In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic trait or adaptive trait, with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection.
Historically, adaptation has been described from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as Empedocles and Aristotle. In 18th and 19th century natural theology, adaptation was taken as evidence for the existence of a deity. Charles Darwin proposed instead that it was explained by natural selection.
Adaptation is related to biological fitness, which governs the rate of evolution as measured by change in allele frequencies. Often, two or more species co-adapt and co-evolve as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of the other species, such as with flowering plants and pollinating insects. In mimicry, species evolve to resemble other species; in Müllerian mimicry this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be co-opted for a different one, as when the insulating feathers of dinosaurs were co-opted for bird flight.
Adaptation is a major topic in the philosophy of biology, as it concerns function and purpose (teleology). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity’s intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful.
HistoryEdit
Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on evolution, but their explanations differed. Empedocles did not believe that adaptation required a final cause (a purpose), but thought that it «came about naturally, since such things survived.» Aristotle did believe in final causes, but assumed that species were fixed.[1]
In natural theology, adaptation was interpreted as the work of a deity and as evidence for the existence of God.[2] William Paley believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who had argued that God had brought about «the best of all possible worlds.» Voltaire’s satire Dr. Pangloss[3] is a parody of this optimistic idea, and David Hume also argued against design.[4] Charles Darwin broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds.[5]
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus «the influence of circumstances,» usually expressed as use and disuse.[6] This second, subsidiary element of his theory is what is now called Lamarckism, a proto-evolutionary hypothesis of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, intended to explain adaptations by natural means.[7]
Other natural historians, such as Buffon, accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, and secondary figures such as Henry Walter Bates, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as E. B. Ford and Theodosius Dobzhansky produced evidence that natural selection was not only the ‘engine’ behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought.[8][9][10]
General principlesEdit
The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to the total biology of the species.
What adaptation isEdit
Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body.[12] An internal parasite (such as a liver fluke) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the life cycle, which is often quite complex.[13] However, as a practical term, «adaptation» often refers to a product: those features of a species which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process, and adaptive trait for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word.[14][15][16][17]
Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of Darwin’s finches. The other process is speciation, in which new species arise, typically through reproductive isolation.[18][19] An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of cichlid fish in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is complex.[20][21]
Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places constraints on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each genetic and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what «relatively small» should mean, for example polyploidy in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change.[22] The origin of eukaryotic endosymbiosis is a more dramatic example.[23]
All adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches. The adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or physiological. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and internal organization. Behavioural adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as instincts, or as a neuropsychological capacity for learning. Examples include searching for food, mating, and vocalizations. Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions such as making venom, secreting slime, and phototropism, but also involve more general functions such as growth and development, temperature regulation, ionic balance and other aspects of homeostasis. Adaptation affects all aspects of the life of an organism.[24]
The following definitions are given by the evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky:
- 1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.[25][26][27]
- 2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.[28]
- 3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.[29]
What adaptation is notEdit
Some generalists, such as birds, have the flexibility to adapt to urban areas.
Adaptation differs from flexibility, acclimatization, and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of specialization. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life;[30] learning means improvement in behavioural performance during life.[31]
Flexibility stems from phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism with a given genotype (genetic type) to change its phenotype (observable characteristics) in response to changes in its habitat, or to move to a different habitat.[32][33] The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many herbivores are like this; extreme examples are koalas which depend on Eucalyptus, and giant pandas which require bamboo. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The tendency to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: «An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in the new environment,» writes the evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith.[34]
If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more red blood cells. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize.[35]
Adaptedness and fitnessEdit
There is a relationship between adaptedness and the concept of fitness used in population genetics. Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are heritable.[36] However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the Californian redwood, which is highly adapted, but a relict species in danger of extinction.[25] Elliott Sober commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait’s future.[37]
- 1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population.[38] This is also known as Darwinian fitness, selection coefficient, and other terms.
- 2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes. Also known as the Malthusian parameter when applied to the population as a whole.[36][39]
- 3. Adaptedness. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a reciprocal transplant.[40]
In this sketch of a fitness landscape, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped.
Sewall Wright proposed that populations occupy adaptive peaks on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be «trapped» on a peak that is not optimally adapted.[41]
TypesEdit
Adaptation is the heart and soul of evolution.
— Niles Eldredge, Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory[42]
Changes in habitatEdit
Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the climate changed, so did the habitat; and as the habitat changed, so did the biota. Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, invasions of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change.
When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation.
When a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement.[43] This common response is called habitat tracking. It is one explanation put forward for the periods of apparent stasis in the fossil record (the punctuated equilibrium theory).[44]
Genetic changeEdit
Without mutation, the ultimate source of all genetic variation, there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation.[45] One example is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing purine nucleotide metabolism, a metabolic pathway that evolved in an ancient RNA world. The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances.[10] Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin’s finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene.[46] The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor and other melanin pathway genes.[47][48] Physiological resistance to the heart poisons (cardiac glycosides) that monarch butterflies store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators[49][50] are driven by adaptive mutations in the target of the poison, the sodium pump, resulting in target site insensitivity.[51][52][53] These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through convergent evolution, a hallmark of adaptation.[54][55] Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint.[56]
Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation is never fully complete.[57] Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection. On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic tracking process, which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from the brink of extinction in a process called evolutionary rescue. Adaptation does affect, to some extent, every species in a particular ecosystem.[58][59]
Leigh Van Valen thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the Red Queen hypothesis, as seen in host-parasite interactions.[60]
Existing genetic variation and mutation were the traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition, horizontal gene transfer is possible between organisms in different species, using mechanisms as varied as gene cassettes, plasmids, transposons and viruses such as bacteriophages.[61][62][63]
Co-adaptationEdit
Pollinating insects are co-adapted with flowering plants.
In coevolution, where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or ‘improved’ adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These co-adaptational relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between flowering plants and pollinating insects.[64][65]
MimicryEdit
Bates’ work on Amazonian butterflies led him to develop the first scientific account of mimicry, especially the kind of mimicry which bears his name: Batesian mimicry.[66] This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as predators avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an anti-predator adaptation. A common example seen in temperate gardens is the hoverfly (Syrphidae), many of which—though bearing no sting—mimic the warning coloration of aculeate Hymenoptera (wasps and bees). Such mimicry does not need to be perfect to improve the survival of the palatable species.[67]
Bates, Wallace and Fritz Müller believed that Batesian and Müllerian mimicry provided evidence for the action of natural selection, a view which is now standard amongst biologists.[68][69][70]
Trade-offsEdit
It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution… is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder.
All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they can’t scratch their backs; mammals’ hair helps temperature, but offers a niche for ectoparasites; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise.[72]
Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree.
Consider the antlers of the Irish elk, (often supposed to be far too large; in deer antler size has an allometric relationship to body size). Obviously, antlers serve positively for defence against predators, and to score victories in the annual rut. But they are costly in terms of resources. Their size during the last glacial period presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time.[74] As another example, camouflage to avoid detection is destroyed when vivid coloration is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction.[75]
Stream-dwelling salamanders, such as Caucasian salamander or Gold-striped salamander have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain brooks. Elongated body protects their larvae from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their fecundity. As a result, fire salamander, less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have a higher fecundity and broader geographic range.[76]
The peacock’s ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin’s explanation of its advantage was in terms of sexual selection: «This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction.»[77] The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called ‘mate choice,’ with an implication that the process selects the more fit over the less fit, and so has survival value.[78] The recognition of sexual selection was for a long time in abeyance, but has been rehabilitated.[79]
The conflict between the size of the human foetal brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm3, else it will not get through the mother’s pelvis) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm3), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright bipedal stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. Neanderthals had a similar problem.[80][81][82]
As another example, the long neck of a giraffe brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length.[83] The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the animal’s body mass, requiring additional energy to build the neck and to carry its weight around.[84]
Shifts in functionEdit
Adaptation and function are two aspects of one problem.
— Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis[85]
Pre-adaptationEdit
Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid cordgrass Spartina townsendii is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats.[86] Among domestic animals, the White Leghorn chicken is markedly more resistant to vitamin B1 deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive.[87]
Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability.[88] In diploid eukaryotes, this is a consequence of the system of sexual reproduction, where mutant alleles get partially shielded, for example, by genetic dominance.[89] Microorganisms, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück who developed the Fluctuation Test, a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in Escherichia coli.[90] The word is controversial because it is teleological and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question.
Co-option of existing traits: exaptationEdit
The feathers of Sinosauropteryx, a dinosaur with feathers, were used for insulation or display, making them an exaptation for flight.
Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the ear ossicles of mammals, which we know from paleontological and embryological evidence originated in the upper and lower jaws and the hyoid bone of their synapsid ancestors, and further back still were part of the gill arches of early fish.[91][92] The word exaptation was coined to cover these common evolutionary shifts in function.[93] The flight feathers of birds evolved from the much earlier feathers of dinosaurs,[94] which might have been used for insulation or for display.[95][96]
Niche constructionEdit
Animals including earthworms, beavers and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing the ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts.
In all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that the animals have modified.[97]
Non-adaptive traitsEdit
Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have pleiotropic effects, not all traits may be functional: they may be what Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin called spandrels, features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features.[98]
Another possibility is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism’s evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even maladapted. Such adaptations are termed vestigial. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced in functionality. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: wisdom teeth in humans; the loss of pigment and functional eyes in cave fauna; the loss of structure in endoparasites.[99]
Extinction and coextinctionEdit
If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then obviously, it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.[100]
Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction of a parasitic insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a food chain is disrupted.[101][102]
Origin of adaptive capacitiesEdit
The first stage in the evolution of life on earth is often hypothesized to be the RNA world in which short self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated before the evolution of DNA and proteins. By this hypothesis, life started when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: heritability, variation of type, and competition for resources. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely have been a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities, determined by its nucleotide sequence, and the availability of resources.[103][104] The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of resources.[103][104] These adaptive capacities would have been determined by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences.
Philosophical issuesEdit
Adaptation raises philosophical issues concerning how biologists speak of function and purpose, as this carries implications of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially of supernatural intervention – that features and organisms exist because of a deity’s conscious intentions.[107][108] In his biology, Aristotle introduced teleology to describe the adaptedness of organisms, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into Plato’s thinking, which Aristotle rejected.[109][110] Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty.[111][112][113][114][115] On the one hand, adaptation is obviously purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does not. On the other hand, biologists by and large reject conscious purpose in evolution. The dilemma gave rise to a famous joke by the evolutionary biologist Haldane: «Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he’s unwilling to be seen with her in public.'» David Hull commented that Haldane’s mistress «has become a lawfully wedded wife. Biologists no longer feel obligated to apologize for their use of teleological language; they flaunt it.»[116] Ernst Mayr stated that «adaptedness… is a posteriori result rather than an a priori goal-seeking», meaning that the question of whether something is an adaptation can only be determined after the event.[117]
See alsoEdit
- Adaptive evolution in the human genome
- Adaptive memory
- Adaptive mutation
- Adaptive system
- Anti-predator adaptation
- Body reactivity
- Ecological trap
- Evolutionary pressure
- Evolvability
- Intragenomic conflict
- Neutral theory of molecular evolution
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- ^ Barrett et al. 1987. Charles Darwin was the first to put forward such ideas.
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- ^ Darwin 1872, pp. 57–58. Darwin in tells the story of «a web of complex relations» involving heartsease (Viola tricolor), red clover (Trifolium pratense), bumblebees, mice and cats.
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- ^ a b Michod, R. E. 1999. Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. ISBN 978-0-691-02699-2. LCCN 98-4166. OCLC 38948118
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- ^ Williams 1966, pp. 8–10
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- ^ Pittendrigh 1958
- ^ Mayr 1965, pp. 33–50
- ^ Mayr 1988, ch. 3, «The Multiple Meanings of Teleological»
- ^ Williams 1966, «The Scientific Study of Adaptation»
- ^ Monod 1971
- ^ Hull 1982
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адаптация, приспособление, применение, переделка, обработка, привыкание
существительное ↓
- адаптация, приспособление
adaptation to the ground — воен. применение к местности 
- переделка; адаптация
translation and adaptation of a French play — перевод и сценическая редакция французской пьесы
adaptation of a musical composition — аранжировка музыкального произведения
- инсценировка (литературного произведения), экранизация (пьесы, романа)
adaptation of a novel for the broadcasting — радиокомпозиция по роману
- переделка; что-л. переделанное, адаптированное
this book is an adaptation of Bleak House — эта книга
- физиол., физ. аккомодация
- биол. адаптация
- внедрение (новой техники и т. п.)
Мои примеры
Словосочетания
a tool designed for easy adaptation — инструмент, предназначенный для лёгкой адаптации
the BBC adaptation of the bestselling book — адаптация данного бестселлера компанией BBC
adaptation of a novel for television — телевизионная экранизация романа
negative adaptation — отрицательная адаптация
adaptation illuminance — освещённость поля адаптации
adaptation of technology — приспособление технологии
adaptation of the eye — адаптация глаза
adaptation parameter — показатель адаптации; параметр настройки
adaptation plan — план адаптации
adaptation process — процесс адаптации
adaptation rate protocol — протокол с адаптацией скорости передачи данных
adaptation rights — права на постановку
Примеры с переводом
The film is an adaptation of a book of the same title.
Фильм является экранизацией книги под тем же названием.
The play is an adaptation of a short novel.
Эта пьеса является адаптацией повести / новеллы.
The play is original; not an adaptation.
Эта пьеса — оригинал, а не адаптация.
His stage adaptation of the novel was a success.
Его сценическая версия данного романа завершилась успехом.
The benefit of this adaptation of men to things is not always perceived.
Выгода от адаптации человека к миру артефактов не всегда осознаётся.
The insect’s evolutionary adaptations enable it to be almost invisible even when sitting in the middle of a leaf.
Эволюционная адаптация этого насекомого позволяет ему быть почти невидимым, даже сидя посреди листа.
Примеры, ожидающие перевода
He’s working on a screen adaptation of his latest novel. 
They first paired up in the screen adaptation of ‘Grease’.
… might well offer fresh insights as to the character and extent of the social adaptation involved.
Для того чтобы добавить вариант перевода, кликните по иконке ☰, напротив примера.
Формы слова
noun
ед. ч.(singular): adaptation
мн. ч.(plural): adaptations
Asked by: Dr. Benjamin Lynch I
Score: 5/5
(38 votes)
Clearly, adaptation is the standard form of the word meaning, “an altered or amended version of a text, musical composition, etc., especially one adapted for filming, broadcasting, or production on the stage from a novel or similar literary source.”
Does the word adaptation mean?
1 : the act or process of changing to better suit a situation. 2 : a body part or feature or a behavior that helps a living thing survive and function better in its environment. adaptation. noun.
Is there a difference between adaption and adaptation?
As nouns the difference between adaption and adaptation
is that adaption is (lb) the act of fitting; adaptation while adaptation is (label) the quality of being adapted; adaption; adjustment.
What adaptations exist?
There are three different types of adaptations: Behavioural — responses made by an organism that help it to survive/reproduce. Physiological — a body process that helps an organism to survive/reproduce. Structural — a feature of an organism’s body that helps it to survive/reproduce.
Where does the word adaptation come from?
adaptation (n.)
1600, «action of adapting (something to something else),» from French adaptation, from Late Latin adaptationem (nominative adaptatio), noun of action from past-participle stem of adaptare «to adjust,» from ad «to» (see ad-) + aptare «to join,» from aptus «fitted» (see apt).
28 related questions found
Where do you get adaptations?
Adaptation can be obtained by running Arbitrations. These challenging missions will only give you one life and will increase in difficulty with each rotation. Ensure you enter them with a Warframe that you can are confident will be able to survive.
What is adaptation give the 3 types of adaptation?
The three basic types of adaptations, based on how the genetic changes are expressed, are structural, physiological and behavioral adaptations. Most organisms have combinations of all these types.
Is there only one type of adaptation?
Behavioural adaptation is the change in the behavior of an organism to survive better in an environment. Example — Migration- bird migrates to the south in winter as there is more food available. Physiological adaptations a body process that helps an organism survive/reproduce better in an environment.
What is adaptation short answer?
Adaptation is an evolutionary process where a plant or an animal becomes suited to living in a particular habitat. These are changes that take place over many generations through natural selection. Changes may be physical or behavioural.
What adaptations are humans born with?
Our bipedalism (ability to walk on two feet), opposable thumbs (which can touch the fingers of the same hand), and complex brain (which controls everything we do) are three adaptations (special features that help us survive) that have allowed us to live in so many different climates and habitats.
What does Adorpion mean?
Adoption usually refers to the legal process of becoming a non-biological parent, but it also refers to the act of embracing ideas, habits, or free kittens. … Adoption is the noun form of adopt, so it not only refers to legally taking another person into your family, it can be any time you take something on as your own.
What is meant by adaptation in biology?
In evolutionary theory, adaptation is the biological mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or to changes in their current environment. … Organisms can adapt to an environment in different ways. They can adapt biologically, meaning they alter body functions.
What is the best definition of adaptation?
any alteration in the structure or function of an organism or any of its parts that results from natural selection and by which the organism becomes better fitted to survive and multiply in its environment.
Is adaptation an evolution?
Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.
Is survivability a real word?
Survivability is the ability to remain alive or continue to exist. The term has more specific meaning in certain contexts.
What is not an adaptation?
Some genetic variation present in populations does not affect fitness one way or another. … If this difference does not affect their survival and reproduction one way or the other, then the variants are not adaptations; they are simply neutral variation that is maintained by mutation and genetic drift.
What adaptations do polar bears have?
The polar bear
Their adaptations include: a white appearance — as camouflage from prey on the snow and ice. thick layers of fat and fur — for insulation against the cold. a small surface area to volume ratio — to minimise heat loss.
Is camouflage an adaptation?
Camouflage is another example of an adaption that helps an animal to survive in its environment. Animals utilize camouflage to avoid detection by both predator and prey species. … Camouflage only works if it matches the environment.
What is an environmental adaptation?
Environmental adaptation involves improving aspects of information (e.g. signs, clocks), objects (e.g. furniture positioning), or conditions (i.e. noise) in the environment.
What is adaptation Class 4 short answer?
“Adaptation is the physical or behavioural characteristic of an organism that helps an organism to survive better in the surrounding environment.” Living things are adapted to the habitat they live in. This is because they have special features that help them to survive.
What are the 5 categories of adaptation?
The five categories of the adaptations are migration, hibernation, dormancy, camouflage, and estivation. The migration can be defined as the phenomenon of the movement of the animals from one region to another in order for their survival.
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1
adaptation
adaptation адаптация; приспособление организма (или его органов, тканей, клеток) к окружающей среде
English-Russian dictionary of biology and biotechnology > adaptation
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2
adaptation
adaptation [ˏædæpˊteɪʃn]
n
1) адапта́ция, приспособле́ние;
2) переде́лка;
Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > adaptation
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3
adaptation
Персональный Сократ > adaptation
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4
adaptation
adaptation of a musical composition — аранжировка музыкального произведения, обработка музыкального произведения
English-Russian dictionary of musical terminology > adaptation
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5
adaptation
English-russian biological dictionary > adaptation
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6
adaptation
[ˌædæpˈteɪʃən]
adaptation биол. адаптация adaptation адаптация, приспособление; light adaptation адаптация к свету; adaptation to the terrain воен. применение к местности adaptation адаптация adaptation аккомодация adaptation инсценировка adaptation переделка; adaptation of a musical composition аранжировка музыкального произведения adaptation переделка adaptation переработка adaptation приспособление adaptation переделка; adaptation of a musical composition аранжировка музыкального произведения adaptation to future requirements приведение в соответствие с будущими потребностями adaptation адаптация, приспособление; light adaptation адаптация к свету; adaptation to the terrain воен. применение к местности job adaptation адаптация рабочих мест для работы инвалидов adaptation адаптация, приспособление; light adaptation адаптация к свету; adaptation to the terrain воен. применение к местности parametric adaptation вчт. параметрическая адаптация social adaptation социальная адаптация
English-Russian short dictionary > adaptation
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7
adaptation
ˌædæpˈteɪʃən сущ.
1) адаптация, привыкание, приспособление light adaptation ≈ адаптация к свету adaptation to the terrain воен. ≈ применение к местности Man has unrivalled powers of self-adaptation. ≈ Человек обладает непревзойденными способностями к самоадаптации.
2) переделка;
адаптация adaptation of a musical composition ≈ аранжировка музыкального произведения adaptation of a novel for television ≈ телевизионная экранизация романа The benefit of this adaptation of men to things is not always perceived. ≈ Выгода от адаптации человека к миру артефактов не всегда осознается. Syn: alteration, recast
3) биол. адаптацияадаптация, приспособление;
— * to the ground (военное) применение к местности переделка;
адаптация;
— translation and * of a French play перевод и сценическая редакция французской пьесы;
— * of a musical composition аранжировка музыкального произведения инсценировка;
экранизация;
— * of a novel for the broadcasting радиокомпозиция по роману переделка;
что-л. переделанное, адаптированное;
— this book is an * of «Bleak House» эта книга — адаптированное издание «Холодного дома» (физиологическое) (физическое) аккомодация (биология) адаптация внедрениеadaptation биол. адаптация ~ адаптация, приспособление;
light adaptation адаптация к свету;
adaptation to the terrain воен. применение к местности ~ адаптация ~ аккомодация ~ инсценировка ~ переделка;
adaptation of a musical composition аранжировка музыкального произведения ~ переделка ~ переработка ~ приспособление~ переделка;
adaptation of a musical composition аранжировка музыкального произведения~ адаптация, приспособление;
light adaptation адаптация к свету;
adaptation to the terrain воен. применение к местностиjob ~ адаптация рабочих мест для работы инвалидов
~ адаптация, приспособление;
light adaptation адаптация к свету;
adaptation to the terrain воен. применение к местностиsocial ~ социальная адаптация
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > adaptation
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8
adaptation
1. n адаптация, приспособление
2. n переделка; адаптация
3. n инсценировка, экранизация
4. n физиол. физ. аккомодация
5. n внедрение
Синонимический ряд:
4. change (noun) adapting; change; compliance; correspondence; refitting; revising
5. conversion (noun) acclimation; acclimatisation; acclimatization; becoming suited; conversion
English-Russian base dictionary > adaptation
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9
adaptation
приспособление, адаптация
Англо-русский словарь технических терминов > adaptation
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10
adaptation
English-Russian dictionary of telecommunications and their abbreviations > adaptation
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11
adaptation
English-Russian electronics dictionary > adaptation
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12
adaptation
The New English-Russian Dictionary of Radio-electronics > adaptation
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13
adaptation
приспосабливание, адаптация, самонастройка; модификация ; измененная конструкция
Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > adaptation
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14
adaptation
English-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > adaptation
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15
adaptation
Англо-русский синонимический словарь > adaptation
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16
adaptation
1. адаптация, приспособление;
2. изменение системы взаимодействия индивидов и групп в социальном и культурном плане; структурное или поведенческое изменение, имеющее жизненно важное значение;
3. адаптация, тип приспособительной реакции индивида к новым социокультурным реалиям;
4. по Т. Парсонсу — «одно из четырех функциональных условий», которым должны отвечать жизнеспособные социальные системы;
adaptation, cultural — культурная адаптация;
adaptation, professional — профессиональная адаптация, приспособление индивида к ценностям и нормам, характерным для выполнения профессиональной деятельности;
5. изменение чувствительности сенсорного рецептора индивида, носящее временный характер.
* * *
сущ.
1) адаптация, приспособление;
2) изменение системы взаимодействия индивидов и групп в социальном и культурном плане; структурное или поведенческое изменение, имеющее жизненно важное значение;
3) адаптация, тип приспособительной реакции индивида к новым социокультурным реалиям;
4) по Т. Парсонсу — «одно из четырех функциональных условий», которым должны отвечать жизнеспособные социальные системы;
5) изменение чувствительности сенсорного рецептора индивида, носящее временный характер.
Англо-русский словарь по социологии > adaptation
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17
adaptation
Англо-русский словарь по машиностроению > adaptation
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18
adaptation
[͵ædəpʹteıʃ(ə)n]
1. адаптация, приспособление
2. 1) переделка; адаптация
translation and adaptation of a French play — перевод и сценическая редакция французской пьесы
adaptation of a musical composition — аранжировка музыкального произведения
2) инсценировка (), экранизация ()
3) переделка; что-л. переделанное, адаптированное
this book is an adaptation of ❝Bleak House❞ — эта книга — адаптированное издание «Холодного дома»
5. внедрение ()
НБАРС > adaptation
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19
adaptation
сущ.
1)
,
соц.
,
псих.
приспособление, адаптация
See:
2)
общ.
переделка, адаптация
See:
Англо-русский экономический словарь > adaptation
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20
adaptation
[ˌædæp’teɪʃ(ə)n]
сущ.
1) адаптация, привыкание, приспособление
2) переделка; адаптация
The benefit of this adaptation of men to things is not always perceived. — Выгода от адаптации человека к миру артефактов не всегда осознаётся.
Syn:
Англо-русский современный словарь > adaptation
Страницы
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См. также в других словарях:
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ADAPTATION — L’OBSERVATION des comportements est au principe des différentes théories qui explicitent les mécanismes et les modalités de l’adaptation. À cet objet d’étude pluridisciplinaire sont principalement associées les idées d’évolution, d’accommodation… … Encyclopédie Universelle
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Adaptation. — (film) Pour les articles homonymes, voir Adaptation. Adaptation Titre original Adaptation. Réalisation Spike Jonze Acteurs principaux Nicolas Cage Meryl Streep … Wikipédia en Français
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Adaptation (Œil) — Pour les articles homonymes, voir Adaptation. Le mécanisme d’adaptation permet à l œil de voir dans des environnements lumineux différents. Définition On distingue 2 mécanismes : l’adaptation à l’obscurité ; l’adaptation à la lumière.… … Wikipédia en Français
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Adaptation. — Título Adaptation (El ladrón de orquídeas) Ficha técnica Dirección Spike Jonze Producción Edward Saxon Jonathan Demme Vicent Landay … Wikipedia Español
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adaptation — UK [ˌædæpˈteɪʃ(ə)n] / US or adaption UK [əˈdæpʃ(ə)n] / US noun Word forms adaptation : singular adaptation plural adaptations * 1) [countable] a film, TV programme etc that has been made from a book or play The television adaptation of the stage… … English dictionary
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Adaptation — Ad ap*ta tion, n. [Cf. F. adaptation, LL. adaptatio.] 1. The act or process of adapting, or fitting; or the state of being adapted or fitted; fitness. Adaptation of the means to the end. Erskine. [1913 Webster] 2. The result of adapting; an… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
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adaptation — index accommodation (adjustment), adjustment, compromise, habituation, innovation, modification, propriety ( … Law dictionary
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ADAPTATION — Adaptation (hon’an) is a term that was used throughout the Tokugawa period to refer to translated literary works, in contrast to hon’yaku, which was reserved for medical and scientific texts. Though adaptations often parallel the original… … Japanese literature and theater
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adaptation — (n.) c.1600, action of adapting, from Fr. adaptation, from L.L. adaptationem (nom. adaptatio), noun of action from pp. stem of adaptare (see ADAPT (Cf. adapt)). Meaning condition of being adapted is from 1670s. Sense of modification of a thing to … Etymology dictionary
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adaptation — [n1] act of adapting adjustment, adoption, alteration, conversion, modification, refitting, remodeling, reworking, shift, transformation, variation; concept 697 adaptation [n2] condition of something resulting from change acclimatization,… … New thesaurus
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adaptation — Adaptation. s. f. v. Application. L Adaptation de ce passage est juste … Dictionnaire de l’Académie française
Author:
Mark Sanchez
Date Of Creation:
2 January 2021
Update Date:
13 April 2023
Content
- What is Adaptation:
What is Adaptation:
Adaptation is action of adapting or adapting. The term adapt is accommodate or adjust a thing. The word adaptation is of Latin origin «I will adapt» What does it mean «adjust one thing u other«, Composed of the verb»ad«Which expresses»toward»and the verb «I will fitWhat figure «Adjust or apply.»
The human being is a being adaptable to all situations. By virtue of the fact that permanent changes are generated in life that the individual must adjust to them, adaptation is not from one day to the next, first a transition period in order to get used to the new life or change, for example: an individual who leaves his country to seek better stability, there is a stage of difficulty or what was referred to above, a period of transition since the individual must adapt to the climatic changes, to the new job, to the people, the children in the school, among others but with time it gets used to all the new changes.
Taking into account the above, we can talk about social adaptation, It is specifically studied in psychology and sociology, since it is the process through which an individual goes through to modify their behavior, habits, customs, to adjust to the norms and rules of the social environment where they develop, sometimes the individual must leave aside certain actions that were part of their behavior since they are frowned upon in the social environment which does not allow them to integrate and be part of it.
In biology, adaptation is a process of the natural evolution of an organism through natural selection that allows it to adapt to the conditions of its habitat in order to successfully develop its functions. Adaptation can arise from morphological or structural changes (physical changes of an organism), physiological or functional (it allows to perform special functions, for example: regulating temperature, phototropism, homochromia) and, of behavior (formed by inherited or learned behaviors).
In reference to the above, the term natural selection originates from Charles Darwin, it indicates that in an environment only the species that manage to survive and evolve are those that adapt to the environment and, those that fail to adapt, disappear as they pass weather. It is noteworthy that the term of adaptation encompasses: the characteristics that allow its adaptation and, to the reproductive success of an organism, is what is known as evolutionary adaptation.
In the area of education, curricular adaptation They are the different modifications that are made in a curriculum to adapt them to the needs and characteristics of each student, aimed especially at children with special pedagogical needs in order to be able to assimilate or perceive school content. At the time of making the curricular adaptation, the limitations of each student must be taken into account and, therefore, expose the most accessible content and eliminate those that are impossible for them to achieve.
For linguistics, adaptation is the adjustment that is made phonetically in the language that receives a linguistic loan, to adjust it to its phonology.
On the other hand, adaptation is modify a scientific, musical, literary work so that it can be disseminated to an audience other than the one for which it was created and for whom it was intended, sometimes literary works are modified in order to transmit them in the audiovisual media or theatrical stages, for example: «The Da Vinci Code», «Harry Potter», «Forrest Gump», among others. Likewise, the arrangement of a foreign work that once translated implies modifications of the original text.