The types of word form derivation - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

There
are 2 main types of word form derivation:

1)
Those limited to change in the body of the word without help axulary
words (sensetic types).

2)
Those enplane the use of axulary (analytical).Besides there are a few
special cases of different forms of a word been derived from all
together different stamps.

a)
Senstic types The
number of morphemes used for deriving word forms in modern English is
very small. Much smaller then in Latin, German, Ukrainian or
Russian.They may be annumerated in a very short space. There ia the
ending –s(-es) with 3 variants of pronunciation used to form the
plural of the noun. And the ending –en, (-ren) used for the same
propers in one or two words each (oxen, children).There is the ending
–is with the same 3 variants of pronunciation as for the plural:
ending used to form what is a generaly term case of nouns.For
adjectives
there are the endings: -er, -est for the degress of comparatives.For
verbs
the number of morphemes used to derived their forms is slitly
greater. There is the ending –s(-es) for the 3-d person singular
Pr. Ind. With the same 3 v. of pronouns.The ending –d(-ed) for the
Past Tense of certain verbs with the 3 v. of pronouns.The ending
–d(-ed) for the Participle ІІ of certain verbs. The ending –ing
for the Participle І and for the Gerund.The total number of
morphemes used to derive forms of words is 10 or so. It is mush less
then the number found in L. of a mainly sensetical structure.

b)
sound alternations (чредование гласных). By
sound alternation are can understand a way of expression grammatical
categories wich consist in changing a sound inside the root. These
method apperes in modern English in nouns then the root vowel [ ] of
a singular form man
is
changed into [e] to form the plural form –men
or similarly. The root vowel on of mouth
is changed into –i
in mice.
These method is much more used in verb such as write–wrote-written;
meet-met-met.
On
the whole vowel altonation does play some part among the means of
expressing the grammatical categories.

c)
analytical (вспомаг. глаголы) Analytical
types consists in using a word to express some grammatical category
of another word.The verbs: have, be, do – have no lexical meanings
of their own in these cases. The lexical meanen of the formations
presides in the Participle or Infinitive following the verb: have,
be, do.Some analytical types has been expressed about the formation
shall invite and will invite. There is a view that shall/will have a
lexical meanings: consides shall/will as verbs serving the form the
Future Tence of other verbs. Thus have, be,do,shall,will are what we
called axulary verbs. As such they constitute to typical feature of
the analytical structure of modern English. While the existans of
analytical forms of the Eng. verb can’t be destitute.The existents
of some forms in adjectives and adverbs is not nowadays universally
recognized. The question whether such formations as more vived the
most vived or more vivedly most vivedly are not analitical forms of
degress of comparatives.If these formations are recognized as
analytical forms of degrees of compression the words more/most have
to be numbered among the analytical means of morphology.

d)
suplative formation Besides
the sensetical and analytical means of building word in modern Eng.
There is another way of building them which stands quite a part and
is found in a very limited.By a sypletive formation one can mean
building a form of a word from an alltogether different steam (the
verb go
with its past Tence went;
the personal pronoun I
with
it’s objective case form me).In
the morphological system of modern Eng. suplative formation are very
insignificant elements but they consem a few very widly used words
among adjectives, pronouns and verbs.

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Словообразование (word formation [wəːrd fɔ:r’meɪʃ(ə)n]) — образование нового слова от другого слова.

Словообразование и словоизменение (Word Formation and Inflection)

Словообразование противопоставляется словоизменению: Словоизменение — это процесс изменения слова, выражающий грамматическое значение (например, спряжение глагола или образование множественного числа существительного), но при словоизменении слово не приобретает нового лексического значения т.е. это то же самое слово (лексема) в отличных грамматических формах:

He is an actor. – Он (есть) актёр.
They are actors. – Они (есть) актёры.

В приведённых примерах «is», «are» и «actor», «actors» — это разные грамматические формы тех же слов, эти формы не образуют нового лексического значения.

Способы словообразования (Types of Word Formation)

Деривация (Derivation)

Деривация (derivation [ˌdeɹɪˈveɪʃ(ə)n]) — процесс образования нового слова от другого слова за счет различных аффиксов (приставок и суффиксов).

Различают два вида деривации:

Новое образованное слово (дериватив) переходит в другой класс слов:
- write → writer (писать → писатель)
Новое слово не переходит в другой класс слов, а только изменяет лексическое значение исходного слова:
- friend → friendship (друг → дружба)
- like → dislike (нравиться, любить → испытывать неприязнь)

В английском языке, деривация, а именно переход слова в другой класс также происходит без изменения исходной формы слова. Данный процесс называется нулевая деривация (zero derivation) или конверсия (см. ниже):

I love you and I can’t live without your love. – Я люблю тебя и не могу жить без твоей любви.

Словосложение (Compounding)

Словосложение (compounding [kəm’paundɪŋ] / composition [ˌkɔmpə’zɪʃ(ə)n]) — это один из способов образования сложных слов (compound words) , состоящий в морфологическом соединении двух или более слов.

Проблемой в лингвистике английского языка является разграничение некоторых сложных слов и словосочетаний, образуя общий термин композиты (Термин «композит» получил распространение только в русскоязычных грамматиках, в том числе и грамматиках по английскому языку):

stay-at-home (домосед)
dos and don’ts (правила, нормы)

I’m reading the how-to-get-anything-you-want guide. – Я читаю книгу о том, как получить всё, что захочешь.

Раздельное или слитное написание композитов не является основанием, используемым при различении сложных слов и словосочетаний. Основным критерием различия между сложным словом и словосочетанием является обособление лексического значения производного сложного слова от исходного словосочетания.

Вторичное словообразование (Back-formation)

Вторичное словообразование / обратное словообразование^[1] / редеривация^[2] (back-formation) —

Конверсия (Conversion)

Конверсия (conversion [kənˈvə:rʒ(ə)n]) разновидность словообразования, при котором от одной части речи образуется другая без каких-либо изменений в самой форме слова (безаффиксальное образование слова). Наиболее распространенной моделью конверсии является: [существительное ↔ глагол], например: an e-mail (электронная почта) → to e-mail (написать или отправить электронное письмо); to drink (пить) → a drink (глоток; стакан (вина, воды)):

I heard her name his name. – Я слышал, как она назвала его имя. (в первом случае «name» — глагол «назвала», а во втором — существительное со значением «имя»),
I love you and I can’t live without your love. – Я люблю тебя и не могу жить без твоей любви.
Don’t talk the talk if you can’t walk the walk. – «Не говори того, чего не можешь сделать.»

He is my best friend. – Он мой лучший друг.
I can best them. – Я могу их превзойти (провести / одержать верх).
Love betters what is best.^[3] – Любовь улучшает лучшее.

She lives one floor up. – Она живёт этажом выше.
They up the minimum requirements! – Они подняли минимальные требования!

Конверсия прилагательных в существительные может происходить в результате эллипсиса:

He’s a good worker but he’s not a very intellectual (person). – Он хороший работник, но не очень умный (человек).
The native residents are very hospitable. → The natives are very hospitable. – Местные (жители) очень гостеприимны.

В некоторых случаях происходит временная конверсия прилагательных в существительные. В таких случаях существительное не полностью получает самостоятельное лексическое значение и его полное значение явствует из контекста:

Fuel is carried in four tanks, two main tanks and two auxiliariy tanks. → Fuel is carried in four tanks, two main and two auxiliaries. – Топливо перевозится в четырех резервуарах, двух основных и двух вспомогательных.

Употребление прилагательных вместо существительных возможно и без конверсии. Например, некоторые прилагательные могут употребляться вместо существительных, означающих людей и согласуются с глаголом во множественном числе, при этом, прилагательные не принимают формы множественного числа и употребляются с определенным артиклем, например: the rich (богатые), the unemployed (безработные) (см. Субстантивация).

Усечение (Clipping)

Усечение / сокращение (clipping [‘klɪpɪŋ] / truncation [tɹʌŋ’keɪʃ(ə)n] / shortening [‘ʃɔ:ɹtnɪŋ])

Инициальное усечение (initial clipping / fore-clipping / apheresis) — усечение начальной части слова:
- helicopter → copter
- telephone → phone
- airplane → plane
- website → site
Финальное усечение (final clipping / back clipping / apocope):
- demonstration → demo
- doctor → doc
- examination → exam
- gasoline → gas
Срединное усечение (medial clipping / syncope):
- madam → ma’am
- mathematics → maths
Двустороннее усечение (усечение крайних частей слова):
- influenza → flu
- refrigerator → fridge
???:
- tobacco → baccy
- reconnaissance → reccy
Слияние усечений (complex clipping / clipped compound):
- sci-fi (science fiction)
- motel (motor hotel)
- modem (modulator demodulator)

Blending

Abbreviations

Acronyms

Eponyms

Coinages

Nonce words

Borrowing

Calquing

^1]

Краткий понятийно-терминологический справочник по этимологии и исторической лексикологии. — Российская академия наук, Институт русского языка им. В. В. Виноградова РАН, Этимология и история слов русского языка . Ж. Ж. Варбот, А. Ф. Журавлев . 1998.

^2]

Словарь-справочник лингвистических терминов. Изд. 2-е. — М.: Просвещение Розенталь Д. Э., Теленкова М. А. 1976

^3]

William Wordsworth. From The Same.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Morphological derivation, in linguistics, is the process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as un- or -ness. For example, unhappy and happiness derive from the root word happy.

It is differentiated from inflection, which is the modification of a word to form different grammatical categories without changing its core meaning: determines, determining, and determined are from the root determine.^[1]

Derivational patterns[edit]

Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into words of another such category. For example, one effect of the English derivational suffix -ly is to change an adjective into an adverb (slow → slowly).

Here are examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:

adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
adjective-to-verb: -en (weak → weaken)
adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)
adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)
noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)
verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)

However, derivational affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they may change merely the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix (write → re-write; lord → over-lord) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy → unhealthy) and some verbs (do → undo) but rarely to nouns. A few exceptions are the derivational prefixes en- and be-. En- (replaced by em- before labials) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but it can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) → enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb).

When derivation occurs without any change to the word, such as in the conversion of the noun breakfast into the verb to breakfast, it’s known as conversion, or zero derivation.

Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. It may involve the use of an affix (such as with employ → employee), or it may occur via conversion (such as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run). In contrast, a derivation resulting in a verb may be called verbalization (such as from the noun butter to the verb to butter).

Derivation and inflection[edit]

Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation can produce a new word (a distinct lexeme) but isn’t required to change this, whereas inflection produces grammatical variants of the same word.

Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that being, morphemes that have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er, is added to an adjective, as in small-er, it acts as an inflection, but when added to a verb, as in cook-er, it acts as a derivation.^[2]

As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or new part of speech) but is not required to do so. For example, the derivation of the word «common» to «uncommon» is a derivational morpheme but doesn’t change the part of speech (adjective).

An important distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the content/function of a listeme^{[clarification needed]}. Derivational morphology changes both the meaning and the content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology doesn’t change the meaning, but changes the function.

A non-exhaustive list of derivational morphemes in English: -ful, -able, im-, un-, -ing, -er

A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -en, -ed, -s

Derivation and other types of word formation[edit]

Derivation can be contrasted with other types of word formation such as compounding. For full details see Word formation.

Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes – they are meaningful units, but can only normally occur when attached to another word. In that respect, derivation differs from compounding by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not create new lexemes but new word forms (table → tables; open → opened).

Productivity[edit]

Derivational patterns differ in the degree to which they can be called productive. A productive pattern or affix is one that is commonly used to produce novel forms. For example, the negating prefix un- is more productive in English than the alternative in-; both of them occur in established words (such as unusual and inaccessible), but faced with a new word which does not have an established negation, a native speaker is more likely to create a novel form with un- than with in-. The same thing happens with suffixes. For example, if comparing two words Thatcherite and Thatcherist, the analysis shows that both suffixes -ite and -ist are productive and can be added to proper names, moreover, both derived adjectives are established and have the same meaning. But the suffix -ist is more productive and, thus, can be found more often in word formation not only from proper names.

References[edit]

^ Crystal, David (1999): The Penguin Dictionary of Language, Penguin Books, England.
^ Sobin, Nicholas (2011). Syntactic Analysis The Basics. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-1-4443-3895-9.

Speech and Language Processing, Jurafsky, D. & Martin J.,H.

Источник

Do you want to know how new words are made? Today we will explore one way of forming new words — derivation.

We will explain the meaning of derivation in English grammar and how derivatives are formed. We will also look at some examples and the difference between derivation, zero derivation, and inflection.

Derivation in English grammar

In English grammar, derivation refers to the creation of a new word from an existing one by adding affixes to the root. Affixes can be broken down into prefixes and suffixes.

Prefixes = placed at the beginning of a word, e.g. the ‘un’ in ‘unhappy’ is a prefix.

Suffixes = placed at the end of a word, e.g. the ‘ly’ in ‘finally’ is a suffix.

Derivation is a type of neologism which refers to creating and using new words.

In case you forgot: The root of a word is the base part (without any affixes added), e.g. the root of the word ‘untrue’ is ‘true’.

Think of the root of a word as the trunk of a tree. The added affixes are the leaves that grow from the branches.

Fig. 1 — Think of the root of a word as the trunk of a tree.

Derivation word formation

Derivatives can be formed in two different ways:

Adding a prefix to the root of an existing word.
Adding a suffix to the root of an existing word.

Derivations follow different patterns depending on what is added. When a word is formed by adding a suffix, the word form changes and the word class (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) is usually changed — though not always. Below are some examples of different suffixes and how they can change the word class:

Suffixes

Suffixes can be added to an adjective to form different word classes:

Weak (adjective) ⇨ Weakness (noun)

Short (adjective) ⇨ Shorten (verb)

Polite (adjective) ⇨ Politely (adverb)

Sometimes, suffixes can be added to an adjective without changing the word class. For example:

Pink (adjective) ⇨ Pinkish (adjective).

Suffixes can be added to a noun to form different word classes:

Tradition (noun) ⇨ Traditional (adjective)

Motive (noun) ⇨ Motivate (verb)

Sometimes, suffixes can be added to a noun without changing the word class — for example:

Friend (noun) ⇨ Friendship (noun)

They can also be added to a verb to form different word classes:

Prefixes

When a prefix is added to a word, the word form changes. However, the word class usually remains the same. For example:

Derivation example sentence

It is important to know how to use ‘derivation’ in a sentence. For example:

The process of creating a word by adding affixes is known as derivation.

The word that has been changed due to derivation is referred to as a derivative of the root word. For example:

Carefully is a derivative of the word careful.

The affixes added to words when derivation occurs are known as derivational affixes. For example:

‘dis’ is a derivational prefix
‘al’ is a derivational suffix

Derivation examples in English

Now let’s look at some more examples of derivation:

Root word	Derivative	Affix type
Write	Rewrite	Prefix
Intense	Intensify	Suffix
Conscious	Subconscious	Prefix
Predict	Predictable	Suffix
Agree	Disagree	Prefix
Kind	Kindness	Suffix
Sure	Unsure	Prefix
Establish	Establishment	Suffix
Perfect	Imperfect	Prefix
Relation	Relationship	Suffix

Derivation vs zero derivation

Let’s look at the meaning of zero derivation:

Zero derivation refers to when a new word is created, and there is no change in the word form, but the word class changes.

Call (verb) — e.g. ‘Call me tomorrow.’

Call (noun) — e.g. ‘That call was long.’

In this case, the verb ‘call’ changes word class to a noun, but the word form stays the same.

In comparison, derivation does change the form of the word. It can also change the word class, but not always.

Derivation vs inflection

It is easy to get derivation and inflection mixed up, as they both use affixes.

Let’s look at the meaning of inflection:

Inflection refers to the change in the form of an existing word by adding affixes to show grammatical meaning (i.e. tense, voice, mood, person). The word class does not change.

Eat → Eating → Eaten

These are different forms of the verb ‘eat’ that show changes in tense — the suffixes ‘ing’ and ‘en’ are added.

Derivation — Key takeaways

Derivation refers to the creation of a new word from an existing word by adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to the root of a word.
Derivation is a form of neologism.
When suffixes are added, the word form changes and usually the word class too (though not always). The word form changes when prefixes are added, but the word class rarely does.
Zero derivation refers to when a new word is created, and there is no change in the word form, but the word class changes.
Inflection refers to the change in the form of an existing word by adding affixes to show grammatical meaning. The word class does not change.

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Types of Forming Words. Derivation. Affixation.

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Transcript Types of Forming Words. Derivation. Affixation.

Lecture 10




Word-formation is the system of derivative types
of words and the process of creating new words
from the material available in the language after
certain structural and semantic formulas and
patterns.
Driver = v+-er (a verbal stem + the nounforming suffix –er).
The meaning of the derived noun driver - the
meaning of the stem drive- ‘to direct the course
of a vehicle’ and the suffix -er meaning ‘an active
agent’: a driver is ‘one who drives’ (a carriage,
motorcar, railway engine, etc.).
I. Word-derivation in morphology is a word-formation
process by which a new word is built from a stem –
usually through the addition of an affix – that
changes the word class and / or basic meaning of the
word.
 The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation
are:
 1. Affixation is the formation of a new word with the
help of affixes: pointless (from point).
 2. Conversion is the formation of a new word by
bringing a stem of this word into a different formal
paradigm: a fall (from to fall), a cut (from to cut).
II. Word-composition is the formation of a new word by
combining two or more stems which occur in the
language as free forms: door-bell, house-keeper.
1.
shortening is the formation of a word by
cutting off a part of the word.
a) initial (or aphesis):fend (v) < defend, phone <
telephone;
b) medial (orsyncope): specs < spectacles, fancy
< fantasy;
c) final (or apocope): lab – laboratory, exam –
examination;
d) both initial and final: flu < influenza, fridge <
refrigerator;.
2.
blending is the formation of a new word
3.
broadcast.
acronymy (or graphical abbreviation) is the
by combining parts of two words:
a) additive type: smog – sm(oke) and (f)og;
b) restrictive type: telecast – television +
formation of a word from the initial letters
of a word combination. :
a) acronyms which are read as ordinary English
words:UNESCO – [ju:'neskəu] the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization;
b) acronyms with the alphabetic reading: BBC –
[,bi:bi:'si:] the British Broadcasting Corporation;
4.
sound-interchange is the formation of a word
due to an alteration in the phonetic
composition of its root. Sound-interchange
falls into 3 groups:
a) vowel-interchange (or ablaut): full − to fill, blood −
to bleed, food – to feed. In some cases vowelinterchange is combined with suffixation: long −
length, strong − strength, broad − breadth;
b) consonant-interchange: advice – to advise.
c) combined forms: life – to live;
Particular cases of sound-interchange:
[k] — [t∫]: to speak — speech,
[s] — [d]: defence — to defend; offence — to offend;
[s] — [t]: evidence — evident, importance — important,
etc.
5.
sound imitation (or onomatopoeia) is the
naming of an action or a thing by a more
or less exact reproduction of the sound
associated with it, cf.: cock-a-doodle-do
(English) – ку-ка-ре-ку (Russian).
Groups:
a) words denoting sounds produced by human
being in the process of communication or
expressing their feelings: mumble, babble;
b) words denoting sounds produced by animals,
birds, insects: mew, croak, buzz;
c) words imitation the sound of water, the noise of
metallic things, a forceful motion, movement:
splash, clink, bang.
6.
7.
back-formation is the formation of a new
word by subtracting a real or supposed
suffix from the existing words. The process
is based on analogy: the word to butle ‘to
act or serve as a butler’ is derived by
subtraction of –er from a supposedly verbal
stem in the noun butler;
distinctive stress is the formation of a new
word by means of the shift of the stress in
the source word, cf.: export (n) — to
ex´port; ´import (n) — to im´port; ‘


is that branch of Lexicology which studies
the derivative structure of existing words
and the patterns on which the English
language, builds new words.
word-formation can deal only with words
which are analysable both structurally and
semantically, i.e. with all types of
Complexes.
1.
2.
Synchronically – investigation of the existing
system of the types of word-formation. The
derived word is regarded as having a more
complex structure than its correlated word
regardless of the fact whether it was derived
from a simpler base or a more complex
base;
Diachronically – chronological order of
formation of one word from some other
word that is relevant.



Affixation is the formation of words by
adding derivational affixes to different types
of bases.
An affix is not-root or a bound morpheme
that modifies the meaning and / or syntactic
category of the stem in some way.
Affixes are classified into prefixes and
suffixes.
1.
2.
3.
Zero - degree of derivation is ascribed to
simple words, i.e. words whose stem is
homonymous with a word-form and often
with a root-morpheme, e.g. atom, haste,
devote, anxious, horror, etc.
First - derived words whose bases are built
on simple stems and thus are formed by the
application of one derivational affix, e.g.
atomic, hasty, devotion, etc.
Second - derived words formed by two
consecutive stages of coining, e.g. atomical,
hastily, devotional, etc.





Distinction is naturally made between prefixal
and suffixal derivatives according to the last
stage of derivation, which determines the
nature of the ICs of the pattern that signals
the relationship of the derived word with its
motivating source unit, cf.
unjust (un-+just),
justify, (just++ -ify),
arrangement (arrange + -ment),
non-smoker (non- + smoker).
Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and
prefixation.
Distinction is naturally made between prefixal
and suffixal derivatives according to the last
stage of derivation, which determines the
nature of the ICs of the pattern that signals
the relationship of the derived word with its
motivating source unit, cf.
unjust (un-+just),
justify, (just++ -ify),
arrangement (arrange + -ment),
non-smoker (non- + smoker).
reappearance, unreasonable, denationalise
This qualification is relevant only in terms of
the constituent morphemes such words are
made up of, i.e. from the angle of morphemic
analysis.
From the point of view of derivational analysis
such words are mostly either suffixal or
prefixal derivatives, e.g.
sub-atomic = sub- + (atom + + -ic),
unreasonable = un- + (reason + -able),
denationalise = de- + + (national + -ize),
discouragement = (dis- + courage) + -ment.
Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and
adjective formation.
Prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation.
The distinction also rests on the role different
types of meaning play in the semantic
structure of the suffix and the prefix.
The part-of-speech meaning has a much
greater significance in suffixes as compared
to prefixes which possess it in a lesser
degree.
A prefix may be confined to one part of speech,
e.g. enslave, encage, unbutton or may
function in more than one part of speech as,
e.g., over- in overkind a, to overfeed v,
overestimation n
Suffixes as a rule function in any one part of
speech often forming a derived stem of a
different part of speech as compared with
that of the base, e.g. careless a — cf. care n;
suitable a — cf. suit v, etc.
A suffix closely knit together with a base forms
a fusion retaining less of its independence
than a prefix which is as a general rule more
independent semantically, cf. reading — ‘the
act of one who reads’; ‘ability to read’; and to
re-read — ‘to read again.'
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help
of suffixes, which usually modify the lexical
meaning of the base and transfer words to a
different part of speech.
Some suffixes do not shift words from one part of
speech into another, but usually transfer a word
into a different semantic group, e.g. a concrete
noun becomes an abstract one, e.g. child —
childhood, friend — friendship, etc.
A suffix is a derivational morpheme following the
root and forming a new derivative in a different
word class (-en, -y, -less in heart-en, heart-y,
heart-less).
1.
According to the lexical-grammatical
character of the base suffixes are usually
added to, they may be:
a) deverbal suffixex (those added to the verbal
base): -er (builder); -ing (writing);
b) denominal suffixes (those added to the nominal
base): -less (timeless); -ful (hopeful); -ist
(scientist); -some (troublesome);
c) deajectival suffixes (those added to the
adjectival base): -en (widen); -ly (friendly); -ish
(whitish); -ness (brightness).
2.
According to the part of speech formed
suffixes fall into several groups:
a) noun-forming suffixes: -age (breakage, bondage); ance/-ence (assistance, reference); -dom (freedom,
kingdom); -er (teacher, baker); -ess (actress,
hostess); -ing (building, wasing);
b) adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble
(favourable, incredible, soluble); -al (formal, official);
-ic (dynamic); -ant/-ent (repentant, dependent);
c) numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen
(fourteen); -th (sixth); -ty (thirty);
d) verb-forming suffixes: -ate (activate); -er (glimmer);
-fy/-ify (terrify, specify); -ize (minimize); -ish
(establish);
e) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (quickly, coldly); ward/-wards (backward, northwards); -wise
(likewise).
3.
Semantically suffixes fall into:
a) Monosemantic:the suffix -ess has only
one meaning ‘female’ – tigress, tailoress;
b) Polysemantic: the suffix -hood has two
meanings:
1) ‘condition or quality’ – falsehood,
womanhood;
2) ‘collection or group’ – brotherhood.
4.
According to their generalizing
denotational meaning suffixes may fall
into several groups. E.g., noun-suffixes
fall into those denoting:
a) the agent of the action: -er (baker); -ant
(accountant);
b) appurtenance: -an/-ian (Victorian, Russian); ese (Chinese);
c) collectivity: -dom (officialdom); -ry (pleasantry);
d) Diminutiveness:-ie (birdie); -let (cloudlet); -ling
(wolfling).
5.
According to their stylistic reference
suffixes may be classified into:
a) those characterized by neutral stylistic
reference: -able (agreeable); -er (writer); -ing
(meeting);
b) those having a certain stylistic value: -oid
(asteroid); -tron (cyclotron).
These suffixes occur usually in terms and are
bookish.


Prefixation is the formation of words with the
help of prefixes, which are derivational
morphemes, affixed before the derivational
base.
A prefix is a derivational morpheme
preceding the root-morpheme and modifying
its meaning (understand – mis-understand,
correct – in-correct).
1.
According to the lexico-grammatical
character of the base prefixes are usually
added to, they may be:
a) deverbal (those added to the verbal base): re(rewrite); over- (overdo); out- (outstay);
b) denominal (those added to the nominal base): (unbutton); de- (detrain); ex- (ex-president);
c) deadjectival (those added to the adjectival
base): un- (uneasy); bi- (biannual).
d) deadverbial (those added to the adverbial base):
un- (unfortunately); in- independently).
2.
According to the class of words they
preferably form prefixes are divided into:
a) verb-forming prefixes: en-/em- (enclose,
embed); be- (befriend); de- (dethrone);
b) noun-forming prefixes: non- (non-smoker);
sub- (sub-committee); ex- (ex-husband)
c) adjective-forming prefixes: un- (unfair); il(illiterate); ir- (irregular);
d) adverb-forming prefixes: un- (unfortunately);
up- (uphill).
3.
Semantically prefixes fall into:
a) Monosemantic: the prefix ex- has only
one meaning ‘former’ – ex-boxer;
b) Polysemantic; the prefix dis- has four
meanings:
1) ‘not’ (disadvantage);
2) ‘reversal or absence of an action or
state’ (diseconomy, disaffirm);
3) ‘removal of’ (to disbranch);
4) ‘completeness or intensification of an
unpleasant action’ (disgruntled).
4.
According to their generalizing
denotational meaning prefixes fall into:
a) negative prefixes: un- (ungrateful); non- (nonpolitical); in- (incorrect); dis- (disloyal); a(amoral);
b) reversative prefixes: un2- (untie); de(decentralize); dis2- (disconnect);
c) pejorative prefixes: mis- (mispronounce); mal(maltreat); pseudo- (pseudo-scientific);
d) prefixes of time and order: fore- (foretell); pre(pre-war); post- (post-war), ex- (ex-president);
e) prefix of repetition: re- (rebuild, rewrite);
f) locative prefixes: super- (superstructure), sub(subway), inter- (inter-continental), trans(transatlantic).
5.
According to their stylistic reference
prefixes fall into:
a) those characterized by neutral stylistic
reference: over- (oversee); under(underestimate); un-(unknown);
b) those possessing quite a definite stylistic value:
pseudo- (pseudo-classical); super(superstructure); ultra- (ultraviolet); uni(unilateral); bi- (bifocal).
These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.


The word-forming activity of affixes may
change in the course of time. This raises the
question of productivity of derivational
affixes, i.e. the ability of being used to form
new, occasional or potential words, which can
be readily understood by the languagespeakers.
Thus, productive affixes are those used to
form new words in this particular period of
language development.
Noun-forming
suffixes
Adjective-forming
suffixes
Adverb-forming
suffixes
-er (manager), -ing (playing), -ness
(darkness),
-ism
(materialism),
-ist
(parachutist), -ism
(realism),
-ation
(automation), (impressionist),
-ancy (redundancy), -ry (gimmickry), -or
(reactor), -ics (cybernetics).
-y (tweedy), -ish (smartish), -ed (learned), able (tolerable), -less (jobless), -ic
(electronic).
-ly (equally)
Verb-forming suffixes -ize/-ise (realise), -ate (oxidate), -ify
(qualify).
un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), disPrefixes
(disappoint)
Noun-forming suffixes
Adjective-forming
suffixes
Verb-forming suffix
-th (truth),
-hood (sisterhood),
-ship (scholarship).
-ly (sickly),
-some (tiresome),
-en (golden),
-ous (courageous),
-ful (careful)
-en (strengthen)


The productivity of an affix should not be
confused with its frequency of occurrence
that is understood as the existence in the
vocabulary of a great number of words
containing the affix in question.
An affix may occur in hundreds of words, but
if it is not used to form new words, it is not
productive, for instance, the adjective suffix –
ful.
Native affixes are those in the Old English period
or were formed from Old English words.
The change a morpheme undergoes in the course
of time may be of different kinds.
A bound morpheme, e.g. may be developed from a
free one. Such are the suffixes
– dom (‘fate, power’);
hood ‘state’;
-lock ‘actions or proceedings, practice’;
-ship ‘state, conduct’, and the prefixes;
over- ‘in excess, extra, upper’;
out- ‘foreign, external’, ect.
Noun-forming
affixes
-er
-ness
-ing
-dom
-hood
-ship
-th
-let
Examples
Driver, painter.
Ugliness, coldness.
Singing, playing.
Freedom, kingdom.
Brotherhood, manhood.
Leadership, friendship.
Breath, length.
Booklet, islet.
-ful
-less
-y
-ish
-ly
-en
-some
-like
Joyful
Harmless
Cozy
Childish
Lovely
Golden
Handsome
Ladylike
Verb-forming
affixes
-en
Widen
Adverb-forming
affixes
-ly
-wise
Rarely
Clockwise
Prefixes
bemisunover-
Befriend
Misuse
Unselfish
Overdo
Latin
-able/ -ible
-ant/-ent
extrapreultra-
Examples
Capable, divisible.
Servant, student.
Extralinguistic.
Pre-election.
Ultra-high.
Greek
-ist
-ism
-ite
antisym-/ sin-
Examples
Artist
Marxism
Vulcanite
Anti-democratic
Synthesis
French
-age
-ance/ -ence
-ard
-ate
-ee
-ess
en-/ em-
Examples
Percentage
Extravagance,
coherence
Wizard
Electorate
Employee
Princess
Enclose, embed
are words that are made up of elements from
two or more different languages. There are 2
basic types of forming hybrid words:
1) a foreign base is combined with a native
affix, e.g. colourless, uncertain;
2) a native base is combined with a foreign
affix, e.g. drinkable, ex-wife.
There are also many hybrid compounds, such
as blackguard (English + French); schoolboy
(greek + English).

Valency of affixes is understood as their capability
to be combined with certain bases, e.g. adjective
forming suffixes are mostly attached to nominal
bases. They are:





-en (golden),
-ful (meaningful),
-less (careless),
-ly (soldierly),
-like (childlike).
The highly productive suffix –able, however, can be
combined with nominal and verbal bases alike
(honorable, advisable).
is the possibility of a particular base to take a
particular affix. The valency of bases is not
unlimited, e.g., noun bases can be followed by:
1. the noun-forming suffixes, e.g. –eer (profiteer),
-ful (spoonful), -ics (linguistics), -let (cloudlet);
2. the adjective-forming suffixes, e.g. –al

3.
(doctoral), -ary (revolutionary), -ous (spacious),
-ic (historic);
the verb-forming suffixes, e.g. –en (hearten), ize (sympathize).



is very important semantically because the
meaning of the derivative depends not only on
the morphemes of which it is composed but also
on combinations of bases and affixes that can be
contrasted with it.
Contrast is observed in the use of the same
morphemes in different environment or in the
use of different morphemes in the same
environment, e.g., the difference in the suffixes –
ity and –ism becomes clear when comparing
them as combined with identical bases:
formality – formalism; reality – realism.
-ity – ‘the quality of being what corresponding
adjective describes, an instant or quality’;
-ism –’ a disposition to what the adjective describes,
or a corresponding type of ideology’.
1.
Word-formation is the process of
creating words from the material
available in the language after
certain structural and semantic
formulas and patterns.
2.
As a subject of study English wordformation is that branch of English
Lexicology which studies the
derivative structure of words and the
patterns on which the English
language builds new words. Like any
other linguistic phenomenon, wordformation may be studied
synchronically and diachronically.
3.
There are two types of wordformation in Modern English: wordderivation which is divided into
affixation and conversion and wordcomposition. Within the types further
distinction is made between the
various ways and means of wordformation.
4.
There are minor types of wordformation: shortening, blending,
acronymy (graphical abbreviation),
sound-interchange, sound-imitation,
back-fomation and distinctive stress.
5.
Affixation (prefixation and
suffixation) is the formation of words
by adding derivational affixes
(prefixes and suffixes) to bases. One
distinguishes between derived words
of different degrees of derivation.
6.
There are quite a number of
polysemantic, homonymous and
synonymous derivational affixes in
Modern English.
7.
Classifications of derivational affixes
are based on different principles
such as:
1) the lexico-grammatical character
of the stem the affix is added to,
2) the part of speech formed,
3) the meaning,
4) the generalising denotational
meaning,
5) the stylistic reference, etc.
8.
The productivity of derivational
affixes is relative and conditioned by
various factors.
9.
Many of the Modern English
derivational affixes were at one time
independent words. Others have
always been known as suffixes or
prefixes within the history of the
English vocabulary. Some of them are
of international currency.
10. The
degree of productivity and
factors favouring it make an
important aspect of synchronic
description of every derivational
pattern within the two types of
word-formation.
11.
Three degrees of productivity are
distinguished for derivational patterns and
individual derivational affixes:
l) highly-productive,
2) productive or semi-productive,
3) nоn-produсtive.
1.
2.
3.
Зыкова И.В. Практический курс английской
лексикологии. М.: Академия, 2006. – С.57-77.
Гинзбург Р.З. Лексикология английского языка.
М.: Высшая школа, 1979. – С. 108-216.
Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова
Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка. М.:
Дрофа, 2006. – С. – 78-128.

Источник

Содержание

Словообразование и словоизменение (Word Formation and Inflection)

Способы словообразования (Types of Word Formation)

Деривация (Derivation)

Слово­сло­же­ние (Compounding)

Вторичное словообразование (Back-formation)

Конверсия (Conversion)

Усечение (Clipping)

Blending

Abbreviations

Acronyms

Eponyms

Coinages

Nonce words

Borrowing

Calquing

Derivational patterns[edit]

Derivation and inflection[edit]

Derivation and other types of word formation[edit]

Productivity[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Derivation in English grammar

Derivation word formation

Suffixes

Prefixes

Derivation example sentence

Derivation examples in English

Derivation vs zero derivation

Derivation vs inflection

Derivation — Key takeaways

Types of Forming Words. Derivation. Affixation.

Transcript Types of Forming Words. Derivation. Affixation.

Словосложение (Compounding)