as the cultural elites of Europe used Latin predominantly, the name Gallia continued to be used alongside the name France. In English usage, the words Gaul and Gaulish are used synonymously with Latin Gallia, Gallus and Gallicus. However the similarity of the names is probably coincidental; the English words are borrowed from French Gaule and Gaulois, which appear to have been borrowed themselves from Germanic walha-, the usual word for the non-Germanic-speaking peoples (Celtic-speaking and Latin-speaking indiscriminately) and the source for Welsh in English. The Germanic w is regularly rendered as gu / g in French (cf. guerre = war, garder = ward, Guillaume = William), and the diphthong au is the regular outcome of al before a following consonant (cf. cheval ~ chevaux). Gaule or Gaulle can hardly be derived from Latin Gallia, since g would become j before a (cf. gamba > jambe), and the diphthong au would be incomprehensible; the regular outcome of Latin Gallia would have been * Jaille in French.[3][4]
Today, in modern French, the word Gaule is only used in a historical context. The only current use of the word is in the title of the leader of the French bishops, the archbishop of Lyon, whose official title is Primate of the Gauls (Primat des Gaules). Gaul is in the plural in the title, reflecting the three Gallic entities identified by the Romans (Celtica, Belgica, and Aquitania). The adjective gaulois (Gallic) is still sometimes used when a French person wants to stress some idiosyncrasies of the French people entrenched in history, such as nos ancêtres les Gaulois («our ancestors the Gauls»), a phrase sometimes used in French when one wants to assert his own identity. During the Third Republic, the authorities often referred to notre vieille nation gauloise («our old Gallic nation»), a case in which the adjective gaulois is used with a positive connotation. The word gallicisme is used sometimes in linguistic to express a specific form to the French language. In English, the word Gaul is never used in a modern context. The adjective Gallic is sometimes used to refer to French people, occasionally in a derisive and critical way, such as «Gallic pride». The Coq Gaulois (Gallic rooster in English) is also a national symbol of France, as for the French Football Federation. Astérix le Gaulois (Asterix, the Gaul) is a popular series of French comic books, following the exploits of a village of indomitable Gauls.
In Greek, France is still known as Γαλλία (Gallia). In Breton, meanwhile, the word Gall means «French»,[1][2] and France is Bro C’hall[3] through Breton initial mutation; the second most common family name in Brittany is Le Gall, which is thought to indicate descendants of the inhabitants of Armorica from before the Bretons came from Britain, literally meaning «the Gaul».[4] The word can be used to refer to the French nationality, speakers of French and/or Gallo; an archaic word sense also indicated the generic «foreigner»;[1][2] the derivative galleg means «French» as an adjective and the French language as a noun. In Irish, meanwhile, the term gall originally also referred to the inhabitants of Gaul, but in the ninth century it was repurposed as «generic foreigner» and used to refer to Scandinavian invaders; it was used later in the twelfth century for the Anglo-Normans.[5]
FranciaEdit
Under the reign of the Franks’ Kings Clovis I, Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, and Charlemagne, a country that included most of modern France and modern Germany was known as Kingdom of Franks or Francia. At the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Frankish Empire was divided in three parts: West Francia (Francia Occidentalis), Middle Francia and East Francia (Francia Orientalis).
The rulers of Francia Orientalis, who soon claimed the imperial title and wanted to reunify the Frankish Empire, dropped the name Francia Orientalis and called their realm the Holy Roman Empire (see History of Germany). The history of the Franconian Empire lives on today in place names such as Frankfurt or Franconia (Franken in German). The kings of Francia Occidentalis successfully opposed this claim and managed to preserve Francia Occidentalis as an independent kingdom, distinct from the Holy Roman Empire. The Battle of Bouvines in 1214 definitively marked the end of the efforts by the Holy Roman Empire to reunify the old Frankish Empire by conquering France.
Since the name Francia Orientalis had disappeared, there arose the habit to refer to Francia Occidentalis as Francia only, from which the word France is derived. The French state has been in continuous existence since 843 (except for a brief interruption in 885–887), with an unbroken line of heads of states since the first king of Francia Occidentalis (Charles the Bald) to the current president of the French Republic (Emmanuel Macron). Notably, in German, France is still called Frankreich, which literally means «Reich (empire) of the Franks». In order to distinguish it from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, France is called Frankreich, while the Frankish Empire is called Frankenreich.
The name of the Franks itself is said to come from the Proto-Germanic word *frankon which means «javelin, lance». Another proposed etymology is that Frank means «the free men», based on the fact that the word frank meant «free» in the ancient Germanic languages. However, rather than the ethnic name of the Franks coming from the word frank («free»), it is more probable that the word frank («free») comes from the ethnic name of the Franks, the connection being that only the Franks, as the conquering class, had the status of freemen.
In a tradition going back to the 7th-century Chronicle of Fredegar, the name of the Franks itself is taken from Francio, one of the Germanic kings of Sicambri, c. 61 BCE, whose dominion extended all along those lands immediately joining the west-bank of the Rhine River, as far as Strasbourg and Belgium.[6] This nation is also explicitly mentioned by Julius Caesar in his Notebooks on the Gallic War (Commentarii de Bello Gallico).
The name of the former French currency, the franc, comes from the words engraved on the coins of the Frankish King, Rex Francorum, meaning «King of the Franks» or «Roi des Francs» in French.
FranceEdit
In most of the Romance languages, France is known by the word «France» or any of its derivatives, for example Francia in Italian and Spanish. This is also the origin of its name in English, «France», which derived from Old French.
In most of the Germanic languages (though notably not in English), France is known as the historical «Land of the Franks», for example Frankreich (Reich of the Franks) in German, Frankrijk (Rijk of the Franks) in Dutch, Frankrike (Rike of the Franks) in Swedish and Norwegian, Frankrig in Danish.
Meanings of the name FranceEdit
The name «France» (and its adjective «French») can have four different meanings which it is important to distinguish in order to avoid ambiguities. Its origin is the Germanic word «frank» which means «free» and is also a male name.
Political meaningEdit
In a first meaning, «France» means the whole French Republic. In that case, «French» refers to the nationality, as it is written on the French ID card: «Nationalité : française».
The etymology and meaning of the word «France» and «French» have had strong bearings in the abolition of slavery and serfdom in France.
Indeed, in 1315, king Louis X issued an edict reaffirming that slavery was illegal in France by proclaiming that «France signifies freedom», that any slave setting foot on (metropolitan) French ground should be freed.[7]
Centuries later, this decree served as the basis for a group of crusading lawyers at the parlement of Paris, many of whom were members of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks, winning unprecedented emancipation rights in a series of cases before the French revolution, which (temporarily) led to the complete abolition of slavery on French overseas territories and colonies in 1794 [8] until Napoleon, propped up by the plantation lobbies, re-introduced slavery in sugarcane-growing colonies.[9]
Geographical meaningEdit
In a second meaning, «France» refers to metropolitan France only, meaning mainland France.
Historical meaningsEdit
In a third meaning, «France» refers specifically to the province of the Île-de-France (with Paris at its centre) which historically was the heart of the royal demesne. This meaning is found in some geographic names, such as French Brie (Brie française) and French Vexin (Vexin français). French Brie, the area where the famous Brie cheese is produced, is the part of Brie that was annexed to the royal demesne, as opposed to Champagne Brie (Brie champenoise) which was annexed by Champagne. Likewise, French Vexin was the part of Vexin inside Île-de-France, as opposed to Norman Vexin (Vexin normand) which was inside Normandy.
In a fourth meaning, «France» refers only to the Pays de France, one of the several pays (Latin: pagi, singular pagus) of the Île-de-France. French provinces were typically made up of multiple pays, which were the direct continuation of the pagi set up by the Roman administration during Antiquity. The Île-de-France included the Pays de France, Parisis, Hurepoix, French Vexin, and others. The Pays de France is the fertile plain located immediately north of Paris which supported one of the most productive agriculture during the Middle Ages and helped to produce the tremendous wealth of the French royal court before the Hundred Years’ War, making possible among other things the emergence of the Gothic art and architecture, which later spread all over western Europe[citation needed]. The Pays de France is also called the Plaine de France («Plain of France»). Its historic main town is Saint-Denis, where the first Gothic cathedral in the world was built in the 12th century, and inside which the kings of France are buried. The Pays de France is now almost entirely built up as the northern extension of the Paris suburbs.
This fourth meaning is found in many place names, such as the town of Roissy-en-France, on whose territory is located Charles de Gaulle Airport. The name of the town literally means «Roissy in the Pays de France«, and not «Roissy in the country France». Another example of the use of France in this meaning is the new Stade de France, which was built near Saint-Denis for the 1998 Football World Cup. It was decided to call the stadium after the Pays de France, to give it a local touch. In particular, the mayor of Saint-Denis made it very clear that he wanted the new stadium to be a stadium of the northern suburbs of Paris and not just a national stadium which happens to be located in the northern suburbs. The name is intended to reflect this, although few French people know this story and the great majority associates it with the country’s name[citation needed].
Other names for FranceEdit
In Hebrew, France is called צרפת (Tzarfat). In Māori, France is known as Wīwī, derived from the French phrase oui, oui (yes, yes).[10]. In modern Greek, France is still known as Γαλλία (Gallia), derived from Gaul.
See alsoEdit
- List of country-name etymologies
ReferencesEdit
- ^ a b Walter, Henriette. «Les langues régionales de France : le gallo, pris comme dans un étau (17/20)». www.canalacademie.com. Canal Académie.
- ^ a b Chevalier, Gwendal (2008), «Gallo et Breton, complémentarité ou concurrence?» [Gallo and Breton, complementarity or competition?], Cahiers de sociolinguistique (in French), no. 12, pp. 75–109, retrieved 2018-10-09
- ^ Conroy, Joseph, and Joseph F. Conroy. Breton-English/English-Breton: dictionary and phrasebook. Hippocrene Books, 1997. Page 38.
- ^ Favereau, Francis (2006). «Homophony and Breton Loss of Lexis». Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium, 2006/2007, Vol. 26/27 (2006/2007), pp. 306-316. Page 311.
- ^ Linehan, Peter; Janet L. Nelson (2003). The Medieval World. Vol. 10. Routledge. p. 393. ISBN 978-0-415-30234-0.
- ^ David Solomon Ganz, Tzemach David, part 2, Warsaw 1859, p. 9b (Hebrew); Polish name of book: Cemach Dawid; cf. J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, Fredegar and the History of France, University of Manchester, n.d. pp. 536–538
- ^ Miller, Christopher L. The French Atlantic triangle: literature and culture of the slave trade. Google Books. p. 20. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
- ^ David B. Gaspar, David P. Geggus, A Turbulent time: the French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean (1997) p. 60
- ^ Hobhouse, Henry. Seeds of Change: Six Plants That Transformed Mankind, 2005. Page 111.
- ^ Matras Y., Sakel J. Grammatical Borrowing In A Cross-Linguistic Perspective. 2007 p. 322.
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