The word europe come from

Europe existed as a conceptual construct long before geographers began arguing whether there are seven continents or six (the latter model considers Europe and Asia to be a single continent). The ancient Greeks divided the world into three major units: Europe, Asia, and Libya, the last of which referred to the known northern portion of Africa. Those were the divisions that Ptolemy used when he laid out his map of the world in the Guide to Geography (Geōgraphikē hyphēgēsis) in the 2nd century CE. So the notion of Europe is very old, but where does the name come from?

There are a number of theories. Taking a linguistic approach, some scholars believe Europe’s name is descriptive in origin. Those who look to the ancient Greek language to parse it roots combine eurys, meaning “wide,” and ops, meaning “face” or “eye,” to arrive at “wide-gazing” as an appropriate description of Europe’s broad shoreline as seen from the shipboard perspective of the maritime Greeks. By extension, they believe this phrase connotes “mainland.” Adventurous travelers who got closer to the northern lands reported the existence of mountain systems and river basins that were much larger than those of the Mediterranean region, along with climates that were very different from those the Greeks experienced, not to mention expansive primeval forests and sweeping steppes.

Other scholars have argued that the origin for the name Europe is to be found in the Semitic Akkadian language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia. They point to the Akkadian word erebu, meaning “sunset,” and reason that, from the Mesopotamian perspective, the western-setting sun descended on Europe. As a corollary, they cite the Akkadian word for sunrise, asu, from which they believe the name Asia is derived. From a Mesopotamian ground zero, the eastern-rising sun would have ascended from Asia.

A competing theory locates the eponym for Europe in mythology, specifically in the many versions of stories about the goddess Europa, some of which date back millennia. One of the oldest versions identifies Europa as one of the Oceanides, the 3,000 sea nymphs who occupied a lower tier in the hierarchy of Greek mythology. Europa was one of only 41 of these minor deities who were thought worthy of naming. Other versions link Europa with Demeter, the goddess of earth and agriculture. Although it is not certain which name came first, it has been presumed that Europa was a local pre-Greek name for an earth goddess, whereas Demeter is a Greek or Greekified name for a more regional deity. In the best-known version of the Europa myth, Europa—the daughter either of Phoenix or of Agenor, king of Phoenicia—was abducted by Zeus, who had disguised himself as a white bull. Zeus spirited her away from Phoenicia to Crete, where she bore him three sons: Minos, Rhadamanthys, and Sarpedon.

No one knows for sure the origin of Europe’s name, but it certainly stuck.

If you answered that it was named after a woman with a big face, the goddess Europa, the ancient Greek word for shoreline or the ancient Phoenician word for ‘land of the setting sun’, you are – at least partly – correct. 

FIND OUT MORE:
To mark European Day of Languages (26th of September) we have answered this and several other questions about European languages, below.

• Where does the word Europe come from?
• What is the European Day of Languages?
• How many languages are there in Europe?
• What are the oldest languages in Europe?
• How many European languages does Rosetta Stone teach?

Where does the word Europe come from?

The exact etymology of the word Europe is not certain, but these are the most commonly given answers to the question. For the Phoenicians, Europe was the land where the sun set – everywhere West of them. The Greek goddess Europa certainly featured in the ancient myths and though the size of her face is not certain, the ancient Greek words for wide and face suggest it’s a possibility (eurys and ops). The Greek word for shoreline or mainland also could be at the route of what we still call Europe.

What is the European Day of Languages?

The European Day of Languages is a chance to celebrate the cultural and linguistic diversity of Europe. Every 26^th of September, schools, museums and communities mark the occasion with events and celebrations all over the continent. Now in its 20^th year, the day is a good opportunity to celebrate all the richness of Europe and, of course, a great opportunity to start learning one of Europe’s many languages!

How many languages are there in Europe?

More than you might think. There are actually well over 200 languages spoken on the continent of Europe, though many of these are not national languages or ones you would expect to have to learn unless you were very local to the area. The European Union has 24 official languages.

What are the oldest languages in Europe?

Part of the mission of the European Day of Languages is to raise awareness about the shrinking diversity of languages on the continent.  Some of Europe’s oldest languages are also some of the most endangered ones. It’s hard to measure the age of a language, but those European languages thought to be the most ancient include Basque, Gaelic, Greek and Lithuanian.

How many European languages does Rosetta Stone teach?

Twelve of the 24 languages Rosetta Stone teaches are European. Dutch, French, German, Greek, Irish (Gaelic), Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, English. With Rosetta Stone Unlimited you can access all of them in just one account.

Explore 24 languages in one account

Asked by: Enola Gulgowski DDS

Score: 4.4/5
(47 votes)

The term «Europe» is first used for a cultural sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world.

What was Europe originally called?

Europa, Europe comes from the Phoenician word EROB, meaning where the sun set (west of Phoenicia,west of Bosphorus, Sea of Marmora).

What did ancient Greeks call Europe?

The ancient Greeks first applied the word Europa to the geographical area of central Greece and then the whole of Greece. By 500 BCE Europa signified the entire continent of Europe (although the Greeks were only really familiar with the areas around the Mediterranean) with Greece at its eastern extremity.

Where did Europe originate from?

The first Europeans came from Africa via the Middle East and settled there about 43,000 years ago. But some of those pioneers, such as a 40,000-year-old individual from Romania, have little connection to today’s Europeans, Reich says. His team studied DNA from 51 Europeans and Asians who lived 7000 to 45,000 years ago.

When was the first Europe?

32 related questions found

Europe

Area	10,180,000 km2 (3,930,000 sq mi)[1] (6th)[a]
Population	745,173,774 (2021; 3rd)[2][3]
Population density	72.9/km2 (188/sq mi) (2nd)
GDP (PPP)	$33.62 trillion (2022 est; 2nd)[4]
GDP (nominal)	$24.02 trillion (2022 est; 3rd)[5]
GDP per capita	$34,230 (2022 est; 3rd)[c][6]
HDI	0.845[7]
Religions	Christianity (76.2%)[8] No religion (18.3%)[8] Islam (4.9%)[8] Other (0.6%)[8]
Demonym	European
Countries	Sovereign (44–50) De facto (2–6)
Dependencies	External (5–6) Internal (3)
Languages	Most common: Russian German English French Italian Spanish Polish Ukrainian Romanian Dutch Serbo-Croatian
Time zones	UTC−1 to UTC+5
Internet TLD	.eu (European Union)
Largest cities	Largest urban areas: Moscow Paris London Istanbul[b] Madrid Saint Petersburg Milan Barcelona Berlin Rome[9]
UN M49 code	150 – Europe 001 – World
a. ^ Figures include only European portions of transcontinental countries.[n] b. ^ European side only. Istanbul is a transcontinental city which straddles both Asia and Europe. c. ^ «Europe» as defined by the International Monetary Fund.

Europe is a continent^[a] comprising the westernmost peninsulas of Eurasia,^[12][13] located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Africa and Asia. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea and the waterways of the Turkish Straits.^[14]

Europe covers about 10.18 million km² (3.93 million sq mi), or 2% of Earth’s surface (6.8% of land area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the seven-continent model). Politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a total population of about 745 million (about 10% of the world population) in 2021.^[2][3] The European climate is largely affected by warm Atlantic currents that temper winters and summers on much of the continent, even at latitudes along which the climate in Asia and North America is severe. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast.

European culture is the root of Western civilisation, which traces its lineage back to ancient Greece and ancient Rome.^[15][16] The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and the related Migration Period marked the end of Europe’s ancient history, and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era. Since the Age of Discovery, started by Spain and Portugal, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of Asia.

The Age of Enlightenment, the subsequent French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural and social change in Western Europe and eventually the wider world. Both world wars took place for the most part in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence.^[17] During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East, until the Revolutions of 1989, Fall of the Berlin Wall and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union.

In 1949, the Council of Europe was founded with the idea of unifying Europe^[18] to achieve common goals and prevent future wars. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union (EU), a separate political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation.^[19] The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The currency of most countries of the European Union, the euro, is the most commonly used among Europeans; and the EU’s Schengen Area abolishes border and immigration controls between most of its member states, and some non-member states. There exists a political movement favouring the evolution of the European Union into a single federation encompassing much of the continent.

Name

In classical Greek mythology, Europa (Ancient Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē) was a Phoenician princess. One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements εὐρύς (eurús) ‘wide, broad’, and ὤψ (ōps, gen. ὠπός, ōpós) ‘eye, face, countenance’, hence their composite Eurṓpē would mean ‘wide-gazing’ or ‘broad of aspect’.^{[20][21][22][23]} Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it.^[20] An alternative view is that of Robert Beekes, who has argued in favour of a Pre-Indo-European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield a different toponym than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in ancient Macedonia.^[24]

There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to a Semitic term for west, this being either Akkadian erebu meaning ‘to go down, set’ (said of the sun) or Phoenician ‘ereb ‘evening, west’,^[25] which is at the origin of Arabic maghreb and Hebrew ma’arav. Martin Litchfield West stated that «phonologically, the match between Europa’s name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor»,^[26] while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages improbable.^[24]

Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word Ōuzhōu (歐洲/欧洲), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name Ōuluóbā zhōu (歐羅巴洲) (zhōu means «continent»); a similar Chinese-derived term Ōshū (欧州) is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō (欧州連合), despite the katakana Yōroppa (ヨーロッパ) being more commonly used. In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name Frangistan (‘land of the Franks’) is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa.^[27]

Definition

Contemporary definition

The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century.
Europe is taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe’s limits to the east and north-east are usually taken to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the south-east, the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.^[28]

Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America, although politically belonging to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically and it is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well.^[29]
«Europe», as used specifically in British English, may also refer to Continental Europe exclusively.^[30]

The term «continent» usually implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or almost completely surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity, but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. Cartographer Herman Moll suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly-joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits, and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the Arctic Ocean. In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term «continent».

The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water. Turkey is generally considered a transcontinental country divided entirely by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other continents separated from Europe by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories south of the Mediterranean Sea—namely, Ceuta and Melilla—which are parts of Africa and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents.

History of the concept

Early history

The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē as a geographic term is in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in reference to the western shore of the Aegean Sea. As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BCE by Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni River on the territory of Georgia) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE.^[31] Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts—Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the Nile and the Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia.^[32] Europe’s eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer Strabo at the River Don.^[33] The Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar, separating it from Northwest Africa, to the Don, separating it from Asia.^[34]

The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as Posidonius,^[35] Strabo^[36] and Ptolemy,^[37] who took the Tanais (the modern Don River) as the boundary.

The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of continental divisions. However, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the culture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of «Europe».^[38] The term «Europe» is first used for a cultural sphere in the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world.

A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy.^[39] The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance: Europa often^{[dubious – discuss]} figures in the letters of Charlemagne’s court scholar, Alcuin.^[40] The transition of Europe to being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of Europe being affected by cultural considerations in the East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman, and Russian influence. Such questions were affected by the positive connotations associated with the term Europe by its users. Such cultural considerations were not applied to the Americas, despite their conquest and settlement by European states. Instead, the concept of «Western civilization» emerged as a way of grouping together Europe and these colonies.^[41]

Modern definitions

The question of defining a precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in the Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of Muscovy began to include North Asia. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and the Don (ancient Tanais). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers.

Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern part of the Ob River and the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the Ob, as components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the boundary between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map that was easier to read. However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers as the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who were beginning to move away from the idea of water boundaries as the only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia.

Four years later, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary. He drew a new line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural Rivers), then north and east along the latter waterway to its source in the Ural Mountains. At this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways. Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along Ural Mountains rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers.^[42] This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted. However, this did not come without criticism. Voltaire, writing in 1760 about Peter the Great’s efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole boundary question with his claim that neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part of Europe.^[38] Since then, many modern analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder have declared that they see little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents.^[43]

The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The 1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg’s prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified circa 1773 by a German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea,^[44][45] and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents.

By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a «controversy» in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the «best possible», citing support from various «modern geographers».^[46]

In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906.^[47] In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych Depression,^[48] thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe.^[49] However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest,^[50] and this became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps.

Some view separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: «In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. […].»^[51]

History

Prehistory

During the 2.5 million years of the Pleistocene, numerous cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. The long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.^[53] Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene.^[54]

Homo erectus georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe.^[55] Other hominin remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain.^[56] Neanderthal man (named after the Neandertal valley in Germany) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of present-day Poland^[57]) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years ago,^[58] with their final refuge being the Iberian Peninsula. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago.^[59] Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000 years earlier than previously thought.^[60] The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo Mochi (Italy), Geissenklösterle (Germany) and Isturitz (France).^[61][62]

The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East.^[63] It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine (Linear Pottery culture), and along the Mediterranean coast (Cardial culture). Between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and megalithic tombs.^[64] The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. During this period giant megalithic monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge, were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe.^[65][66]

The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lineages:^[67] Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture;^[52] Neolithic Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago;^[68] and Yamnaya Steppe herders who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago.^[67][69] The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in Greece with the Minoan civilisation on Crete, the first advanced civilisation in Europe.^[70] The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age.^[71] Iron Age colonisation by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games.^[72]

Classical antiquity

Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece.^[73] The Greek city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece.^[73] In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world’s first democratic system of government in Athens.^[74] The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of Homer;^[75] in drama with Sophocles and Euripides, in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in science with Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes.^[76][77][78] In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a pivotal moment in world history,^[79] as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation.

Greece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics, language, engineering, architecture, government and many more key aspects in western civilisation.^[73] By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy and over the following two centuries it conquered Greece and Hispania (Spain and Portugal), the North African coast, much of the Middle East, Gaul (France and Belgium) and Britannia (England and Wales).

Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean Basin and Western Europe by the turn of the millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire. The two centuries that followed are known as the pax romana, a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability in most of Europe.^[80] The empire continued to expand under emperors such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who spent time on the Empire’s northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish tribes.^[81][82] Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution. Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) which was renamed Constantinople in his honour in 330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE and in 391–392 CE, the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions.^[83] This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 CE;^[84] or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century CE. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.^[85]

Early Middle Ages

During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the «Age of Migrations». There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars and, later on, the Vikings, Pechenegs, Cumans and Magyars.^[80] Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as the «Dark Ages».^[86]

Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this very few written records survive and much literature, philosophy, mathematics and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire.^[87]

While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural and military force in Europe. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople’s first golden age: he established a legal code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the Christian church under state control.^[88]

From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor. In the mid-7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region.^[89] Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily and parts of southern Italy.^[90] Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia was brought under Muslim rule—save for small areas in the north-west (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate. The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their northward advance. In the remote regions of north-western Iberia and the middle Pyrenees the power of the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt. It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias, Leon and Galicia were laid and from where the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start. However, no coordinated attempt would be made to drive the Moors out. The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power struggles. As a result, the Reconquista took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim invaders.

During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe, respectively.^[91] Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I.^[92] Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed «Holy Roman Emperor» by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe.^[93]

East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption of Christianity (c. 1000 CE). The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed conflicts with East Francia. Further south, the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity: the First Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire) and the Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia). To the East, Kievan Rus’ expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state.^[94][95] Further East, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later.^[96]

High and Late Middle Ages

The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages, followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500.

During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century. Economic growth, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas. The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene.

The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the Early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe.^[99] A struggle for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of the Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament.^[100] The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral schools, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe.^[99]

The Papacy reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages. An East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land.^[101] In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition against heretics. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-western peninsula.^[102]

In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000.^[103] The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert, and was weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade.^{[104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]} Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire.^{[113][114][115]}

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus’ state to the south and east.^[116] Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols.^[117] The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries.^[118][119] After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged in the 14th century: Moldavia and Walachia. Previously, these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans.^[120] From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia. The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries.

The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages.^[121] The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of France was reduced by half.^[122][123] Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines,^[124] and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period.^[125] Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at the time.^[126]

The plague had a devastating effect on Europe’s social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, beggars and lepers.^[127] The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 18th century.^[128] During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe.^[129]

Early modern period

The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence, and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries, often translated from Arabic into Latin.^{[130][131][132]} The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of art, philosophy, music and the sciences, under the joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Roman Catholic Church and an emerging merchant class.^{[133][134][135]} Patrons in Italy, including the Medici family of Florentine bankers and the Popes in Rome, funded prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.^[136][137]

Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the Western Schism. During this forty-year period, two popes—one in Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy’s spiritual authority had suffered greatly.^[138] In the 15th century, Europe started to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers. Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world.^[139][140] Exploration reached the Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic and the Southern tip of Africa. Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East linking the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in 1498. The Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached Asia westward across the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in a Spanish expedition, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the globe, completed by the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano (1519–1522). Soon after, the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing large global empires in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania.^[141] France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas and Asia. In 1588, a Spanish armada failed to invade England. A year later England tried unsuccessfully to invade Spain, allowing Philip II of Spain to maintain his dominant war capacity in Europe. This English disaster also allowed the Spanish fleet to retain its capability to wage war for the next decades. However, two more Spanish armadas failed to invade England (2nd Spanish Armada and 3rd Spanish Armada).^{[142][143][144][145]}

The Church’s power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation in 1517 when German theologian Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses criticising the selling of indulgences to the church door. He was subsequently excommunicated in the papal bull Exsurge Domine in 1520 and his followers were condemned in the 1521 Diet of Worms, which divided German princes between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths.^[147] Religious fighting and warfare spread with Protestantism.^[148] The plunder of the empires of the Americas allowed Spain to finance religious persecution in Europe for over a century.^[149] The Thirty Years War (1618–1648) crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population.^[150] In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe.^[151] The defeat of the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 marked the historic end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.^[152]

The 17th century in Central and parts of Eastern Europe was a period of general decline;^[153] the region experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700.^[154] From the Union of Krewo (1385) east-central Europe was dominated by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The hegemony of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had ended with the devastation brought by the Second Northern War (Deluge) and subsequent conflicts;^[155] the state itself was partitioned and ceased to exist at the end of the 18th century.^[156]

From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves.^[157] Further east, the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia).

The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention and scientific development.^[158] Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Isaac Newton.^[159] According to Peter Barrett, «It is widely accepted that ‘modern science’ arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world.»^[130]

18th and 19th centuries

The Seven Years’ War brought to an end the «Old System» of alliances in Europe. Consequently, when the American Revolutionary War turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.^[160]

The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the 18th century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts.^{[161][162][163]} Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy’s monopoly on political power in France resulted in the French Revolution, and the establishment of the First Republic as a result of which the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial reign of terror.^[164] Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution, and established the First French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the Battle of Waterloo.^[165][166] Napoleonic rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution, including that of the nation state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French models of administration, law and education.^{[167][168][169]} The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon’s downfall, established a new balance of power in Europe centred on the five «Great Powers»: the UK, France, Prussia, Austria and Russia.^[170] This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative elements and few reforms resulted.^[171] The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation state, from smaller principalities. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed; 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities.^[172]

In parallel, the Eastern Question grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The Russian Empire stood to benefit from the decline, whereas the Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests. Meanwhile, the Serbian revolution (1804) and Greek War of Independence (1821) marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913.^[173] Formal recognition of the de facto independent principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the 18th century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and implementation of new technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the rise of a new working class.^[174] Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labour, the legalisation of trade unions,^[175] and the abolition of slavery.^[176] In Britain, the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed, which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities.^[177] Europe’s population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.^[178] The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the Great Famine of Ireland, caused death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people.^[179] In the 19th century, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to various European colonies abroad and to the United States.^[180] Demographic growth meant that, by 1900, Europe’s share of the world’s population was 25%.^[181]

20th century to the present

Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Yugoslav nationalist^[182] Gavrilo Princip.^[183] Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The war left more than 16 million civilians and military dead.^[184] Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.^[185]

Russia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union,^[186] leading also to the independence of many former Russian governorates, such as Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as new European countries.^[187] Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended the First World War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions.^[188] Excess deaths in Russia over the course of the First World War and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million.^[189] In 1932–1933, under Stalin’s leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the second Soviet famine which caused millions of deaths;^[190] surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour. Stalin was also responsible for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which the NKVD executed 681,692 people;^[191] millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.^[192]

The social revolutions sweeping through Russia also affected other European nations following The Great War: in 1919, with the Weimar Republic in Germany and the First Austrian Republic; in 1922, with Mussolini’s one-party fascist government in the Kingdom of Italy and in Atatürk’s Turkish Republic, adopting the Western alphabet and state secularism.
Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and ‘loans’ to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929, brought about the worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler in power of what became Nazi Germany.^[198][199]

In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany following the Anschluss. Later that year, following the Munich Agreement signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, which was a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans, and in early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany and the Slovak Republic. At the time, the United Kingdom and France preferred a policy of appeasement.

With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig, the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the European Theatre of the Second World War.^{[200][201][202]} The Soviet invasion of Poland started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and, on 30 November, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastating Winter War for the Red Army.^[203] The British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark. The Phoney War continued.

In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August, Germany had begun a bombing offensive against the United Kingdom but failed to convince the Britons to give up.^[204] In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.^[205] On 7 December 1941 Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire, and other allied forces.^[206][207]

After the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback. The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank battle in history, was the last major German offensive on the Eastern Front. In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a new front against Germany. Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending the Second World War in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world.^[208] More than 40 million people in Europe had died as a result of the Second World War,^[209] including between 11 and 17 million people who perished during the Holocaust.^[210] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all Second World War casualties.^[211] By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees.^{[212][213][214]} Several post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20 million people.^[215]

The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After the Second World War the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by Winston Churchill an «Iron Curtain». The United States and Western Europe established the NATO alliance and, later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw Pact.^[216] Particular hot spots after the Second World War were Berlin and Trieste, whereby the Free Territory of Trieste, founded in 1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The Berlin blockade in 1948 and 1949 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were one of the great international crises of the Cold War.^{[217][218][219]}

The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation. At the same time decolonisation, which had already started after the First World War, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.^[17]

In the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity movement in Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system. The opening of the Iron Curtain at the Pan-European Picnic then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the Eastern bloc, the Warsaw Pact and other communist states collapsed, and the Cold War ended.^{[221][222][223]} Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more.^[224] This made old previously interrupted cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest and Trieste were now again in the centre of Europe.^{[198][225][226][227]}

European integration also grew after the Second World War. In 1949 the Council of Europe was founded, following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill, with the idea of unifying Europe^[18] to achieve common goals. It includes all European states except for Belarus, Russia,^[228] and Vatican City. The Treaty of Rome in 1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market.^[229] In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community, and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a parliament, court and central bank, and introduced the euro as a unified currency.^[230] Between 2004 and 2013, more Central European countries began joining, expanding the EU to 28 European countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power.^[231] However, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a June 2016 referendum on EU membership.^[232] The Russo-Ukrainian conflict, which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated when Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War^[233] and the Yugoslav Wars.^[234]

Geography

Europe makes up the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.^[28] It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent.^[235] Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.^[236]
Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain and at its heart lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway.

This description is simplified. Subregions such as the Iberian Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like Iceland, Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean that is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off.

Climate

Europe lies mainly in the temperate climate zones, being subjected to prevailing westerlies. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream.^[237] The Gulf Stream is nicknamed «Europe’s central heating», because it makes Europe’s climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe’s coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean.

Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of Aveiro is 16 °C (61 °F), while it is only 13 °C (55 °F) in New York City which is almost on the same latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (14 °F) higher than those in Calgary and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.^[237]

The large water masses of the Mediterranean Sea, which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are also of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the Sahara desert to the Alpine arc in its northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea near Trieste.^[238]

In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th latitudes. None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea. (location, approximate latitude and longitude, coldest month average, hottest month average and annual average temperatures in degrees C)

Temperatures in °C

Location	Latitude	Longitude	Coldest month	Hottest month	Annual average
Reykjavík	64 N	22 W	0.1	11.2	4.7
Umeå	64 N	20 E	−6.2	16.0	3.9
Oulu	65 N	25.5 E	−9.6	16.5	2.7
Arkhangelsk	64.5 N	40.5 E	−12.7	16.3	1.3
Lerwick	60 N	1 W	3.5	12.4	7.4
Stockholm	59.5 N	19 E	−1.7	18.4	7.4
Helsinki	60 N	25 E	−4.7	17.8	5.9
Saint Petersburg	60 N	30 E	−5.8	18.8	5.8
Edinburgh	55.5 N	3 W	4.2	15.3	9.3
Copenhagen	55.5 N	12 E	1.4	18.1	9.1
Klaipėda	55.5 N	21 E	−1.3	17.9	8.0
Moscow	55.5 N	30 E	−6.5	19.2	5.8
Isles of Scilly	50 N	6 W	7.9	16.9	11.8
Brussels	50.5 N	4 E	3.3	18.4	10.5
Krakow	50 N	20 E	−2.0	19.2	8.7
Kyiv	50.5 N	30 E	−3.5	20.5	8.4
Bordeaux	45 N	0	6.6	21.4	13.8
Venice	45.5 N	12 E	3.3	23.0	13.0
Belgrade	45 N	20 E	1.4	23.0	12.5
Astrakhan	46 N	48 E	−3.7	25.6	10.5
Coimbra	40 N	8 W	9.9	21.9	16.0
Valencia	39.5 N	0	11.9	26.1	18.3
Naples	40.5 N	14 E	8.7	24.9	15.9
Istanbul	41 N	29 E	5.5	23.4	13.9

^[240]
It is notable how the average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures, drop from the west to the east. For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south.

Geology

The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe’s present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago.^[241]

The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary.^[242] Europe’s most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea.

The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica and so may be regarded geologically as the «main continent», while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient microcontinent Avalonia.

Flora

Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe’s animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of Fennoscandia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various national parks.

The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these (Alps, Pyrenees) are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south–north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.

Possibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest.^[243] It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although over half of Europe’s original forests disappeared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the broadleaf and mixed forests, taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, while in its Western Russia its 5–10%. The European country with the smallest percentage of forested area is Iceland (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%).^[244]

In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce–pine–birch forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east–west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends westwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.

Fauna

Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears’ habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.).

European wild cat, foxes (especially the red fox), jackal and different species of martens, hedgehogs, different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey).

Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of insects, such as the small tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity.^[247]

Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in European seas are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins and whales.

Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe’s Bern Convention, which has also been signed by the European Community as well as non-European states.

Politics

The political map of Europe is substantially derived from the re-organisation of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. The prevalent form of government in Europe is parliamentary democracy, in most cases in the form of Republic; in 1815, the prevalent form of government was still the Monarchy. Europe’s remaining eleven monarchies^[248] are constitutional.

European integration is the process of political, legal, economic (and in some cases social and cultural) integration of European states as it has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the Council of Europe since the end of the Second World War The European Union has been the focus of economic integration on the continent since its foundation in 1993. More recently, the Eurasian Economic Union has been established as a counterpart comprising former Soviet states.

27 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area and 20 of the monetary union Eurozone. Among the smaller European organisations are the Nordic Council, the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly and the Visegrád Group.

List of states and territories

The list below includes all internationally recognized sovereign countries falling even partially under any common geographical or political definitions of Europe.

Arms	Flag	Name	Area (km2)	Population	Population density (per km2)	Capital	Name(s) in official language(s)
		Albania	28,748	2,876,591	98.5	Tirana	Shqipëria
		Andorra	468	77,281	179.8	Andorra la Vella	Andorra
		Armenia[j]	29,743	2,924,816	101.5	Yerevan	Հայաստան (Hayastan)
		Austria	83,858	8,823,054	104	Vienna	Österreich
		Azerbaijan[k]	86,600	9,911,646	113	Baku	Azərbaycan
		Belarus	207,560	9,504,700	45.8	Minsk	Беларусь (Belaruś)
		Belgium	30,528	11,358,357	372.06	Brussels	België/Belgique/Belgien
		Bosnia and Herzegovina	51,129	3,531,159	68.97	Sarajevo	Bosna i Hercegovina/Боснa и Херцеговина
		Bulgaria	110,910	7,101,859	64.9	Sofia	България (Bǎlgariya)
		Croatia	56,594	3,871,833	68.4	Zagreb	Hrvatska
		Cyprus[d]	9,251	1,170,125	123.4	Nicosia	Κύπρος (Kýpros)/Kıbrıs
		Czech Republic	78,866	10,610,947	134	Prague	Česko
		Denmark	43,094	5,748,796	133.9	Copenhagen	Danmark
		Estonia	45,226	1,328,439	30.5	Tallinn	Eesti
		Finland	338,455	5,509,717	16	Helsinki	Suomi/Finland
		France[g]	547,030	67,348,000	116	Paris	France
		Georgia[l]	69,700	3,718,200	53.5	Tbilisi	საქართველო (Sakartvelo)
		Germany	357,168	82,800,000	232	Berlin	Deutschland
		Greece	131,957	10,297,760	82	Athens	Ελλάδα (Elláda)
		Hungary	93,030	9,797,561	105.3	Budapest	Magyarország
		Iceland	103,000	350,710	3.2	Reykjavík	Ísland
		Ireland	70,280	4,761,865	67.7	Dublin	Éire/Ireland
		Italy	301,338	60,589,445	201.3	Rome	Italia
		Kazakhstan[i]	148,000	17,987,736	6.49	Astana	Қазақстан/Казахстан (Qazaqstan/Kazakhstan)
		Latvia	64,589	1,907,675	29	Riga	Latvija
		Liechtenstein	160	38,111	227	Vaduz	Liechtenstein
		Lithuania	65,300	2,800,667	45.8	Vilnius	Lietuva
		Luxembourg	2,586	602,005	233.7	Luxembourg	Lëtzebuerg/Luxemburg/Luxembourg
		Malta	316	445,426	1,410	Valletta	Malta
		Moldova[a]	33,846	3,434,547	101.5	Chișinău	Moldova
		Monaco	2.020	38,400	18,713	Monaco	Monaco
		Montenegro	13,812	642,550	45.0	Podgorica	Crna Gora/Црна Гора
		Netherlands[h]	41,543	17,271,990	414.9	Amsterdam	Nederland
		North Macedonia	25,713	2,103,721	80.1	Skopje	Северна Македонија (Severna Makedonija)
		Norway	385,203	5,295,619	15.8	Oslo	Norge/Noreg/Norga
		Poland	312,685	38,422,346	123.5	Warsaw	Polska
		Portugal[e]	92,212	10,379,537	115	Lisbon	Portugal
		Romania	238,397	18,999,642	84.4	Bucharest	România
		Russia[b]	3,969,100	144,526,636	8.4	Moscow	Россия (Rossiya)
		San Marino	61.2	33,285	520	San Marino	San Marino
		Serbia[f]	88,361	7,040,272	91.1	Belgrade	Srbija/Србија
		Slovakia	49,035	5,435,343	111.0	Bratislava	Slovensko
		Slovenia	20,273	2,066,880	101.8	Ljubljana	Slovenija
		Spain	505,990	46,698,151	92	Madrid	España
		Sweden	450,295	10,151,588	22.5	Stockholm	Sverige
		Switzerland	41,285	8,401,120	202	Bern	Schweiz/Suisse/Svizzera/Svizra
		Turkey[m]	23,764	84,680,273	106.7	Ankara	Türkiye
		Ukraine[s]	603,628	42,418,235	73.8	Kyiv	Україна (Ukraina)
		United Kingdom	244,820	66,040,229	270.7	London	United Kingdom
		Vatican City	0.44	1,000	2,272	Vatican City	Città del Vaticano/Civitas Vaticana
Total	50	10,180,000[n]	743,000,000[n]	73

Within the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN:

Symbol	Flag	Name	Area (km2)	Population	Population density (per km2)	Capital
		Abkhazia[p]	8,660	243,206	28	Sukhumi
		Artsakh[q]	11,458	150,932	12	Stepanakert
		Kosovo[o]	10,908	1,920,079	159	Pristina
		Northern Cyprus[d]	3,355	313,626	93	Nicosia
		South Ossetia[p]	3,900	53,532	13.7	Tskhinvali
		Transnistria[a]	4,163	475,665	114	Tiraspol

Several dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or close to Europe. This includes Åland (an autonomous county of Finland), two autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark (other than Denmark proper), three Crown Dependencies and two British Overseas Territories. Svalbard is also included due to its unique status within Norway, although it is not autonomous. Not included are the three countries of the United Kingdom with devolved powers and the two Autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a unique degree of autonomy, are not largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. Areas with little more than a unique tax status, such as the Canary Islands and Heligoland, are also not included for this reason.

Symbol	Flag	Name	Sovereign state	Area (km2)	Population	Population density (per km2)	Capital
		Åland	Finland	1,580	29,489	18.36	Mariehamn
		Bailiwick of Guernsey[c]	UK	78	65,849	844.0	St. Peter Port
		Bailiwick of Jersey[c]	UK	118.2	100,080	819	Saint Helier
		Faroe Islands	Denmark	1,399	50,778	35.2	Tórshavn
		Gibraltar	UK	6.7	32,194	4,328	Gibraltar
		Greenland	Denmark[r]	2,166,086	55,877	0.028	Nuuk
		Isle of Man[c]	UK	572	83,314	148	Douglas
		Svalbard	Norway	61,022	2,667

Economy

As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under management with over $32.7 trillion compared to North America’s $27.1 trillion in 2008.^[249] In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest region. Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-third of the world’s wealth. It was one of several regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end peak.^[250] As with other continents, Europe has a large wealth gap among its countries. The richer states tend to be in the Northwest and West in general, followed by Central Europe, while most economies of Eastern and Southeastern Europe are still reemerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia.

The model of the Blue Banana was designed as an economic geographic representation of the respective economic power of the regions, which was further developed into the Golden Banana or Blue Star. The trade between East and West, as well as towards Asia, which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars, new borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989. In addition, there is new impetus from the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative across the Suez Canal towards Africa and Asia.^[251]

The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states, comprises the largest single economic area in the world. Nineteen EU countries share the euro as a common currency.
Five European countries rank in the top ten of the world’s largest national economies in GDP (PPP). This includes (ranks according to the CIA): Germany (6), Russia (7), the United Kingdom (10), France (11) and Italy (13).^[252]

There is huge disparity between many European countries in terms of their income. The richest in terms of nominal GDP is Monaco with its US$185,829 per capita (2018) and the poorest is Ukraine with its US$3,659 per capita (2019).^[253] Monaco is the richest country in terms of GDP per capita in the world according to the World Bank report.

As a whole, Europe’s GDP per capita is US$21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund assessment.^[254]

Rank	Country	GDP (nominal, Peak Year) millions of USD	Peak Year
	European Union[255]	19,226,235	2008
1	Germany	4,308,854	2023
2	United Kingdom	3,158,938	2023
3	France	2,957,423	2021
4	Italy	2,408,392	2008
5	Russia	2,288,428	2013
6	Spain	1,631,685	2008
7	Netherlands	1,080,880	2023
8	Turkey	1,029,303	2023
9	Switzerland	869,601	2023
10	Poland	748,887	2023

Rank	Country	GDP (PPP, Peak Year) millions of USD	Peak Year
	European Union[256]	25,399,093	2023
1	Germany	5,545,656	2023
2	Russia	4,988,829	2023
3	France	3,872,729	2023
4	United Kingdom	3,846,931	2023
5	Turkey	3,572,551	2023
6	Italy	3,195,548	2023
7	Spain	2,363,535	2023
8	Poland	1,705,282	2023
9	Netherlands	1,290,947	2023
10	Romania	783,903	2023

Economic history

Industrial growth (1760–1945)

Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism.^[257] From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe.^[258] The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th century,^[259] and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by the First World War, but by the beginning of the Second World War, they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States. The Second World War, again, damaged much of Europe’s industries.

Cold War (1945–1991)

After the Second World War the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin,^[260] and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades.^[261] Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s.^[262] France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of Franco, also recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle.^[263] The majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the control of the Soviet Union and thus were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).^[264]

The states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount of aid by the United States under the Marshall Plan.^[265] The western states moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and increasing cross border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the Cold War. Until 1990, the European Community was expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the UK as Europe’s largest economy.

Reunification (1991–present)

With the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist states underwent shock therapy measures to liberalise their economies and implement free market reforms.

After East and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany, while the latter experienced sudden mass unemployment and plummeting of industrial production.

By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe, comprising the five largest European economies of the time: Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone replacing their former national currencies by the common euro. The three who chose to remain outside the Eurozone were the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden.

Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recession in 2008.^[267] It impacted much of the region.^[268] In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis^[269] developed concerning some countries in Europe, especially Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.^[270] As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece, by the leading countries of the Eurozone.^[271] The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012.^[272] For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4%.^[272]

Demographics

In 2017, the population of Europe was estimated to be 742 million according to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects^[2][3], which is slightly more than one-ninth of the world’s population.^[c]
A century ago, Europe had nearly a quarter of the world’s population.^[274] The population of Europe has grown in the past century, but in other areas of the world (in particular Africa and Asia) the population has grown far more quickly.^[275] Among the continents, Europe has a relatively high population density, second only to Asia. Most of Europe is in a mode of sub-replacement fertility, which means that each new(-born) generation is being less populous than the older.
The most densely populated country in Europe (and in the world) is the microstate of Monaco.

Ethnic groups

Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct «peoples of Europe», of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities.^[276]
According to UN population projection, Europe’s population may fall to about 7% of world population by 2050, or 653 million people (medium variant, 556 to 777 million in low and high variants, respectively).^[275] Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates. The average number of children per female of child-bearing age is 1.52.^[277] According to some sources,^[278] this rate is higher among Muslims in Europe. The UN predicts a steady population decline in Central and Eastern Europe as a result of emigration and low birth rates.^[279]

Migration

Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at 70.6 million people, the IOM’s report said.^[280] In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from immigration of 1.8 million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe’s total population growth.^[281] In 2008, 696,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU27 member state, a decrease from 707,000 the previous year.^[282] In 2017, approximately 825,000 persons acquired citizenship of an EU28 member state.^[283] 2.4 million immigrants from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2017.^[284]

Early modern emigration from Europe began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers in the 16th century,^[285][286] and French and English settlers in the 17th century.^[287] But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe.^[288]

Today, large populations of European descent are found on every continent. European ancestry predominates in North America and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins). Australia and New Zealand have large European-derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the White South Africans in South Africa. In Asia, European-derived populations, (specifically Russians), predominate in North Asia and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan.^[289]

Languages

Europe has about 225 indigenous languages,^[290] mostly falling within three Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages, derived from the Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages.^[241] Slavic languages are mostly spoken in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. Romance languages are spoken primarily in Western and Southern Europe, as well as in Switzerland in Central Europe and Romania and Moldova in Eastern Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in Western, Northern and Central Europe as well as in Gibraltar and Malta in Southern Europe.^[241] Languages in adjacent areas show significant overlaps (such as in English, for example). Other Indo-European languages outside the three main groups include the Baltic group (Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish and Breton^[241]), Greek, Armenian and Albanian.

A distinct non-Indo-European family of Uralic languages (Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Erzya, Komi, Mari, Moksha and Udmurt) is spoken mainly in Estonia, Finland, Hungary and parts of Russia. Turkic languages include Azerbaijani, Kazakh and Turkish, in addition to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast Europe (Balkan Gagauz Turkish, Bashkir, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Nogai and Tatar). Kartvelian languages (Georgian, Mingrelian and Svan) are spoken primarily in Georgia. Two other language families reside in the North Caucasus (termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including Chechen, Avar and Lezgin; and Northwest Caucasian, most notably including Adyghe). Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official within the EU, while Basque is the only European language isolate.

Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe.

Religion

Historically, religion in Europe has been a major influence on European art, culture, philosophy and law. There are six patron saints of Europe venerated in Roman Catholicism, five of them so declared by Pope John Paul II between 1980 and 1999: Saints Cyril and Methodius, Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena and Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (Edith Stein).^[291][292] Benedict of Nursia had already been declared «Patron Saint of all Europe» by Pope Paul VI in 1964.^[291] The largest religion in Europe is Christianity, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christians,^[293] including Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various Protestant denominations. Among Protestants, the most popular are historically state-supported European denominations such as Lutheranism, Anglicanism and the Reformed faith. Other Protestant denominations such as historically significant ones like Anabaptists were never supported by any state and thus are not so widespread, as well as these newly arriving from the United States such as Pentecostalism, Adventism, Methodism, Baptists and various Evangelical Protestants; although Methodism and Baptists both have European origins. The notion of «Europe» and the «Western World» has been intimately connected with the concept of «Christianity and Christendom»; many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.^[294]

Historically, Europe has been the centre and «cradle of Christian civilization».^{[295][296][297][298]} Christianity, including the Roman Catholic Church,^[299][300] has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century,^{[301][302][303][304]} and for at least a millennium and a half, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, even though the religion was inherited from the Middle East. Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art and science.^[305][306] In 2012 Europe had the world’s largest Christian population.^[8]

The second most popular religion is Islam (4.9%) concentrated mainly in the Balkans (Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina) and transcontinental countries located at the boundary of Europe and Asia (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkey.^[307] Other religions, including Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism are minority religions (though Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion of Russia’s Republic of Kalmykia). The 20th century saw the revival of Neopaganism through movements such as Wicca and Druidry.

Europe has become a relatively secular continent, with an increasing number and proportion of irreligious, atheist and agnostic people, who make up about 18.3% of Europe’s population,^[307] currently the largest secular population in the Western world. There are a particularly high number of self-described non-religious people in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Sweden, former East Germany and France.^[308]

Major cities and urban areas

The three largest urban areas of Europe are Moscow, London and Paris. All have over 10 million residents,^[309] and as such have been described as megacities.^[310] While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partly in Asia. 64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side.
The next largest cities in order of population are Madrid, Saint Petersburg, Milan, Barcelona, Berlin, and Rome each having over 3 million residents.^[309]

When considering the commuter belts or metropolitan areas, within Europe (for which comparable data is available) Moscow covers the largest population, followed in order by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan, Ruhr Area, Saint Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin.^[311]

Culture

«Europe» as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared heritage of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and its cultures. The boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of Christendom (or more specifically Latin Christendom), as established or defended throughout the medieval and early modern history of Europe, especially against Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in Europe.^[312]

This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping indigenous national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into Slavic, Latin (Romance) and Germanic, but with several components not part of either of these group (notably Greek, Basque and Celtic). Historically, special examples with overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin (Romance) and Germanic or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots.
Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional cultures of Europe. Europe is often described as «maximum cultural diversity with minimal geographical distances».

Different cultural events are organized in Europe, with the aim of bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their importance, such as the European Capital of Culture, the European Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the European Capital of Sport.

Sport

See also

Notes

References

Sources

• National Geographic Society (2005). National Geographic Visual History of the World. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-7922-3695-5.
• Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2011). The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition. Vol. 1. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-91311-5.
• Brown, Stephen F.; Anatolios, Khaled; Palmer, Martin (2009). O’Brien, Joanne (ed.). Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-106-2.
• Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007). The Byzantine Economy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84978-4.
• Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären (11 August 1997). The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1.
• Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22379-9.

External links

• Europe web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Europe at the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Europe: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society
• Europe at Curlie
• European Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress
• «Europe» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 907–953.
• The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press

Historical Maps

• Borders in Europe 3000BC to the present Geacron Historical atlas
• Online history of Europe in 21 maps

ince the creation of this publication, we have talked endlessly about the historical happenings of Europe, going as back as the first civilizations to conquer the continent. Although we have spoken a lot about this continent that many of us call home, we have never spoken about how the continent got its name.

To find this out, we must go back to the origin of the Greek pantheon and the stories associated with it. Most importantly, the story of Zeus and the white bull.

Zeus and the white bull

As with many things in Greek mythology, our story starts with Zeus. The god of gods was known for his escapades in the world of the living, coming down from the mount of Olympus to influence the mortal plane as he saw fit. This was the case when he saw the daughter of Agenor, the king of Phoenicia.

Zeus was so impressed by the woman’s beauty that he decided that he must go down and woo her. As he came down from Olympus, he transformed himself into a white bull, a rare and beautiful sight that many attributed to the influence of gods. Once Zeus met the daughter of the king, he abducted her by putting her on his back and headed toward the island of Crete.

There the daughter, whose name was Europa, gave birth to three sons of Zeus. Minos (who would later become the king of Crete), Rhadamanthys ( who would become the king of the Cyclades Islands), and Sarpedon (who would become the king of Lycia). After this, Zeus would leave Europa on Crete, where she settled down and married Asterius, the king of Crete at the time, who took her now fatherless sons under his wing. Europa would be worshipped by the island’s inhabitants leading to her name spreading across the Agean sea.

Europa’s name would become closely associated with the earth, with some accounts of Ancient Greece even describing Europa as being named the goddess of the earth. As such, her name became widely used to describe what we now know as Europe when maps started to partition Europe as a continent apart from all other landmasses around it.

Other theories

Linguists point to other theories about the provenance of Europe’s naming. Many point toward Greece once again and put forward the theory that the name Europe comes from two Greece words, εὐρύς (Anglicised: eurys), which means wide, and ὤψ (Anglicised: ops), which means either face or eye depending on its use.

Together εὐρύςὤψ means “wide-gazing,” a name that many arrived to due to Greek maritime experience on the Mediterranean sea, which they as saw as being stretched as wide as the eyes could see.

Another theory points to the civilization of Mesopotamia and the language they used as the roots for the name. In the language of the civilization, specifically Semitic Akkadian, the word for ‘sunset’ was erebu and the word for ‘sunrise’ was asu. Linguists point towards this as the provenance of the word Europe as Europe was west of the old Mesopotamia empire, thus the name ‘erebu’ being used to describe it as well as Asia being east of Mesopotamia leading to the theory of the etymology of the name for Asia, namely the Semitic Akkadian ‘asu’, being put up as an option.

The exact provenance of the etymology of Europe is still debated by many scholars as the reference of the continent being referred to as Europe goes back to times when records weren’t kept as accurately as we do today. As such many of the theories of the etymology of Europe are just guesses. Without a new revolutionary discovery, we might never know the exact point Europe started being called Europe.

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THIS SCEPTRED ISLE

Where did the name Europe come from?

Nick Metcalfe, New Mills, UK

• Europa — a lover of Zeus from Greek mythology. To protect her from his jealous wife, Zeus appeared as a white bull who swam to safety across the ocean with Europa on his back.

  R Watkin, Oxford

• From the Phoenician word EROB, meaning where the sun set (west of Phoenicia).

  Roy Nicol, Toronto Canada

• From fecund EUROPA: a Phoenician princess carried off by Zeus in the form of a white bull and by him mother of Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon.

  Trevor, Newcastle UK

• EUROPA — Overcome by the Phoenician woman’s beauty, but sensing her shy nature, Zeus changed himself into a white bull. Europa was attracted to this majestic animal, and was soon riding on the bull. At that point, Zeus started running over the waves, leaving Europa’s native Sidon and friends behind. The ride was smooth, as the sea nymphs created a waveless path for the travellers. The couple ended up on Crete, where Europa bore Zeus three sons: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon. Minos became king of Crete; Rhadamanthus a judge in the underworld.

  Odysseus Mikalis, Rockville USA

• (From «The New First Aid in English» ISBN 0 7169 4409 x):

  «Some say it was named Eref by the Phoenicians, meaning ‘the land of the setting sun’ … Others say it was named after Europus, a town in Macedonia»

  Mike Whittaker, Stapleton UK

• Europa, Europe comes from the Phoenician word EROB, meaning where the sun set (west of Phoenicia,west of Bosphorus, Sea of Marmora).
  Erebo: I go under.
  Ereba: The land where I go under.
  Acu (pronounciatian asu) the land where I (the sun) are coming up:
  Ereb, ereba= europa
  Asu = Asie, Asia.

  Morningland-Eveningland, seen by the Phoeniciers

  That’s why Bosphorus always has been the geographical border between Europe and Asia.

  Anatolie /= Asia-minor,which forms 97% of todays Turkey, comes from greeche language and means : east, east of what ? East of European Greece!

  Hans Thijssens, Amsterdam Netherlands

• perhaps from the Greek word Euros meaning ‘broad’.

  N S, London, England

• It`s greek. Like everything else
  that is important!

  Panos Protos, Malmö, Sweden

• Europa is a rendering of the Colkhian word for affection, love(of the Motherland of the Colkh/Iberian population that cradled their civilization from Western Iberia(at the Atlantic Ocean) to the Zagros Range in the East(Zagr means the mountain range in Colkhiberian i.e. Kartuli.

  Natela Popkhadze, Tbilisi Georgia/Sakartvelo

• They ran out of all the cool Greek myth names.

  Hannah, Huntington Beach England

• From a pré-Greek goddess.After her, the region in Thracia, river, towns and about 20 mortal and immortal Europa’s mentioned in the Greek Mythos, have been named.In the 5th c. BC it was suggested that the continent’s name came from a seanimf, daughter of Oceanus, or from Zeus’ partner Europe, who had been given later a Phoenician descent together with a new family. www.europesname.com

  Peter Gommers, Antwerp Belgium

• They changed their name to ‘Europe’ from ‘Force’ in 1982. Gotta love that Swedish big haired pomp rock!!

  Max, Truro UK

• There is a vedic word, Hariupia. Could that be a forerunner of the word,Europa?
  It is claimed that Harappa is a name derived from Hariupia which Sanskritic scholar Umesh Chandra Vidyaratna did not indicate.

  Samir, kolkata india

• The earlier answers provided are true in myth and sadly, true in recent fact. However, the union between Miss Europa and Zeus is coming to its end.

  Europa now speaks in a new slavic language, Euro-rip-ov’. The new translation being ‘Euro-Rip-Off’.

  The poor old Greek god Zeus still thinks he should be able to retire at 50 and have the old and now demented Europa pay for his retirement?

  It’s going to be interesting to see how this myth Pans out(maybe, pun intended).

  Alec Ohare, Sydney, Australia

• Ah…. Europe is said to be named after a greek godess named Europa. According to the Greek mythology she had set to travel the whole world with Zeus, disguised in the form of a white bull. And the portions she had covered were together named after her… that is the continent of Europe. (Apparently she didn‘t cover much which explains why Europe is so small ~ just kidding).

  Btw, has anyone noticed? My name too is Europa. haha

  Europa, India

• EUR = GOLD (See: Origin of French word «Or»)

  OP = EYE (Compare: «Cyklop» and optician)

  ***GOLDEN EYE***

  Or maybe:

  ***GOLDEN AGE***

  Opa: is a kind of Greek «exclamation for a great way of life» Thus, a golden civilization or «Golden Age» (…following the previous Iron Age)

  Al Mighty, Stockholm Sweden

• EU= Hebrew
  RO= Roma
  PA= Pax

  Jari Martikainen, Lahti, Finland Suomi

• my wife and i were asking the question just last night where did Europes name originate and of course we googled it.
  Thanks for all the great info!

  My wife and I were asking the question just the other night: Where did Europe’s name originate from? And, of course, we Googled it. Thanks for all the great info.

  David Fulton, Calgary Canada

Add your answer

Where did the name Europe come from?

Nick Metcalfe, New Mills, UK

Europa — a lover of Zeus from Greek mythology. To protect her from his jealous wife, Zeus appeared as a white bull who swam to safety across the ocean with Europa on his back.

R Watkin, Oxford

From the Phoenician word EROB, meaning where the sun set (west of Phoenicia).

Roy Nicol, Toronto Canada

From fecund EUROPA: a Phoenician princess carried off by Zeus in the form of a white bull and by him mother of Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon.

Trevor, Newcastle UK

EUROPA — Overcome by the Phoenician woman’s beauty, but sensing her shy nature, Zeus changed himself into a white bull. Europa was attracted to this majestic animal, and was soon riding on the bull. At that point, Zeus started running over the waves, leaving Europa’s native Sidon and friends behind. The ride was smooth, as the sea nymphs created a waveless path for the travellers. The couple ended up on Crete, where Europa bore Zeus three sons: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon. Minos became king of Crete; Rhadamanthus a judge in the underworld.

Odysseus Mikalis, Rockville USA

(From «The New First Aid in English» ISBN 0 7169 4409 x): «Some say it was named Eref by the Phoenicians, meaning ‘the land of the setting sun’ … Others say it was named after Europus, a town in Macedonia»

Mike Whittaker, Stapleton UK

Europa, Europe comes from the Phoenician word EROB, meaning where the sun set (west of Phoenicia,west of Bosphorus, Sea of Marmora). Erebo: I go under. Ereba: The land where I go under. Acu (pronounciatian asu) the land where I (the sun) are coming up: Ereb, ereba= europa Asu = Asie, Asia. Morningland-Eveningland, seen by the Phoeniciers That’s why Bosphorus always has been the geographical border between Europe and Asia. Anatolie /= Asia-minor,which forms 97% of todays Turkey, comes from greeche language and means : east, east of what ? East of European Greece!

Hans Thijssens, Amsterdam Netherlands

perhaps from the Greek word Euros meaning ‘broad’.

N S, London, England

It`s greek. Like everything else that is important!

Panos Protos, Malm�, Sweden

Europa is a rendering of the Colkhian word for affection, love(of the Motherland of the Colkh/Iberian population that cradled their civilization from Western Iberia(at the Atlantic Ocean) to the Zagros Range in the East(Zagr means the mountain range in Colkhiberian i.e. Kartuli.

Natela Popkhadze, Tbilisi Georgia/Sakartvelo

They ran out of all the cool Greek myth names.

Hannah, Huntington Beach England

From a pr�-Greek goddess.After her, the region in Thracia, river, towns and about 20 mortal and immortal Europa’s mentioned in the Greek Mythos, have been named.In the 5th c. BC it was suggested that the continent’s name came from a seanimf, daughter of Oceanus, or from Zeus’ partner Europe, who had been given later a Phoenician descent together with a new family. www.europesname.com

Peter Gommers, Antwerp Belgium

They changed their name to ‘Europe’ from ‘Force’ in 1982. Gotta love that Swedish big haired pomp rock!!

Max, Truro UK

There is a vedic word, Hariupia. Could that be a forerunner of the word,Europa? It is claimed that Harappa is a name derived from Hariupia which Sanskritic scholar Umesh Chandra Vidyaratna did not indicate.

Samir, kolkata india

The earlier answers provided are true in myth and sadly, true in recent fact. However, the union between Miss Europa and Zeus is coming to its end. Europa now speaks in a new slavic language, Euro-rip-ov’. The new translation being ‘Euro-Rip-Off’. The poor old Greek god Zeus still thinks he should be able to retire at 50 and have the old and now demented Europa pay for his retirement? It’s going to be interesting to see how this myth Pans out(maybe, pun intended).

Alec Ohare, Sydney, Australia

Ah…. Europe is said to be named after a greek godess named Europa. According to the Greek mythology she had set to travel the whole world with Zeus, disguised in the form of a white bull. And the portions she had covered were together named after her… that is the continent of Europe. (Apparently she didn‘t cover much which explains why Europe is so small ~ just kidding). Btw, has anyone noticed? My name too is Europa. haha

Europa, India

EUR = GOLD (See: Origin of French word «Or») OP = EYE (Compare: «Cyklop» and optician) ***GOLDEN EYE*** Or maybe: ***GOLDEN AGE*** Opa: is a kind of Greek «exclamation for a great way of life» Thus, a golden civilization or «Golden Age» (…following the previous Iron Age)

Al Mighty, Stockholm Sweden

EU= Hebrew RO= Roma PA= Pax

Jari Martikainen, Lahti, Finland Suomi

my wife and i were asking the question just last night where did Europes name originate and of course we googled it. Thanks for all the great info! My wife and I were asking the question just the other night: Where did Europe’s name originate from? And, of course, we Googled it. Thanks for all the great info.

David Fulton, Calgary Canada

Since even after I tell people it doesn’t come from greeks they still persist, here’s this thread. Erob means something like «where the sun sets» or «across the water». Like a whole lot of stuff that’s ‘greek’ Europa mythology is obviously an insertion of phoenician mythology or origins or mixing or whatever, just like Cadmus and many others from other sources.

Phoenician is also very related to hebrew.

European Commonwealth Europäische Gemeinschaft
Flag of Europe Coat of arms of Europe Flag Coat of arms
Motto: In Vielfalt Geeint (Unity in Diversity)
Anthem: Ode an die Freude (Ode to Joy)
Location of Europe
Capital	Brussels
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Establishment
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The European Commonwealth, commonly referred to in English as just Europe or the Commonwealth, is a sovereign state composed of a large part of the landmass of the continent of Europe located mainly in the historical regions of western, central, northern, and southern Europe. Composed of 26 regions and a single capital territory, the Commonwealth has a population of 429,509,502 and a land area of 3,722,634 square kilometres, making it the world’s 3rd and 7th largest nation respectively.

Europe is a parliamentary democracy with an executive chosen directly from the legislature. The parliament holds sovereignty as the single central governing entity within the Commonwealth, making it the single most influential point of national governance and policy. The prime minister is selected from the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties within the parliament, meaning that the powers of the executive derive from the parliament itself. The European government is a federal-like government in which the national government always holds the power to overrule the indivisible members of the union. As defined in the nation’s constitution, the national government holds all powers of government, and those powers not explicitly derived from the national government are then given to the regions. Therefore, the Commonwealth is considered to be a unitary state with a semi-federal system in place under a parliamentary republic in which the national legislature is supreme.

Europe has a long, complex history stretching as far back as to the first human arrivals between 45,000 and 25,000 BCE during the paleolithic age. Through thousands of years of development, the period of classical antiquity arose with the Ancient Greek city-states. From Ancient Greece came the modern concepts of philosophy, democracy, mathematics, and many more fundamental features of contemporary European society which were spread by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The Roman Empire, whose roots came from the dictator Julius Caesar, and was expanded to encompass the entire Roman Republic by Caesar Augustus, was one of the first major unifying governments of Europe, at its peak extending over most of southern, western, and southeastern Europe. Due to a split by west and east around the year 300 CE and continuous attacks by Germanic peoples from the 4th to 5th century, Western Rome fell by 476, leading to the beginning of the Middle Ages. Although Christianity had been introduced under the Empire, the most pious period of European history was after the fall of the western portion of the Empire in this period. Germanic dominance over the former Western Rome would see the Franks develop a hegemony of power over the other peoples of Western Europe, culminating in the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire around 800 by Charlemagne. It is around this time that the British Isles, the last place dominated by Celtic peoples, were subject to waves of settlement by Germanic Anglo-Saxons, eventually forming England by 927, and Hungary emerged as an independent kingdom. The Viking Age was at its zenith of power in the early 11th century under Cnut the Great, a period which saw the migrations of many peoples across Europe, such as the Normans. The Crusades saw religious piety and zeal invade the Middle East to establish crusader states with the support of the Catholic Church, paving the way to the Renaissance by reforming knowledge bonds between Ancient Roman and Greek works that had been lost in the Middle Ages with Europeans.

While dynastic powers in Europe came under political and economic pressure from the Hundred Years’ War and the Black Death, a rebirth of ancient Greek and Roman knowledge from Florence came about in the early 14th century which was spread throughout Europe by the printing press. The Renaissance challenged existing views of science and theology as supported by the Catholic Church, and saw the development of the Protestant Reformation and the Scientific Revolution along with the influences of humanism and individualism on culture and society. The Age of Discovery, jump started by the Reconquista of Spain and Portugal, established oceanic trading links across the world and saw the first beginnings of colonial empires, producing the Columbian Exchange. A combination of New World resources coupled with the Industrial Revolution of Great Britain would lead to the development of economics based on manufacturing rather than agriculture. The American Revolution and the French Revolution would see the establishment of the first republics as idealized in the French-centered Enlightenment, leading to the Napoleonic Wars and the spread of the ideals of nationalism, liberalism, and republicanism across Europe under Napoleon Bonaparte. A massive expansion of the Industrial Revolution lead to the creation of competition between the nation-states of Europe and the development of socialism, communism, and trade unions among its peoples. A series of wars and revolutionary movements throughout the 19th century saw the creation of nation-states such as Germany and Italy, and the development of centralized powers resulted in the Scramble for Africa at the peak of the Age of Imperialism. The intense nationalism and the militaristic tendencies of these large colonial European empires would lead to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

Following an German and Austo-Hungarian defeat in 1918, Germany was placed into massive debt and economic disaster and Austria-Hungary was dismantled into smaller nation-states. The massive German economic disaster, coupled with the effects of the Great Depression would see the rise of fascism and authoritarianism through the collapse of many democratic states, leading to the rise of Benito Mussolini and Fascist Italy in 1922 and Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany in 1933, which would eventually lead to the Second World War. Following Allied victory in 1945, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain, split between support for the United States and the Soviet Union. It was from the non-communist Western Europe that the European Economic Community was founded as the precursor to the European Commonwealth. The economies of Italy and West Germany recovered in the postwar economic boom, and the first notions of Pan-Europeanism began to spread across the ECC. Under the leadership of Johannes Sieg, the European Commonwealth was established by the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, Italy, and Austria in the 1983 Treaty of Brussels. Following the fall of the Eastern Bloc in 1989 and the Soviet Union itself in 1991, Europe was depolarized and the Commonwealth was expanded to include many former non-communist countries and certain non-aligned countries in the 1992 Treaty of Vienna. Upon the adoption of the Zagreb Agreement in 1995, the Commonwealth was expanded to include Slovenia and Croatia, reaching its contemporary boundaries.

The European Commonwealth is a free market, post-industrial, and post-material economy focused on the ideas of pragmatic laissez faire. Europe is a heavily developed country which was the root of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism, and as a result, is one of the oldest free markets in the world. Under a series of policies recognizing that markets should exist in a self regulating state and that certain institutions would be better off in the hands of state management, Europe is sometimes considered to be a synthesis of socialism and capitalism, while most Europeans attribute this to staying true to the values of economist Adam Smith. Extremely diverse and highly productive, the economy of Europe is based upon a wide variety of goods, practices, and services which had survived some level of outsourcing and globalisation. Policies aimed at continuing both primary and secondary economic sectors and a cultural value of self reliance have seen the survival of many agricultural and industrial practices that lead to lower profits, albeit are better for the people as a whole. As moral implications have triumphed profit motives, Europe is considered to be a state in which post-materialism has developed. While Europeans as a whole are much less commercially-driven than most other capitalist countries, innovation and education remain high, with many international standards of education being set in Europe itself. The Commonwealth is considered to be economically, politically, and socially free.

Europe is a founding member of the United Nations, the UN Security Council, the G8, the G20, the IMF, the OCED, the WTO, the OSCE, and the Council of Europe.

Etymology

The word Europe comes from the Ancient Greek Europa, a princess whom Zeus abducted in the form of a white bull, where she became the queen of Crete. According to the Ancient Greeks, the term Europa was a name for the queen and not a geological designation. It is assumed that the name derives from the Ancient Greek word broad, eurus, and thus stems into the word Europe. The name was first known to be applied in the 6th century BCE by Greek geographers, meaning broad-place, with broad itself being a common Indo-European epithet for the Earth at large. The term was adopted in the Carolingian Renaissance to refer to the areas under the influence of Catholicism and was not developed to extend in reference to the contemporary continent until the 19th century.

While the name Europe still refers to the continent as a whole, the term was adopted to refer specifically to the European Commonwealth upon the adoption of the constitution, which referred to itself as a constitution for Europe as a whole and was meant to extend itself in such a way. As per the Zagreb Agreement, signed twelve years after the adoption of the constitution, the Commonwealth agreed not to be ambitious in its extension in accordance with the Russian Federation. Therefore, while Europe can refer to both the Commonwealth and the continent, most non-Commonwealth Europeans hence refrain from referring to themselves as Europeans, much as the situation with the United States and the word American. The official name of the nation is the European Commonwealth, in reference to the commonality of all Europeans under the agreement and in order to distance itself from the nation being referred to as a federal or unitary state, of which it considers itself to be neither, but rather, a country of countries.