The word culture comes from

Culture consists of all learned, normative behavior patterns – that is, all shared ways or patterns of thinking and feeling as well as doing.

The word ‘culture’ comes from the Latin word ‘cultura,’ related to cult or worship. In its broadest sense, the term refers to the result of human interaction.

Society’s culture comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of society, and passed on to succeeding generations.

Sometimes an individual is described as highly cultured, meaning that the person in question has certain features, such as his/her speech, manner, and taste for literature, music, or painting, which distinguish him from others.

Culture, in this sense, refers to certain personal characteristics of an individual.

However, this is not the sense in which the word culture is used and understood in social sciences.

Sometimes culture is used in popular discourse to refer to a celebration or an evening of entertainment, as when one speaks of a ‘cultural show.’ Culture is identified with aesthetics or the fine arts, such as dance, music, or drama.

This is also different from the technical meaning of the word culture.

Culture is used in a special sense in anthropology and sociology. It refers to the sum of human beings’ lifeways, behavior, beliefs, feelings, and thoughts; it connotes everything they acquire as social beings. Culture has been defined in several ways.

There is no consensus among sociologists and anthropologists regarding the definition of culture.

Some writers add to these definitions some of the important” other capabilities and habits,” such as language and the techniques for making and using tools.

Meaning of Culture

Culture is a comprehensive and encompassing term that includes what we have learned about our history, values, morals, customs, art, and habits.

Culture is the complex of values, ideas, attitudes, and other meaningful symbols created by people to shape human behavior and the artifacts of that behavior as they are transmitted from one generation to the next.

The above definition highlights three important attributes of an individual’s culture.

First, it is ‘created by people,’ evolving due to human activities, and passed on to the succeeding generations.

Second, the impact of cultural influence is both intangible and tangible. People’s basic attitudes and values directly result from their cultural environment. Beliefs in freedom of speech and choice, heterosexuality, and God are products of human action.

Additionally, people leave physical evidence of their culture through art and craftwork, buildings, furniture, laws, and food.

Third, the cultural environment evolves, and it most often evolves over lengthy periods. Changes in women’s roles in the home and business and the outward desire for leisure time have come about quite slowly. Other changes, however, occur more quickly. Clothing styles, for example, come and go rather hastily.

Culture may also be defined in other ways. According to Kroeber, “the mass of the learned and transmitted motor reactions, habits, techniques, ideas, and values – and the behavior they include – is what constitutes culture. It is all those things about men that are more than just biological or organic and more than merely psychological.”

It is the human-made part of the environment, the total way of life of a people, and the social legacy that the individual acquires from his group. The culture into which we are born provides many ready-made solutions to problems growing out of the geographic, biological, and social environment in which we live.

These ready-made solutions are provided in the form of cultural patterns relating to the ideology, role definitions, and socialization procedures of the society in which we live.

These cultural patterns are transmitted to individuals through social institutions such as family, educational institutions, religious institutions, social classes, languages, parents’ attitudes, behavior, and reading.

As a result, the cultural patterns that consumers learn to influence their ideas and values, the roles they play, how they carry those roles out, and how their needs and desires are handled.

E. B. Taylor defined culture as that complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Culture is thus composed of common habits and patterns of living of people in daily activities and common interests in entertainment, sports, news, and even advertising.

Culture is a comprehensive concept that includes almost everything that influences an individual’s thought processes and behaviors. Culture does not include inherited responses and predispositions.

Rather it is acquired. One more thing should also be borne in mind about culture. That is, in modern complex societies, culture seldom provides detailed prescriptions for appropriate behavior. Rather, it supplies boundaries within which most individuals think and act.

You should also keep in mind that the nature of cultural influences is such that we are seldom aware of them. An individual behaves, thinks, and feels like other members of the same culture because it seems natural.

The concept of culture has been debated in anthropological literature for at least two centuries and has acquired almost as many definitions as those trying to define it.

According to Singer, recent definitions of culture have grown progressively more formal and abstract. Culture has often been loosely defined as a behavior observed through social relations and material artifacts.

Although these may provide some raw data for a construct of culture, they are not, in themselves, the constituents of culture. In a deeper anthropological sense, culture includes patterns, norms, rules, and standards that find expression in behavior, social relations, and artifacts.

These are the constituents of culture. Singer’s definition revealed this development: ‘Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior, acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups including their embodiments in artifacts.

The essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas, especially their attached values. Thus, according to the above definition, culture is the conditioning elements of behavior and its products.

Referring to Ralph Linton, Berkman, and Gilson, in their book ‘Consumer Behavior – Concepts and Strategies,’ defined culture as ‘patterns of learned behavior held in common and transmitted by the members of any given society.’

Thus, culture consists of a society’s behaviors, which are well-established and accepted by the members of that society. The majority follow these patterns.

For example, most South-Asian women wear ‘sharee,’ and it is an established behavior pattern in this culture. There are exceptions to this pattern as well.

For example, some women may wear T-shirts and trousers, but this will not be considered a pattern since it is not found in the majority’s behavior. Let us now explain this definition at some length.

Definition of Culture

Culture has been defined in some ways, but most simply, as the learned and shared behavior of a community of interacting human beings.

According to British anthropologist Edward Taylor, “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as. a member of society”.

According to Phatak, Bhagat, and Kashlak, “Culture is a concept that has been used in several social science disciplines to explain variations in human thought processes in different parts of the world.”         ‘

According to J.P. Lederach, “Culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for perceiving, interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities around them.”

According to R. Linton, “A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society.”

According to G. Hofstede, “Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.”

According to H.T. Mazumdar, “Culture is the total of human achievements, material and non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically, i.e., by tradition and communication, vertically as well as horizontally.”

Culture is defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding learned through socialization. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while distinguishing those of another group.

Characteristics of Culture

All organizations have a culture because they are embedded in specific societal cultures and are part of them. Some values create a dominant culture in organizations that help guide employees’ day-to-day behavior.

There is also evidence that these dominant cultures can positively impact desirable outcomes, such as successfully conducting mergers and acquisitions, supporting product innovation processes, and helping firms cope with rapid economic and technological change.

Learned Behavior

Not all behavior is learned, but most of it is learned; combing one’s hair, standing in line, telling jokes, criticizing the President, and going to the movie all constitute behaviors that had to be learned.

Sometimes the terms conscious learning and unconscious learning are used to distinguish the learning.

Some behavior is obvious. People can be seen going to football games, eating with forks, or driving automobiles. Such behavior is called “overt” behavior. Other behavior is less visible.

Culture is Abstract

Culture exists in the minds or habits of the members of society. Culture is the shared ways of doing and thinking. There are degrees of visibility of cultural behavior, ranging from persons’ regularized activities to their internal reasons for so doing.

In other words, we cannot see culture as such; we can only see human behavior. This behavior occurs in a regular, patterned fashion and is called culture.

Culture Includes Attitudes, Values, and Knowledge

There is a widespread error in the thinking of many people who tend to regard the ideas, attitudes, and notions they have as “their own.”

It is easy to overestimate the uniqueness of one’s attitudes and ideas. When there is an agreement with other people, it is largely Unnoticed, but when there is a disagreement or difference, one is usually conscious of it.

Your differences, however, may also be cultural. For example, suppose you are a Muslim, and the other person is a Christian.

Culture also Includes Material Objects.

Man’s behavior results in creating objects.

Men were behaving when they made these things. Making these objects required numerous and various skills, which human beings gradually built up through the ages. Man has invented something else, and so on.

Occasionally, one sees that man does not really “make” steel or a battleship.

All these things first existed in a “state of nature.”

The man merely modified their form and changed them from the state in which they were to the state in which he now uses them. The chair was first a tree which man surely did not make. But the chair is more than trees, and the jet airplane is more than iron ore and so forth.

The patterns of learned behavior and behavior results are possessed not by one or a few people but usually by a large proportion.

Thus, many millions share such behavior patterns as automobiles or the English language. Persons may share some part of a culture unequally.

Sometimes people share different aspects of culture.

Culture is Super-Organic

Culture is sometimes called super organic. It implies that “culture” is somehow superior to “nature.” The word super-organic is useful when it implies what may be quite a different phenomenon from a cultural point of view.

For example, a tree means different things to the botanist who studies it, the older woman who uses it for shade in the late summer afternoon, the farmer who picks its fruit, the motorist who collides with it, and the young lovers who carve their initials in its trunk.

The same physical objects and physical characteristics, in other words, may constitute a variety of quite different cultural objects and cultural characteristics.

Culture is Pervasive

Culture is pervasive; it touches every aspect of life. The pervasiveness of culture is manifest in two ways.

First, culture provides an unquestioned context for individual actions and responses. Cultural norms govern not only emotional actions but relational actions.

Second, culture pervades social activities and institutions.

Culture is a Way of Life

Culture means simply the “way of life” of a people or their “design for a living.” Kluckhohn and Kelly define it in his sense”, A culture is a historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by all or specially designed members of a group.”

Explicit culture refers to similarities in words and actions which can be directly observed.

For example, adolescent cultural behavior can be generalized from regularities in dress, mannerisms, and conversation. Implicit culture exists in abstract forms, which are not quite obvious.

Culture is Idealistic

Culture embodies the ideals and norms of a group. It is the sum total of a group’s ideal patterns and norms of behavior. Culture consists of the intellectual, artistic, and social ideals and institutions that the members of society profess and strive to confirm.

Culture is Transmitted among Members of Society

Persons learn cultural ways from people.

Many of them are “handed down” by their elders, parents, teachers, and others. Other cultural behaviors are “handed up” to elders. Some of the transmission of culture is among contemporaries.

For example, the styles of dress, political views, and the use of recent labor-saving devices. One does not acquire a behavior pattern spontaneously.

He learns it. That means that someone teaches him, and he learns. Much of the learning process for the teacher and the learner is unconscious, unintentional, or accidental.

Culture is Continually Changing

One fundamental and inescapable attribute (a special quality) of culture is the fact of unending change.

Some societies sometimes change slowly, and hence in comparison to other societies, seem not to be changing. But they are changing, even though not obviously so.

Language is the Chief Vehicle of Culture

Man lives not only in the present but also in the past and future.

He can do this because he possesses a language that transmits what was learned in the past and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom to the next generation.

A specialized language pattern serves as a common bond to the members of a particular group or subculture.

Although culture is transmitted in various ways, language is one of the most important vehicles for perpetuating cultural patterns.

Culture is Integrated

This is known as holism, or the interconnected parts of a culture.

All aspects of a culture are related to one another, and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.

Culture is Dynamic

This simply means that cultures interact and change.

Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change. Otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing environments.

And because cultures are integrated, the entire system must likely adjust if one component in the system changes.

Culture is Transmissive

Culture is transmissive as it is transmitted front one generation to another.

Language is the main vehicle of culture. Language in different forms makes it possible for the present generation to understand the achievement of earlier generations.

Transmission of culture may take place by imitation as well as by instruction.

Culture Varies from Society to Society

Every society has a culture of its own. It differs from society to society. The culture of every society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform.

Cultural elements like customs, traditions, morals, values, and beliefs are not uniform everywhere. Culture varies from time to time also.

Culture is Gratifying

Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs and desires.

Our needs, both biological and social, are fulfilled in cultural ways. Culture determines and guides various activities of man. Thus, culture is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their wants.

So we can easily say that culture has various features that embody it in an important position in organizations and other aspects.

Functions of Culture

We will review the functions that culture performs and assess whether culture can be a liability for an organization. Culture performs some functions within an organization.

• First, it has a boundary-defining role; it creates distinctions between one organization and another.
• Second, it conveys a sense of identity for organization members.
• Third, culture facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger than one’s individual self-interest.
• Fourth, it enhances the stability of the social system. Culture is the social glue that helps hold the organization together by providing appropriate standards for what employees should say and do.
• Finally, culture serves as a sense-making and control mechanism that guides and

shapes employees’ attitudes and behavior. It is this last function that is of particular interest to us.

The role of culture in influencing employee behavior appears to be increasingly important in today’s workplace.

As organizations have widened spans of control, flattened structures have been introduced, and teams reduced formalization and empowered employees. The shared meaning provided by a strong culture ensures that everyone is pointed in the same direction.

3 Components Of Culture

If you study a modern or backward culture, you will identify three important components of it. 3 components of culture are;

1. cognitive component,
2. material component, and
3. normative component.

In other words, the culture of a particular society is composed of three distinct elements or components. Let us now have a brief discussion on them:

Cognitive Component

The basic component of any culture is one relating to people’s knowledge about the universe’s creation and existence. This aspect is based on either people’s observations or on certain factual evidence that they have.

An individual of a backward culture believes in gods, superstitions, and other objects as a part of their cognitive aspect. But, in a technologically advanced society, the cognitive aspect is based on scientific experiments and their applications.

The cognitive component of an advanced society’s culture is quite distinct from that of a primitive one because of the refinement of knowledge through systematic testing and observation.

Material Component

Another important component of any given culture is the material feature of society. It consists of all the tangible things that human beings make, use, and give value to. The material component varies from culture to culture as the cognitive component.

It is based on the technological state that society has achieved and understood, looking at society’s artifacts. The artifacts include the type of housing where people live, the furniture they use, and other material goods they possess.

Since it is tied to the level of technological advancement of society, the material features of cultures are very diverse as technological achievements vary.

Cognitive Component

The other important component of a culture is the cognitive component. The cognitive component is composed of society’s values and norms, which guide and regulate behavior.

In other words, it consists of the values, beliefs, and rules by which society directs people’s interactions. Understanding culture means understanding its values.

Values are shared standards of acceptable and unacceptable, good and bad, desirable and undesirable. Values are abstract, very general concepts that are expressed by norms.

Norms are rules and guidelines that set forth proper attitudes and behaviors for specific situations.

For example, in South Asian countries, the culture places a high value on religious training; therefore, our norms specify formal religious education for every child up to a certain age. Mass religious education norms create a need for religious teachers, books, and other related materials.

Among the values the culture holds, some are core or central values, while others are peripheral values. Core values are the deeply held enduring beliefs that guide our actions, judgments, and specific behaviors, supporting our efforts to realize important aims.

Although not as deeply embedded or fundamental as central values, our peripheral values reflect our central ones. You may value regular exercise and a low-salt, low-cholesterol diet if you value your health. You may also abstain from smoking cigarettes and drinking alcoholic beverages.

Marketers should give a deep look at each of the three components of culture discussed above as they determine the consumption of goods and services by people of a particular culture to a great extent. Failure to understand them may become a grave concern for marketers.

3 Aspects of Culture

If we explain the above definition, we can identify three aspects of a given culture;

1. culture is a pattern of behavior,
2. culture is learned, and
3. culture is transmitted from one generation to the next.

Culture is a Pattern of Behavior

Culture refers basically to the style of behavior. This style is found to be present in the behaviors of the majority of people living in a particular culture.

This pattern varies from culture to culture, and as a result, consumptions vary among countries. The pattern of behavior you will see in South-Asian culture will definitely not be seen in other cultures. The behavior established by culture is found to be practiced by the majority as it satisfies their needs.

Someone not following the established pattern of behavior is likely to be condemned by others in society. Since the majority follows the same style of behavior in a particular culture, it becomes a pattern.

To be successful, marketers must find out the patterns of behavior and design their marketing strategies accordingly to be successful in a culture.

Culture is Learned

The second important aspect relating to culture is that we learn it through experiences and interactions.

The aspects of culture are not found in an individual right from his birth. He rather learns those from others in society as he follows, observes, and interacts with them. Since experiences vary among people of different societies, they learn different things resulting in differences among cultures.

For example, a South-Asian child grows up in a European country among Europeans and will definitely not learn South-Asian cultural aspects but the European cultural aspects, influencing his behavior.

It clearly indicates that culture is learned, not present from birth, which is why people of different cultures see the same object or situation differently.

The reason is that their learning differs. For example, wearing mini-skirts by females is seen negatively in South Asia, whereas it is seen positively in Western countries. Since people of two different cultures learn differently, they are likely to view the same object differently.

People learn about their cultures from their parents and different social organizations and groups. This will be discussed later.

Culture is Transmitted from One Generation to the Next.

We have in our culture in terms of values, ideas, attitudes, symbols, artifacts, or other, and we are likely to conform to those.

We follow the patterns of our cultures and teach them to the next generation to guide them. This process of transmitting the cultural elements from one generation to the next is known as ‘Enculturation”.

Thus, cultural elements do not persist in one generation but are transmitted to the next generation and survive the entire life span of an individual. That is why a lot of similarities in behaviors are found between people of two different generations.

Importance of the Cultural Study

The influence of society’s religious, family, educational, and social system on consumers’ behavior and their impacts on marketing comprise a company’s cultural environment. It would be difficult to overlook the importance of culture as a motivator of consumer behavior.

While it is easy to state the general significance of culture, it is more difficult to define the term to receive general acceptance.

Consequently, it is hard to be precise about the impacts of culture on consumer behavior. Cultural dimensions among countries vary even more than economic ones, so it becomes difficult to find general patterns at best.

For example, even though Western European countries’ economic characteristics are similar, their cultural dimensions make for very different eating habits.

Certainly, culture is the most pervasive external force on an individual’s consumption behavior. How people work and play, what they eat, how they eat, how and what they buy, and the cultural traditions and socially developed modes of behavior are all affected.

Even a slight change in them can significantly alter how and what people buy.

For example, in the US, in the early 1980s, some religious groups began a movement to boycott products promoted on certain highly popular but “immoral” (sex-oriented) Consumer Behavior Television shows.

Over 6000 churches joined the movement, and some companies agreed to cease their advertising on those shows.

Marketing executives must consider the importance of the cultural setting in which consumer behavior occurs. The attitudes people possess, the values they hold dear, the lifestyles they enjoy, and the interpersonal behavioral patterns they adopt are the outcomes of the cultural setting.

These forces affect the marketplace by influencing other external forces. They undoubtedly have a bearing on government standards, the state of the economy, and the intensity of competition and technological development.

You should remember that cultures vary from country to country, so consumption patterns among people vary.

Failure to carefully consider cultural differences is often responsible for monumental marketing failures. In fact, it has been convincingly argued that the root cause of most international business problems is the self­reference criteria, i.e., the unconscious reference to one’s own cultural values.

Marketing across cultural boundaries is a challenging and difficult task. You know that consumer behavior always occurs within a specific environment, and an individual’s culture provides the most general environment in which his consumption behavior occurs.

Cultural influences broadly affect buying behavior because they permeate our daily lives. Our culture determines what we wear and eat and where we reside and travel. It broadly affects how we buy and use products and influences our satisfaction with them.

For example, in our urban culture, time scarcity increases because of the number of females working. Because of the current emphasis we place on physical and mental self-development. Many people shop and buy time-saving products, such as instant noodles, to cope with time scarcity.

Culture, to some degree, determines how products are purchased and used, which affects the development, promotion, distribution, and pricing of products.

From the premise given above, it is now quite evident that studying the market’s culture where you operate or plan to operate is vital for your success and even existence.

Understanding culture is important to you as a marketing manager because it always provides approved specific goal objects for any generalized human want.

Conclusion: Understanding Culture is important

Culture is a comprehensive concept that includes almost everything around us and influences an individual’s thought processes and behavior. It would be difficult for a marketer to succeed if he overlooks culture’s importance as an indicator of behavior.

So, it is a must for marketing executives, business executives, entrepreneurs, and decision-makers to consider the importance of the cultural setting within which consumer behavior occurs.

Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.^[1] Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.

Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.

A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.
Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.^[2]
Thus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.

Cultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society.^[3] Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.

Organizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.

Description

Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.^[5]

In the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.

When used as a count noun, a «culture» is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes «culture» is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. «bro culture»), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.

Etymology

The modern term «culture» is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or «cultura animi,»^[6] using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man’s natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, «refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human.»^[7]

In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, «The very word culture meant ‘place tilled’ in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, ‘to inhabit, care for, till, worship’ and cultus, ‘A cult, especially a religious one.’ To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly.»^[8]

Culture described by Richard Velkley:^[7]

… originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau’s criticism of «modern liberalism and Enlightenment.» Thus a contrast between «culture» and «civilization» is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.

In the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is «that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.»^[9] Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, «Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.^[10]

The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is «the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.»^[11] Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as «person[s] of worth within the world of meaning»—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.^[12][13]

The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans. However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.^{[citation needed]}

Change

Raimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation.^[14] In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.^[15]

Cultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global «accelerating culture change period,» driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.^[16]

Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.^[17]

Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.^[18]

Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century.^[19] «Stimulus diffusion» (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. «Direct borrowing,» on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.^[20]

Acculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.

Early modern discourses

German Romanticism

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of «enlightenment» similar to the concept of bildung: «Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.»^[21] He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: «Sapere Aude» («Dare to be wise!»). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: «For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.»^[22]

In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant’s and Herder’s interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a «Germany» out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as «worldview» (Weltanschauung).^[23] According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between «civilized» and «primitive» or «tribal» cultures.

In 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for «the psychic unity of mankind.»^[24] He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of «elementary ideas» (Elementargedanken); different cultures, or different «folk ideas» (Völkergedanken), are local modifications of the elementary ideas.^[25] This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.^[26]

English Romanticism

In the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word «culture» to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of «the best that has been thought and said in the world.»^[27] This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of bildung: «…culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.»^[27]

In practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine.^[28] As these forms were associated with urban life, «culture» was identified with «civilization» (from Latin: civitas, lit. ‘city’). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a «culture» among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of «culture» that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.^[29]

Matthew Arnold contrasted «culture» with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted «culture» with «the state of nature.» According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between «civilized» and «uncivilized.»^[30] According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer’s theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan’s theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.

Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people’s essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by «the folk,» i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as «noble savages» living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.

In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms.^[31] In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.

Anthropology

Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor’s definition of culture,^[32] in the 20th century «culture» emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially.^[33] American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States and Canada, archaeology.^{[34][35][36][37]} The term Kulturbrille, or «culture glasses,» coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the «lenses» through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that Kulturbrille, which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, «can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately.»^[38]

Sociology

The sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to «the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.»^[39] As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people’s way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture.^[5] Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.

Cultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term Kultursoziologie (‘cultural sociology’). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols.^[40] Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.^[41]

Early researchers and development of cultural sociology

The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx,^[42] Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.

Cultural studies

In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.^[43][44]

In the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS.^[45] It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall,^[46] who succeeded Hoggart as Director.^[47] Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism.

From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall’s pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender.^[48] Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to «fit in» certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one’s participation in this practice.

In the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture.^[49] Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups)^[50] and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.^[51]

Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as «capitalist» mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the «culture industry» (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.

In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, «cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition.»^[52] The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom.^{[citation needed]} The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.^{[citation needed]} Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures, such as culture.^[53] Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.),^[54] which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.^[55]

Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:^[56]

1. The first group covers the variables that represent the «efficiency orientation» of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.
2. The second covers the variables that represent the «social orientation» of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.

In 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud,^[15] who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.

Psychology

Starting in the 1990s,^[57]: 31 psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology.^{[58]: 158–168 [59]} Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts.^[60] Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people’s personalities across cultures.^[61][62] As different cultures dictate distinctive norms, culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture.^[57]: 19 For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.^[63] Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure.^[64] Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation.

Protection of culture

There are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of culture and cultural heritage. UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation.^[65][66]
Basically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.^[67]

The protection of culture and cultural goods is increasingly taking up a large area nationally and internationally. Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this. The aim is not to protect a person’s property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.^[68][69][70]

Another important issue today is the impact of tourism on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.^[71][72][73]

See also

• Animal culture
• Anthropology
• Cultural area
• Cultural studies
• Cultural tourism
• Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action
• Honour § Cultures of honour and cultures of law
• Outline of culture
• Recombinant culture
• Semiotics of culture

References

Further reading

Books

• Barker, C. (2004). The Sage dictionary of cultural studies. Sage.
• Terrence Deacon (1997). The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain. New York and London: W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780393038385.
• Ralph L. Holloway Jr. (1969). «Culture: A Human domain». Current Anthropology. 10 (4): 395–412. doi:10.1086/201036. S2CID 144502900.
• Dell Hymes (1969). Reinventing Anthropology.
• James, Paul; Szeman, Imre (2010). Globalization and Culture, Vol. 3: Global-Local Consumption. London: Sage Publications.
• Michael Tomasello (1999). «The Human Adaptation for Culture». Annual Review of Anthropology. 28: 509–29. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509.
• Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1941). «The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language». Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Honor of Edward Sapir.
• Walter Taylor (1948). A Study of Archeology. Memoir 69, American Anthropological Association. Carbondale IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
• «Adolf Bastian», Encyclopædia Britannica Online, January 27, 2009
• Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization, vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU societal research. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 978-2-88155-004-1.
• Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. Archived November 18, 2017, at the Wayback Machine New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.
• Bakhtin, M.M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06445-6.
• Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1
• Benedict, Ruth (1934). Patterns of Culture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
• Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29164-4
• Michael C. Carhart, The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press, 2007.
• Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. Routledge: New York,
• Dawkins, R. 1982. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Paperback ed., 1999. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-19-288051-2
• Findley & Rothney. Twentieth-Century World (Houghton Mifflin, 1986)
• Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. ISBN 978-0-465-09719-7.
• Geertz, Clifford (1957). «Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example». American Anthropologist. 59: 32–54. doi:10.1525/aa.1957.59.1.02a00040.
• Goodall, J. 1986. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-11649-8
• Hoult, T.F., ed. 1969. Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams & Co.
• Jary, D. and J. Jary. 1991. The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-271543-7
• Keiser, R. Lincoln 1969. The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-080361-1.
• Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum
• Kim, Uichol (2001). «Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis.» In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press
• McClenon, James. «Tylor, Edward B(urnett)». Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, 1998. 528–29.
• Middleton, R. 1990. Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-15275-9.
• O’Neil, D. 2006. Cultural Anthropology Tutorials Archived December 4, 2004, at the Wayback Machine, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.
• Reagan, Ronald. «Final Radio Address to the Nation» Archived January 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.
• Reese, W.L. 1980. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey U.S., Sussex, U.K: Humanities Press.
• Tylor, E.B. (1974) [1871]. Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. New York: Gordon Press. ISBN 978-0-87968-091-6.
• UNESCO. 2002. Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, February 21, 2002. Retrieved: 2006-06-23.
• White, L. 1949. The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
• Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Vintage: New York. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8.
• Wolfram, Stephen. 2002 A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. ISBN 978-1-57955-008-0.

Articles

• The Meaning of «Culture» (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker

External links

• Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology
• What is Culture?

Contents

• 1 Definition of CULTURE
• 2 What Is Culture?
  • 2.1 Western culture
  • 2.2 Eastern culture
  • 2.3 Latin culture
  • 2.4 Middle Eastern culture
  • 2.5 African culture
  • 2.6 What is cultural appropriation?
  • 2.7 Constant change
• 3 Definition of culture
• 4 Origin ofculture
• 5 synonym study for culture
• 6 Words nearbyculture
• 7 Where doesculturecome from?
• 8 How iscultureused in real life?
• 9 Words related toculture
• 10 How to useculturein a sentence
• 11 British Dictionary definitions forculture
• 12 Derived forms of culture
• 13 Word Origin forculture
• 14 Medical definitions forculture
• 15 Scientific definitions forculture
• 16 Cultural definitions forculture
• 17 notes for culture
• 18 notes for culture
• 19 Culture definition
• 20 What is Culture?
• 21 culture
• 22 Culture Examples & Types
• 23 Table of Contents
• 24 What Does Culture Mean?
• 25 Different Types of Culture
• 26 Elements of Culture
• 27 Examples of Culture
• 28 Prompts About Culture:
  • • 28.0.1 Graphic Organizer Prompt 1:
    • 28.0.2 Graphic Organizer Prompt 2:
    • 28.0.3 Essay Prompt:
    • 28.0.4 Reflection Prompt:
    • 28.0.5 What is culture and its examples?
    • 28.0.6 What are some examples of culture?
    • 28.0.7 What are the 4 types of culture?

Definition of CULTURE

Cul·​ture|ˈkəl-chər first and foremost, the beliefs, practices, arts, and so on of a specific civilization or group of people, region, or period a research project on the Greek language and culture youth culture in today’s world Her work demonstrates the impact of popular culture on her. A unique society that has its own beliefs, methods of life, and artistic expressions, for example, is referred to as an ancientculture. It is critical to become familiar with various cultures. an approach of thinking, acting, or functioning that is prevalent in a particular location or organization (such as a business) The corporate/business culture of the organization is geared at increasing revenues.

2:the traditional beliefs, social structures, and material characteristics of a certain race, religion, or social group also: the distinctive characteristics of everyday existence (such as diversions or a style of life) that individuals in a certain location or period share popularculture Southernculture the collection of common attitudes, beliefs, objectives, and activities that distinguishes a certain institution or organization a business culture that is concerned with the bottom line in-depth investigation into the impact of computers on print culture c:the collection of values, norms or social practices connected with a specific field, activity, or societal trait It will take time to transform the materialistic society.

Human knowledge, belief, and action are all linked into a pattern that is dependent on the ability to learn and transfer information to following generations.

the process of developing one’s intellectual and moral faculties, particularly via education 6.

The image is courtesy of Getty Images/Saha Entertainment. Culture is defined as the features and knowledge of a certain group of people, and it includes language, religion, food, social behaviors, music, and the arts, among other things. Cultural patterns, interactions, cognitive constructs, and comprehension are defined by theCenter for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition as common patterns of behavior and interaction that are learnt via socialization, according to the Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition As a result, culture may be defined as the development of a group identity that is influenced by social patterns that are exclusive to the group.

The anthropologist Cristina De Rossi of Barnet and Southgate College in London told Live Science that culture encompasses “religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things.” “Culture encompasses religion, food,” she said.

According to Arthur Asa Berger, the word “culture” comes from a French phrase that, in turn, comes from the Latin word “colere,” which meaning to tend to the ground and flourish, or to cultivate and nourish, or to cultivate and nurture.

As De Rossi explained, “it shares its origin with a number of other terms that are associated with actively supporting development.”

Western culture

The fall of the Roman Empire had a significant impact on Western civilization. The image is courtesy of Chase Dekker Wild-Life Images/Getty Images. ) In recent years, according to Khan University, the phrase “Western culture” has come to refer to the cultures of European nations as well as those countries that have been extensively impacted by European immigration, such as the United States. Western culture may be traced back to the Classical Period of the Greco-Roman era (the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.) and the development of Christianity in the fourteenth century as its origins.

• Throughout the past 2,500 years, a slew of historical events have contributed to the development of Western culture.
• 476, paved the way for the development of a succession of often-warring nations in Europe, each with its own culture, after which the Middle Ages began.
• According to Ohio State University historian John L.
• As a result of elites being compelled to pay more for scarce labor, survivors in the working class have gained more influence.
• Today, Western culture can be found in practically every country on the planet, and its influences may be traced back to its origins.

Eastern culture

Buddhism has a significant role in the civilizations of various Eastern countries. Three Buddhist monks are seen here on their way to the Angkor Wat temple. The image is courtesy of Getty Images/Saha Entertainment. Far East Asian culture (which includes China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea, and South Korea) and the Indian subcontinent are commonly referred to as Eastern culture in general. When compared to Western culture, Eastern culture was highly impacted by religion throughout its early history, but the cultivation and harvesting of rice had a significant impact on its evolution as well, according to a study report published in the journal Rice in 2012.

This umbrella term, on the other hand, encompasses a vast array of traditions and histories.

Thus, Hinduism rose to prominence as a significant force in Indian culture, while Buddhism continued to have an impact on the cultures of both China and Japan.

In the case of Chinese Buddhism, for example, according to Jiahe Liu and Dongfang Shao, the philosophy of Taoism, which stresses compassion, frugality, and humility, was taken.

During the period 1876 to 1945, for example, Japan ruled or occupied Korea in various forms. A large number of Koreans were coerced or compelled to change their surnames to Japanese ones during this period according to History.com, which describes the situation as follows:

Latin culture

Da de los Muertos costumes for children in traditional attire (Image courtesy of Getty/Sollina Images.). The geographical territory that encompasses “Latin culture” is large and diverse. For the sake of this definition, Latin America is comprised of the regions of Central America, South America and Mexico where Spanish or Portuguese is the main language. Beginning in the 1400s, Spain and Portugal colonized or influenced a number of locations across the world, including those listed above. Some historians (such as Michael Gobat, “The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,” American Historical Review, Vol.

• Because of this, Latin cultures are extremely diverse, and many of them combine indigenous customs with the Spanish language and Catholicism brought by Spanish and Portuguese invaders to form hybrid cultures.
• These impacts are particularly evident in Brazil and the countries of the Western Hemisphere’s Caribbean region.
• A notable example is Da de los Muertos, also known as Day of the Dead, which is a celebration dedicated to commemorating the fallen that is observed on November 1st and 2nd.
• According to the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Mexican immigrants to the United States carried the festival with them, and in the 1970s, artists and events focused attention on Da de los Muertos as a way of expressing their Chicano (Mexican-American) ancestry.

Middle Eastern culture

A family from the Middle East sits down to supper together (Photo courtesy of Getty/Jasmin Merdan). The Middle East is roughly defined as the area including the Arabian peninsula as well as the eastern Mediterranean region. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the North African countries of Libya, Egypt, and Sudan are also occasionally mentioned. The word “Middle Eastern culture” is another umbrella term that incorporates a wide range of cultural customs, religious beliefs, and everyday routines from all around the Middle East and North Africa.

1. Despite the fact that there is tremendous religious variety in the Middle East, Islam is the religion with the greatest number of adherents, and Islam has played a key part in the cultural development of the region.
2. According to the Metropoliton Museum, the death of the religion’s founder, Muhammad, in 632, was a watershed event in the development of Middle Eastern culture and civilization.
3. Consequently, a split developed between Shia Muslims, who held the value of bloodline in high regard, and Sunni Muslims, who held that leadership should not be passed down through the familial lineage.
4. Their rites and customs differ somewhat from one another, and the divisions that exist between the two groups frequently lead to conflict.

Areas that were once part of the Ottoman Empire are known for distinctive architecture that is influenced by Persian and Islamic styles.

African culture

African woman from the Maasai tribe, sitting with her infant close to her home in the African country of Kenya (Photo courtesy of hadynyah/Getty Images.) ) Africa has the longest history of human habitation of any continent: it has been inhabited since the beginning of time. According to the Natural History Museum in London, humans started there approximately 400,000 years ago and began to spread to other parts of the world around the same time period. Researchers led by Dr. Tom White, who works as a Senior Curator of Non-Insect Invertebrates at the Smithsonian Institution, were able to find this by analyzing Africa’s ancient lakes and the species that lived in them.

• African culture differs not just across and within country borders, but also inside those borders.
• According to Culture Trip, Nigeria alone has more than 300 tribes, which is a significant number.
• Because of this, large urban centers sprung up along the Eastern coast, which were frequently linked together by the transportation of raw resources and commerce from landlocked portions of the continent.
• According to Britannica, Northwest Africa has significant linkages to the Middle East, whereas Sub-Saharan Africa shares historical, geographical, and social traits with North Africa that are considerably distinct from those of the former.
• The traditions of these cultures developed in a variety of contexts that were vastly diverse.
• Maasai herders, on the other hand, herd their sheep and goats on broad pastures and rangelands.

What is cultural appropriation?

Cultural appropriation, according to the Oxford Reference dictionary, is defined as follows: “A phrase used to describe the taking over of creative or artistic forms, concepts, or practices by one cultural group from another.” A non-Native American wearing a Native American headdress as a fashion item would be one example of this practice. The fashion house Victoria’s Secret was highly condemned in 2012 after a model was dressed in a headdress that looked like a Lakota war bonnet, according to the newspaper USA Today.

As well as jewelry influenced by Zuni, Navajo, and Hopi styles from the desert Southwest, the model wore turquoise, demonstrating how cultural appropriation can group tribes with vastly distinct cultures and histories into a single stereotypical image through the usage of turquoise.

Sikh restaurateur and social media influencer Harjinder Singh Kukreja responded to Gucci on Twitter, noting that the Sikh Turban is “not a hip new accessory for white models, but rather an object of religion for practicing Sikhs.” Turbans have been worn as ‘hats’ by your models, although practicing Sikhs knot their turbans properly fold-by-fold.

“Using imitation Sikh turbans and turbans is as bad as selling fake Gucci merchandise.”

Constant change

One thing is clear about cultures, no matter how they appear on the surface: they change. According to De Rossi, “Culture appears to have become important in our linked globe, which is made up of so many ethnically different nations, but which is also rife with conflicts related with religion, ethnicity, ethical values, and, fundamentally, the aspects that make up culture.” “Culture, on the other hand, is no longer set, if it ever was. In its essence, it is fluid and in perpetual motion.” Consequently, it is impossible to characterize any culture in a singular manner.

1. A body known as the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has been established by the United Nations to identify cultural and natural heritage as well as to conserve and safeguard it.
2. It was signed by UNESCO in 1972 and has been in force since since.
3. Stephanie Pappas is a contributing writer for Live Science, where she writes on a variety of subjects ranging from geology to archaeology to the human brain and psychology.
4. Her undergraduate degree in psychology came from the University of South Carolina, and her graduate certificate in scientific communication came from the University of California, Santa Cruz.

Definition of culture

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• British
• Medical
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• Cultural

This indicates the grade level of the word based on its difficulty. /kl tr/ (pronounced /kl tr/) This indicates the grade level of the word based on its difficulty. The concern for what is considered to be excellent in the arts, literature, manners, intellectual pursuits, and so on manifests itself as a characteristic in a person or community. that which is considered to be excellent in the arts, manners, and so on. civilisation in a specific form or stage, such as that of a certain nation or time period The culture of the Greeks.

behavior and views that are distinctive of a certain group of individuals, such as a social, ethnic, professional, or age group (which is frequently used in conjunction with other terms): The drug culture, as well as the youth culture A specific feature of society is represented by the common ideas, practices, or social environment associated with that aspect.

Anthropology. an accumulation of ways of living developed by a group of human beings and passed down from one generation to the next Biology.

1. Bacterial or tissue culture for the purpose of scientific investigation, medical use, or other purposes
2. The product or growth that results from such cultivation

Tillage is defined as the act or practice of cultivating the soil. the practice of cultivating plants or animals, especially with a view to improving their quality the product or growth that results as a result of this cultivation the verb (when used with an object),culturized,culturizing to expose to cultural influence; to cultivate Biology.

1. A regulated or defined media in which to grow (microorganisms, tissues, etc. )
2. To introduce (living material) into a culture medium

EVALUATE YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF AFFECT AND EFFECT VERSUS AFFECT! In effect, this exam will determine whether or not you possess the necessary abilities to distinguish between the terms “affect” and “effect.” Despite the wet weather, I was in high spirits on the day of my graduation celebrations.

Origin ofculture

First recorded in 1400–50; late Middle English: “tilling, place tilled,” from Anglo-French, Middle French, from Latincultra “cultivation, agriculture, tillage, care,” first recorded in 1400–50; late Middle English: “tilling, place tilled,” first recorded in 1400–50; first recorded in 1400–50; first recorded in 1400–50; first recorded in 1400–50; first recorded in 1400–50 Seecult,-ure

synonym study for culture

An·ti·cul·ture,nounin·ter·cul·ture,adjectivein·ter·cul·ture,nounmul·ti·cul·ture,nounnon·cul·ture,nounpre·cul·ture,nounsu·per·cul·ture,noun

Words nearbyculture

Cultural Revolution,Cultural Revolution, Great Proletarian, cultural sociology, cultural universal,culturati, culture, culture area, culture center, culture clash, culture complex,culturedDictionary.com Cultural Revolution,Cultural Revolution, Great Proletarian, cultural sociology, cultural universal,culturati, culture, culture area, culture center, culture clash, culture complex,culturedDictionary.com Unabridged Random House, Inc.

• 2022, based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc.
• Furthermore, culture is a trait of a person or group of people that results from valuing excellence in the arts, dress, etiquette, or other qualities of a society, such as in the case of aristocratic culture.
• The act of exposing someone to culture, particularly a culture that is not their own, is known as culturization.
• To cultivate a group of organisms in this manner is related to the concept of culture.

Where doesculturecome from?

The term “culture” was first used in the early 1400s, according to historical documents. It derives from the Latin cultra, which means “cultivation, agriculture, tillage, and care” in its most basic sense. Because culture is frequently associated with a certain sort of art or experience, it is sometimes used in conjunction with a term that characterizes that experience or art, such asGreek culture or Punk culture.

Ethnicities, faiths, races, and a range of social and personal aspects are sometimes combined together to characterize someone’s heritage, and this is known as cultural hegemony.

How iscultureused in real life?

Culture is a commonly used term that refers to the actions and beliefs that are connected with a certain group of people. It’s wonderful to be back in Tokyo again. This site holds a special place in my heart. The people, the cuisine, and the culture are all fantastic! Niall Horan (@NiallOfficial) on Twitter: 14th of June, 2018 I’m unable to stop and will not stop! They were OUTRAGED and TERRIFIED. Nothing will stand in the way of this movement and culture in our country.

1. Please accept my apologies.
2. The 6th of August, 2019 Chelsea.
3. The Velvet Underground was founded in this city.
4. Mainland (@mainland) is a Twitter user.
5. Scientists who research cell cultures spend a significant amount of time looking at them using sophisticated microscopes.

Ability,art,civilization,experience,fashion,perception,practice,science,skill,development,folklore,habit,knowledge,lifestyle,society,agriculture,accomplishment,address,capacity,class

How to useculturein a sentence

• Ability,art,civilization,experience,fashion,perception,practice,science,skill,development,folklore,habit,knowledge,lifestyle,society,agriculture,accomplishment,address,capacity,class

• Dropculture, according to Fitzgibbons, works because people prefer to buy into the apparent rarity of an object and to be able to brag about being one of the few individuals who were able to acquire that particular thing. The fact that Charlie made fun of my faith, culture, and heritage is why I died protecting his right to do so. I’m not sure why or who is doing it, but it’s part of the heritage. and it’s a legacy that’s extremely valuable to the community
• A large portion of the culture around films in the science fiction/fantasy genre is devoted to analyzing them ad nauseam
• It remains to be seen whether he receives the recognition he deserves in popular culture. Shooters would be the perfect spot to represent the much-discussed college “hook-up culture,” if such a thing could exist. Its cultivation began in Cuba around 1580, and vast amounts of the crop were sent to Europe from this and other Caribbean islands. In comparison to the artistic replication of indicators of emotion and intent, cultureofexpression might be defined as follows: While growing up, a youngster who is exposed to the humanizing impacts of culture quickly moves away from his or her barbaric origins. This was reflected in Charles II’s attitude toward its culture, which was also negative. It would be a safe bet to say that Accadianculture experienced a period of expansion of at least ten thousand years.

British Dictionary definitions forculture

The reason why dropculture works, according to Fitzgibbons, is because people prefer to buy into the perceived exclusivity of an object and be able to brag about being one of the few individuals who were able to acquire it; The fact that Charlie mocked my faith, culture, and heritage is why I died protecting his right to do so. Whatever the reason or who is responsible, it is the legacy. has a heritage that is extremely significant to the culture; Deconstructing sci-fi/fantasy films to the point of exhaustion is a common theme in the culture that surrounds them.

If there was a venue that represented the much-discussed college “hook-upculture,” it would be Shooters.

In comparison to the artistic replication of indicators of sentiment and intent, cultureofexpression can be distinguished as follows: While growing up, a youngster who is exposed to the humanizing impacts of culture quickly moves away from his or her barbaric roots.

The Accadian civilisation, it would be reasonable to assume, had been in existence for at least ten thousand years.

1. The regulated development of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungus, in a nutritional material (culture medium), generally under controlled conditions, is referred to as microbiologic culture. See alsoculture medium
2. A collection of microorganisms that have been cultured in this manner

To cultivate (plants or animals) or to develop (microorganisms) in a culture medium is the verb(tr) of cultivation.

Derived forms of culture

Culturist,nouncultureless,adjective

Word Origin forculture

In the 15th century, it was derived from Old Frenchcultraa cultivating, fromcolereto till; seecult.

2012 Digital Edition of the Collins English Dictionary – Complete Unabridged Edition (William Collins SonsCo. Ltd. 1979, 1986) In 1998, HarperCollinsPublishers published the following books: 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2012.

Medical definitions forculture

N.The cultivation of bacteria, tissue cells, or other living materials in a nutritional media that has been properly produced. Bacterial growth or colony of this nature is one example. v.To cultivate bacteria or other living things in a nutrient media that has been carefully prepared. To make use of a drug as a medium for cultural expression. The Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, published by American Heritage® Houghton Mifflin Company owns the copyright for the years 2002, 2001, and 1995. Houghton Mifflin Company is the publisher of this book.

Scientific definitions forculture

Noun a controlled development of bacteria or viruses, or a proliferation of tissue cells, in a specifically prepared nutritional medium under controlled conditions a comprehensive term that includes all socially transmitted behavior patterns as well as arts, ideas, institutions, and all other results of human labor and thinking Culture is learnt and shared within social groupings, and it is passed down through nongenetic mechanisms from generation to generation.

Verb In a nutritional media, bacteria, viruses, or tissue cells can be grown to maturity.

The year 2011 is the year of the copyright.

All intellectual property rights are retained.

Cultural definitions forculture

Noun In a specifically prepared nutritive medium under monitored circumstances, growth of bacteria, viruses, or tissue cells takes place. a comprehensive term that includes all socially transmitted behavior patterns as well as arts, ideas, organizations, and any other results of human labor and thinking Throughout social groupings, culture is taught and shared, and it is passed on without the need of genetics. Verb Using a nutritional media to support the growth of bacteria, viruses, and tissue cells The American Heritage® Science Dictionary is a reference work that provides information on science topics from a historical perspective.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company is the publisher of this title.

notes for culture

Noun In a specifically prepared nutritive media under monitored circumstances, development of bacteria, viruses, or tissue cells can occur. The entirety of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other results of human labour and thinking. In social groupings, culture is learnt and shared, and it is passed down through nongenetic mechanisms. Verb In a nutritional media, microbes, viruses, or tissue cells can be grown. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary is a resource for those interested in science and technology.

Originally published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company in New York.

notes for culture

Besides sophisticated music, art, and literary works, the term “culture” also refers to a person who is well-versed in these disciplines.

The Third Edition of The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy is now available. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company acquired the copyright in 2005. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company is the publisher of this book. All intellectual property rights are retained.

Culture definition

• Individual and group striving over generations has resulted in a group of people accumulating a vast store of knowledge and experience, as well as beliefs and values, attitudes, and meanings. Culture includes hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relationships, concepts of the universe, as well as material objects and possessions. In general, culture refers to the systems of knowledge that are shared by a reasonably significant number of individuals. Cultural expressions are communicated, and cultural expressions are communicated
• Culture, in its broadest meaning, is cultivated behavior
• That is, it is the sum of a person’s learned, collected experience that is passed down through social transmission, or, to put it another way, it is conduct acquired through social learning. A culture is a way of life for a group of people-the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, typically without questioning them, and that are passed down from one generation to the next through communication and imitation. Culture is a means of communicating symbolically. Skills, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and motivations of a group are just a few of the symbols that may be used. The meanings of symbols are taught and purposefully preserved in a culture through the institutions of that society
• And Culture consists of patterns of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, which constitute the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts
• The essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values
• Culture systems may be considered on the one hand as products of action, and on the other hand as conditioning influences upon further action
• As defined by the United Nations, culture is “the sum total of the learned behaviors by a group of people that are widely recognized to be the tradition of that group of people and are transferred from generation to generation.” In other words, culture is a collective programming of the mind that separates the members of one group or category of people from the members of another group or category of people.

• Human nature, according to this viewpoint, is determined by the ideas, meanings, beliefs, and values that people learn as members of society. People are defined by the lessons they have learned. Optimistic versions of cultural determinism believe that human beings have the ability to accomplish and be whatever they desire regardless of their environment. According to some anthropologists, there is no universally acceptable “correct way” to be a human being. While the “right method” is usually always “our way,” it is virtually never the case that “our way” in one civilization will be the same as “our way” in any other society. It is only through tolerance that a well-informed human being can maintain a proper attitude. The optimistic version of this theory holds that human nature is infinitely malleable and that human beings can choose the ways of life that they prefer
• The pessimistic version holds that people are what they have been conditioned to be and that they have no control over this. Human beings are passive animals that do whatever their culture instructs them to do, regardless of their actions. In response to this theory, behaviorism is developed, which places the reasons of human behavior in a world that is completely beyond human control.

• Different cultural groupings have distinct ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. There are no scientific standards that can be used to determine whether one group is essentially superior or inferior in comparison to another. The study of cultural variations across people and cultures implies the acceptance of a cultural relativism viewpoint. Neither for oneself nor for one’s society does it represent a return to normalcy. If one is interacting with groups or communities that are not similar to one’s own, it is necessary to exercise caution. Information regarding the nature of cultural differences across cultures, their origins, and effects should be obtained before making any decisions or taking any action. Parties that grasp the causes for their differences in opinions have a better chance of achieving a successful outcome in negotiations

• In ethnocentrism, the conviction that one’s own culture is superior than that of other civilizations is asserted over time. It is a type of reductionism in which one lowers the “other way” of living to a distorted version of one’s own way of existence. This is especially significant in the case of international business transactions, when a corporation or a person may be under the impression that techniques, materials, or ideas that worked in the home country will likewise work in the foreign country. Consequently, environmental variations are not taken into consideration. Ethnocentrism may be classified into the following categories when it comes to international business transactions:

• A preoccupation with specific cause-and-effect correlations in one’s own nation causes important elements in business to be disregarded. In order to ensure that all major factors have been at least considered while working abroad, it is always a good idea to consult checklists of human variables. Even though one may be aware of the environmental differences and problems associated with change, one’s primary focus may be on achieving objectives that are specific to one’s home country. A corporation or an individual’s efficacy in terms of worldwide competitiveness may be diminished as a result of this. The objectives defined for global operations should likewise be global in scope
• While it is acknowledged that there are differences, it is expected that the accompanying modifications are so fundamental that they can be accomplished without difficulty. An examination of the costs and benefits of the planned modifications is always a good idea before proceeding. A change may cause significant disruption to essential values, and as a result, it may encounter opposition when it is attempted to be implemented. Depending on the change, the costs of implementing the change may outweigh the advantages received from implementing the change.

EXAMPLES OF CULTURAL MANIFESTATIONS Cultural differences present themselves in a variety of ways and to varying degrees of depth in different contexts. Symbols are the most surface representations of culture, while ideals represent the most profound manifestations of culture, with heroes and rituals filling in the gaps.

• Symbols are words, actions, pictures, or things that convey a specific meaning that can only be understood by people who are familiar with a certain culture or tradition. New symbols are readily created, but old symbols are quickly demolished. Symbols from one particular group are frequently imitated by other groups as well. This is why symbols are considered to be the most superficial layer of a society
• Heroes are individuals, whether historical or contemporary, real or imaginary, who exemplify attributes that are highly regarded in a community. They also serve as examples for appropriate behavior
• Rituals are group activities that, while often redundant in terms of achieving intended results, are thought to be socially necessary in order to maintain social order. Therefore, they are carried out most of the time just for their own sake (as in ways of greeting others, showing respect to others, religious and social rites, etc.)
• Values serve as the foundation of a society’s culture. They are broad inclinations for preferring one state of affairs above another in comparison to other states of affairs (good-evil, right-wrong, natural-unnatural). Many values are held by people who are completely unaware of them. As a result, they are frequently unable to be addressed, nor can they be immediately viewed by others. It is only through seeing how people behave in different situations that we may deduce their values. Symbols, heroes, and rituals are the physical or visual parts of a culture’s activities that are visible to the general public. When practices are understood by insiders, the real cultural meaning of the practices is disclosed
• Otherwise, the practices remain intangible and remain hidden.

The manifestation of culture at various levels of depth is seen in Figure 1: LAYERS OF CULTURE Within oneself, even people from the same culture, there are multiple levels of mental conditioning to contend with. At the following levels of development, several layers of culture may be found:

• The national level is one that is associated with the entire nation
• On the regional level: This refers to the disparities that exist between ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups within a country. When it comes to gender disparities (male vs. female), the gender level is associated with these differences. It is associated with the disparities between grandparents and parents, as well as between parents and children at the generational level. It is associated with educational chances as well as inequalities in occupational prospects. The corporate level: This level is associated with the specific culture of a given organization. Those who are employed are covered by this provision.

MOUNTING CULTURAL DIFFERENCESA variable can be operationalized using either single-measure or multivariate methodologies, depending on the situation. After the domain of a concept has been empirically sampled, a single-measure technique is used to measure its domain; a composite-measure technique is used to construct an index for the concept after several indicators have been used to measure its domain after the concept has been empirically sampled. According to Hofstede (1997), a composite-measure approach has been developed to quantify cultural differences across various societies:

• It assesses the degree of inequality that occurs in a society using a power distance index. UCAI (Uncertainty Avoidance Index): This index evaluates the extent to which a society perceives itself to be threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations. Individualism index: The index measures how individualistic a society is in comparison to other societies. Individuals are expected to look for themselves and their immediate families exclusively, which is what individualism is all about in a society where people are expected to look after themselves and their immediate families only. In contrast, collectivism is a social structure in which individuals discriminate between in-groups and out-groups, and they expect their in-groups (relatives, clans, organizations, etc.) to care after them in exchange for their complete commitment. Specifically, the index assesses the amount to which the major values are assertiveness, money, and things (success), and that the dominating values are not caring for others or for the quality of life. Womanhood (in a romantic relationship) would be on the other end of the scale.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARE BEING RECONCILIATED Consciousness of one’s cultural heritage:

• Before embarking on a worldwide assignment, it is likely that it will be important to ascertain any cultural differences that may exist between one’s own nation and the country in which the business will be conducted or conducted. Where there are differences, it is necessary to determine whether and to what extent the practices of one’s native nation can be adapted to the foreign setting. The majority of the time, the alterations are not immediately noticeable or palpable. Certain features of a culture may be learnt consciously (for example, different ways of greeting people), while other differences may be learned unconsciously (for example, different ways of dressing) (e.g. methods of problem solving). The development of cultural awareness may not be a simple process, but once completed, it will unquestionably aid in the completion of a work efficiently in a foreign setting. Discussions and reading about different cultures absolutely aid in the development of cultural awareness, but the perspectives expressed must be carefully weighed before they are shared. Sometimes they represent incorrect prejudices, a judgment of merely a subset of a certain group of individuals, or a circumstance that has since experienced significant changes. It’s usually a good idea to obtain a variety of perspectives on a single culture.

Cultures grouped together:

• Some nations may have many characteristics in common that contribute to the formation of their cultures (the modifiers may be language, religion, geographical location, etc.). Based on the information gathered from previous cross-cultural research, nations can be classified according to their shared values and attitudes. When travelling inside a cluster, less changes are likely to be observed than when going from one cluster to another.

Determine the amount of global participation by asking the following questions:

• It is not necessary for all businesses operating on a global scale to have the same level of cultural knowledge. Figure 2 depicts the extent to which a company’s understanding of global cultures is required at various levels of participation. The further a firm progresses away from its primary duty of conducting domestic business, the greater the need it has for cultural awareness and understanding. The necessity of increasing cultural awareness as a result of expanding outward on more than one axis at the same time becomes even more apparent.

Figure 2: Cultural Awareness and the Degree to Which the World Is Involved G. Hofstede is cited as a source (1997). Cultures and organizations are like software for the human brain. McGraw-Hill Education, New York. Here are a few recent publications. Firms Considering Expanding Into New Markets Face Culture Shock. However, the temptation of reconstruction contracts in locations such as Afghanistan and Iraq may tempt some corporations to take on more risk than they are prepared to take on in the United States.

• However, the tremendous rehabilitation of countries damaged by conflict has the potential to trip up even the most experienced among them.
• Language and cultural differences must also be taken into consideration.
• The United States government’s conference on reconstructing Afghanistan, held in Chicago last week, went a long way toward identifying prospects in the country.
• The first lesson is to abandon ethnocentric beliefs that the world should adjust to our style of doing business rather than the other way around, as is commonly done.
• Chinese representatives provided a wealth of information to U.S.
• The qualities of patience, attention, and sensitivity are not commonly associated with building, but they may be beneficial in cultures that are different from our own.
• [ENR (2003).
• No.
• [New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.] Do We See Things the Same Way?
• These studies show that taking cultural variations into account when utilizing observation techniques in cross-cultural research, as well as in practical contexts such as performance assessment and international management, is crucial.
• Culture has an important role in research and management, according to the findings of this study.

[Karakowsky, LiKarakowsky] (2001). Do We See Things the Same Way? The Implications of Cultural Differences for Research and Practice in Cross-Cultural Management The Journal of Psychology, volume 135 number 5, pages 501-517.]

What is Culture?

‘Culture is the learned information that individuals draw on to understand their experiences and create behavior,’ says the author. an anthropologist named James Spradley Understanding culture necessitates not just a grasp of linguistic distinctions, but also of differences in knowledge, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and actions among people from different cultures. Culture (derived from the Latincultura, which is from colere, which means “to cultivate”) is a generic term that refers to patterns of human behavior as well as the symbolic structures that provide meaning and significance to these patterns of activity.

When it comes to culture, it may be described as the entire set of ways of life of a people that are passed down from one generation to the next, including arts, beliefs, and institutions.

Let’s have a listen to what our panelists have to say.

culture

Every queen, no matter what genre she belongs to, finds a way to connect with and respond to the contemporary society she is a part of in some manner. And, on the other hand, how do you satiate your curiosity about foreign cultures, and what are your recommendations for those who wish to give it a shot? We are seeing a transition in the city, as well as in culture, from ours to everyone’s. However, the majority of current novels are concerned with other topics such as deindustrialization, culture, and gender, the splitting of intellectual life, racism, and civil rights, among others.

1. And the solutions are all found within the context of culture.
2. Racism has long been considered a heinous sin in the literary world; it is, without a doubt, even worse in practice.
3. Furthermore, human people have elevated culture to an entirely new level.
4. This “learning center” serves to reinforce a culture of education in the community.
5. As a result, what is unobjectionable to one person or culture may be blatantly repugnant to someone or something else.

These samples are drawn from corpora as well as from other online sources. Any viewpoints expressed in the examples do not necessarily reflect the views of the Cambridge Dictionary editors, Cambridge University Press, or its licensors, who are not represented by the examples.

Culture Examples & Types

Tiffany Schank, Christopher Muscato, and Lesley Chapel are among the stars of the show.

• Tiffany Schank is a model and actress. Tiffany Schank has been a humanities instructor at a community college for more than five years. They hold a Master of Liberal Studies in art from Fort Hays State University, as well as a Ph.D. in humanities, which they are currently working on. An Associates of Arts in Fine Art from Western Nebraska Community College and a Bachelor of Arts in Fine Art from Chadron State College have been earned by Tiffany, who is also a professional artist. Instructor’s bio may be found here. Christopher Muscato is a writer and musician who lives in New York City. His master’s degree is in history, and he is a history professor at the University of Northern Colorado. See my bio
• Contributor with Expertise Lesley Chapel is a woman who lives in the town of Lesley Chapel in the town of Lesley Chapel. Lesley has been a history professor at the university level for the past seven years, specializing in American and world history. She holds a Master’s degree in History from Columbia University. See my bio

Discover what culture is all about. Explore the meaning of culture, gain an understanding of the numerous sorts of cultural groupings, and witness various categories and instances of culture in action. The most recent update was on September 30, 2021.

Table of Contents

• How to Define Culture
• Different Types of Culture
• Elements of Culture
• Examples of Culture
• Categories of Culture
• Summary of the Lesson

What Does Culture Mean?

Despite the fact that many people are unaware of it, everyone is a member of a culture of some form. There are examples of culture all around us since culture is defined as the groupings of art, beliefs, knowledge, rituals, and habits that people adhere to in their daily lives. It is frequently something we do not consider since it has been ingrained in us as a result of the culture in which we live. In the context of a community, culture may be described as the cultural norms that people experience.

For example, many Muslim people consider it appropriate for women to be seen wearing a Hijab, or head covering, as part of their cultural identity.

Because human conduct is mostly learnt, the cultural standards that one adheres to throughout one’s life are also learned, for the most part.

Different Types of Culture

Material culture and immaterial culture are the two sorts of culture that exist in contrast to one another.

• Technological, artistic, and architectural items are examples of material culture. Literary, philosophical, mythological, and spiritual activities are examples of immaterial culture, as are values, beliefs, and spiritual practices. Non-physical objects that are not dependent on the physical objects of this world are referred to as “non-physical objects.” It is the beliefs and ideologies that individuals embrace as facts in their life that are the real problem.

Culture-specific norms may be separated into two groups, which are formally defined as follows: formal rules and informal rules. Formal norms are things such as laws that are essential to the operation of a society’s institutions. They are the rules that individuals are required to obey inside a culture, and they might vary from one culture to another. It is possible that the formal norms of Canada will not be applicable in the United Kingdom, for example. Unwritten rules are practices or traditions that exist within a community or even a family.

One example of these standards is the customs surrounding the figure of Santa Claus: in the United States, it is customary for children to leave a cup of milk out for Santa Claus on December 24th, although in other countries, this is not the case.

Elements of Culture

The aspects of culture are as follows:

• Cultural Norms – As previously discussed, cultural norms are the “rules” of society that define what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior within the culture in which they reside. Norms can differ from one society to the next in several cases. For example, in the United States, it is typical to tip servers at restaurants, but in China, it is not customary to tip servers at restaurants. A society’s values are the belief system that governs what is good and bad in a society, or even what is acceptable and unacceptable among the people who live within that society. Example: A culture’s ideas on the importance of family are considered a value within that culture. Cultural elements such as language play an important role in a society’s development. To be efficient in social relationships, as well as to comprehend and interpret items, language and the capacity to communicate with other people are essential skills. Symbols – Many different symbols or signs can be found in different cultures, and they are frequently used to elicit a specific feeling or emotion. In the cancer treatment culture, for example, ribbons are used to represent cancer treatment and to raise awareness about cancer battles, with different colors of ribbon representing different types of cancers. Artifacts – Artifacts are tangible things that are unique to a particular culture. These artifacts might be artefacts that demonstrate the progress or changes that have occurred in society. In the case of the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci, a well-known artwork that depicts the society, dress, and common sitting of a person in 1503, in the context of da Vinci’s cultural surroundings

This Mycenaean stirrup vase is an artifact from Syria that was created between the years 1400 – 1300 BCE.

Examples of Culture

Here are a few instances of culture:

Prompts About Culture:

Create a definition for the topic of culture that is at least three to four sentences long. As an illustration, culture comprises a wide range of aspects, including the way in which individuals perceive symbols.

Graphic Organizer Prompt 1:

Create a poster, chart, or other sort of visual organizer that identifies and depicts the different types of culture—material culture and nonmaterial culture—and how they differ from one another.

Remember to include at least three examples of each kind in your essay. You can refer back to the lesson, but make an effort to recollect as many instances as you can from memory. For example, pottery is considered to be a part of material culture.

Graphic Organizer Prompt 2:

Create a poster, chart, or some other sort of visual organizer that identifies and quickly discusses the aspects of culture—social structure, traditions, religion, language, government, economics, and the arts—and why they are important. For example, you may sketch a church or a synagogue to represent religion.

Essay Prompt:

Produce an article of one to two pages in length that describes subgroups of cultural expression and history. Consider include an examination of subcultures, countercultures, high culture, and low culture in your paper. For example, low culture tends to be more inclusive than high culture in terms of inclusion.

Reflection Prompt:

Produce an essay of at least one to two pages in length in which you reflect on your own personal experiences with cultural diversity. Make careful to think about the different types, components, and subgroups of culture, and to provide instances of each. Consider the following scenario: As a child, you were immersed in high culture, thanks to your parents’ regular excursions to opera performances and museums.

What is culture and its examples?

A group of people’s culture is defined by the cultural norms, values, and beliefs that they adhere to. For example, the culture of working long hours is one that most Americans adhere to, although many other cultures do not share this belief system.

What are some examples of culture?

Different religious and moral views and values that a person identifies with are examples of culture. The contrast between Christian and Buddhist culture is striking. Another example would be the contrast between American and Korean cultures.

What are the 4 types of culture?

Cultural norms are divided into four categories: formal and informal, material and immaterial, and artifact-based. Create an account to get started with this course right away. Try it risk-free for a full month! Create a user profile.

Content

• What is Culture:
• Origin of the term culture
• Elements of culture
• Characteristics of culture
• Types of culture
• According to the historical sense
• According to the anthropological sense
• According to the religious paradigm
• According to knowledge of writing
• According to the mode of production
• According to the socio-economic order (or hegemony)
• According to the diffusion modes
• According to the power struggles within a society
• Philosophy of culture
• Cultural context

What is Culture:

Culture refers to the set of material and spiritual goods of a social group transmitted from generation to generation in order to guide individual and collective practices. It includes language, processes, ways of life, customs, traditions, habits, values, patterns, tools and knowledge.

The function of culture it is to guarantee survival and facilitate the adaptation of the subjects in the environment.

Each culture embodies a worldview in response to the reality that the social group lives. There is, therefore, no uncultured or «uneducated» social group. What does exist are different cultures and, within these, different cultural groups, even with respect to the dominant culture.

The term culture is also used in restricted sensesEither to refer to the values ​​and habits that govern specific groups, or to refer to specialized areas of knowledge or activity. In both cases, the word culture is always accompanied by a qualifying adjective.

For example:

• political culture: «Our country suffers from a messianic political culture.»
• organizational culture: «Our organizational culture is based on helping people.»
• physical Culture: «The school must provide physical culture to children.»

Origin of the term culture

The concept of culture has varied throughout history. In its Etymological origin, the word culture comes from Latin cultus which means «cultivation» or «cultivated». This term is the past participle of the word colere which means ‘to cultivate’.

In the Middle Ages, culture designated a cultivated land. In the Renaissance appeared the idea of ​​the «cultivated» man, that is, someone educated in literature and fine arts.

Starting in the 18th century, the term culture began to be used systematically to refer to enlightened knowledge. In the 19th century culture also encompassed good manners and customs.

With the development of the social sciences in the twentieth century, the sense of culture has been broadening, until finding the one we attribute to it today.

Elements of culture

Every culture is made up of a set of basic elements. The most important are the following:

• Cognitive elements: It refers to the knowledge accumulated within a certain culture for survival in the face of nature and adaptation within the social group.
• Beliefs: encompasses the set of ideas that the cultural group establishes about what is true or fake. It is linked to the value system.
• Values: They are the criteria that serve as evaluative models of behavior, since they guide what are considered acceptable or unacceptable principles and attitudes to guarantee the continuity of the group.
• Rules: they are specific action codes that regulate the relationship between individuals based on shared values. Includes the system sanctions. There are two types of rules:
  • Prescriptive standards: they indicate the duties and obligations.
  • Proscriptive rules: they indicate what should not be done.
• System of signs and symbols: They are all the arbitrary and conventionalized communication resources that the social group uses to transmit messages. We can mention the language, the writing, the graphic signs and the symbols.
• Non-normative forms of conduct: they are those behavioral traits that differentiate one social group from another, even within a shared culture. Is what is called idiosyncrasy.

Other approaches to cultural phenomena establish the following as elements of culture:

• The immaterial or spiritual culture, corresponds to the culture that is transmitted by oral tradition. For example:
  • belief system;
  • values;
  • language;
  • music;
  • laws, etc.
• Material culture, is what is represented in a material way, such as technology, cultural consumer goods and tangible heritage. For example:
  • architecture;
  • plastic arts;
  • clothing;
  • kitchen room;
  • tools;
  • weapons, etc.

Characteristics of culture

All cultures are characterized by sharing a series of elements, among which we can point out the following:

• cover the totality of human practices;
• arise in opposition to nature (instinct vs. knowledge);
• represent a vision of the world;
• they express themselves symbolically;
• provide social order;
• its survival depends on the communication;
• consolidate traditions;
• are dynamic, that is, they transform;
• they are more or less open, that is, they are susceptible to the influence of other cultures. Therefore, they are subject to processes of:
  • enculturation;
  • transculturation;
  • acculturation;
  • inculturation.

Types of culture

Culture can be classified according to different criteria. This will depend on the objective of the study and the theoretical-ideological approach. Cultures are normally classified according to topics, that is to say, matters of collective interest. The most common ways of classifying culture are as follows:

According to the historical sense

Peter Brueghel: Dutch proverbs. 1550. Oil on wood. 1.17 x 1.63 cm. Berlin State Museums.

It refers to cultures within a defined period of time. Cultural transformation does not imply an absolute dissolution of culture but its adaptation to historical changes.

For example:

• renaissance culture;
• baroque culture;
• medieval culture.

According to the anthropological sense

The Acropolis of Athens, Greece.

It refers to the culture that identifies a people in a comprehensive way.

For example:

• Egyptian culture;
• Inca Culture;
• Greek culture;
• Western culture;
• oriental culture, etc.

According to the religious paradigm

In the anthropology of religions, cultures are classified according to the type of religious paradigm they develop. Within these categories are those of monotheistic cultures and polytheistic cultures.

For example:

Monotheistic cultures:

• Jewish culture;
• Christian culture;
• Muslim Culture.

Polytheistic cultures:

• Hindu culture;
• ancient Greco-Roman culture.

According to knowledge of writing

Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.

Another way to classify cultures is according to their knowledge of writing. The terms are used oral cultures or ungracious cultures to refer to cultures that do not have writing systems. Those who have or have had writing systems are called written cultures.

For example:

Agraphic cultures:

• Yanomani indigenous culture (Venezuela)

Written cultures:

• Egyptian culture (hieroglyphic writing);
• Mesopotamian culture (cuneiform writing).

According to the mode of production

Rice cultivation fields in China.

Cultures are transformed along with their modes of production or vice versa. Among them we can mention the following types:

• Nomadic cultures: those that depend on hunting and gathering, for which they migrate frequently.
  • Example: Chichimeca culture in Mexico.
• Agricultural cultures: those that become sedentary thanks to the development of agricultural and livestock technology.
  • Example: Chinese culture.
• Urban culture: those established in urban centers governed by commercial activity.
  • Example: Renaissance culture or the culture of today’s cities.
• Industrial cultures: those that apply industrial production modes of massive scope.
  • Example: The current western society.

According to the socio-economic order (or hegemony)

In the study of culture within the same society, the classification of culture according to social class, socio-economic order or hegemony has predominated, due to the impact that material order has on cultural processes.

At first they talked about high culture Y low culture. High culture was represented by the enlightened elite of society, which was the one who held power. The low culture was attributed to the illiterate popular sectors, which were the most vulnerable sectors. This classification, already in disuse, responded to a level assessment based on the hegemony of the dominant group.

With the rise of nationalisms, the popular sectors were considered representatives of the national identity. Thus, the expression popular culture to the detriment of low culture. High culture was renamed elitist culture,elite culture, culture «cultured», official culture or academic culture.

For example:

• popular culture: folkloric traditions such as the carnival.
• elite culture:
  • the fine arts («cultured»);
  • the official religion or ideology of a State (official or official);
  • medicine as an area of ​​knowledge (academic);

According to the diffusion modes

With the entry of the mass media, cultural processes were altered. New cultures have emerged from there.

For mass culture or mass culture The culture that arises from the information disclosed by the mass media is known, that is, the consumer culture. It affects both elitist culture and popular culture.

For example:

• The global phenomenon of The Beatles and other pop idols;
• The universal consumption of certain products and the imaginary associated with them (for example, soft drinks).

The cyberculture it is another of the cultures defined according to their means of communication. Cyberculture is understood to be one that is formed through the interaction of subjects through social networks and virtual reality.

For example:

• Second life, virtual community.
• Culture Facebook and from other social networks.

According to the power struggles within a society

The differences between the sectors of a society generate movements of resistance and / or innovation faced with the hegemonic order. Many times they have to do with generational differences that are accentuated in the light of technical and scientific advances. Within this category we recognize the concepts of subculture Y counterculture.

For example:

Subcultures:

• rockers;
• gothic.

Countercultures:

• Hippie movement;
• feminism.

See also:

• Types of culture
• Subculture
• Counterculture

Philosophy of culture

The philosophy of culture is a branch within the philosophical discipline that aims to understand the concept of culture and its incidence on the subject. In an essay entitled «Idea and history of the philosophy of culture» published in the book Philosophy of culture (VV.AA., 1998), researcher David Sobrevilla defines the philosophy of culture as:

… the philosophical reflection on the elements and dynamics of cultural phenomena, the foundation of the concepts extracted from them and the evaluation and criticism of these phenomena from a philosophical perspective.

According to the researcher, the difference between the approach that philosophy makes on culture with respect to other disciplines (anthropology or psychology, for example), is that philosophy focuses on the study of the conceptual. Thus, the philosophy of culture does not address the empirical analysis of cultural phenomena as facts. On the contrary, it tries to understand them from a philosophical point of view.

Cultural context

Cultural context is known as those cultural variables that allow the understanding of a certain phenomenon under study. That is to say, they are those cultural elements that have influence on a fact, character or product of history, and that therefore must be considered in order to make a fair interpretation of the matter to be studied. For example: value system, customs, dominant spirituality, etc. Understanding the cultural context of an issue allows you to minimize the risk of incurring value judgments.

Asked by: Oren Quigley

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The word «culture» derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin «colere,» which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. «It shares its etymology with a number of other words related to actively fostering growth,» De Rossi said.

How is culture created?

Key Takeaway. Organization cultures are created by a variety of factors, including founders’ values and preferences, industry demands, and early values, goals, and assumptions. Culture is maintained through attraction-selection-attrition, new employee onboarding, leadership, and organizational reward systems.

Where does popular culture came from?

In contrast to folk customs, popular culture is most often a product of the economically more developed countries (MDCs), especially North America, Western Europe, and Japan. Popular music and fast food are good examples. They arise from a combination of advances in industrial technology and increased leisure time.

What are 5 examples of culture?

The following are illustrative examples of traditional culture.

Who invented popular culture?

Ray Browne, 87, Founder of Pop-Culture Studies, Dies.

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