The odd compound word according to the part of speech

The great variety of compound
types brings about a great variety of classifications. Compound words
may be classified according to the type of composition and the
linking element; according to the part of speech to which the
compound belongs; and within each part of speech according to the
structural pattern. It is also possible to subdivide compounds
according to other characteristics, i.e. semantically, into motivated
and idiomatic compounds (in the motivat­ed ones the meaning of
the constituents can be either direct or figura­tive).
Structurally, compounds are distinguished as endocentric and
exo-centric, syntac­tic and asyntactic combinations. A
classification according to the type of the syntactic phrase with
which the compound is correlated has also been suggested. Even so
there remain some miscellaneous types that defy classification, such
as phrase compounds, reduplicative compounds, pseudo-compounds and
quotation compounds.

The classification according
to the type of composition permits us to establish the following
groups:

1)
The predominant type is a mere juxtaposition without connecting
elements: heartache
n, heart-beat n,
heart-break
n,
heart-breaking
a,
heart-broken
a,
heart-felt
a.

2)
Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The
examples are very few: electromotive
a,
speedometer
n,
Afro-Asian
a,
handicraft
n,
statesman
n.

3)
Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or
conjunction stems: down-and-out
n,
matter-of-fact
a,
son-in-law
n,
pepper-and-salt
a,
wall-to-wall
a,
up-to-date
a,
on
the up-and-up adv
(continually improving), up-and-coming,
as
in the following example: A’o doubt
he’d had the pick of some up-and-coming jazzmen
in Paris (Wain). There are also a few other lexicalized phrases like
devil-may-care
a,
for­get-me-not
n,
pick-me-up
n,
stick-in-the-mud
n,
what’s-her
name n.

The classification of
compounds according to the structure of imme­diate constituents
distinguishes:

1)
compounds consisting of simple stems: film-star;

2)
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem:
chain-smoker;

3)
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem:
maths-mistress
(in
British English) and math-mistress
(in
American Eng­lish). The subgroup will contain abbreviations like
H-bag
(handbag) or
Xmas
(Christmas), whodunit n
(for mystery novels) considered sub­standard;

4)
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem;
wastepaper-basket.

3. Relationship between the components of a compound word

Compound words are inseparable
vocabulary units that are structurally and semantically based on the
relationship between their components through which they are
motivated. There are two types of relationship between the components
of a compound generally recognized in linguistic literature:

that
of coordination and subordination and accordingly com­pound words
may be classified into coordinative
(often termed copulative)
and subordinative
(often termed deter­minative).

a)
coordinative
compounds

In
coordinative compounds neither of the components dominates the other,
both are structurally and semantically independent and constitute two
structural and semantic cen­tres as in
secretary-stenographer, actor-manager, bitter­sweet,
etc. The constituent stems in these compounds belong to the same part
of speech and most often to the same seman­tic group.
Coordinative compounds distinguish three groups:

a)
the so-called
additive
compounds
that best represent coordinative compound words, e.g.
queen-bee, actor-manager. They
denote a person or an object that is two things at the same time;
thus, e.g.
secretary-stenographer
is a person who is both a stenographer and a secretary;
actor-manager
is an actor and a manager at the same time.

b)
reduplicative
compounds
which are the result of the repetition of the same stem as in
goody-goody, fifty-fifty, hush-hush, pooh-pooh, tick-tick.

c)
compounds formed by joining
the phonically variated rhythmic forms
of the same stem which either alliterate with the same initial
consonant but vary the vowels, e.g.
drip-drop, sing-song, ding-dong,
or rime by varying the initial con­sonants, e.g.
walkie-talkie, clap-trap, willy-nilly, pell-mell, helter-skelter.
Words of this subgroup are often termed pseudo-compounds and some
linguists consider them irrele­vant to productive word-formation
owing to the doubtful morphemic status of their components. In most
cases the constituent members of these words, when substracted from
them do not present stems of independently functioning words, carry
no lexical meaning of their own and are mere rime combinations of
fanciful, meaningless sound-clusters.

Coordinative compounds of the
last two groups (re­duplicated and riming words) are mostly
restricted to the colloquial layer and are characterized by a heavy
emotive charge.

b)
subordinative
compounds.

In
subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor
semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of
one component over the other. The second component in these words is
the structural centre, the grammatically dominant part of the word,
which imparts its part-of-speech meaning to the whole word and refers
it to a certain lexico-grammatical class, as in
stone-deaf, age­long
which are obviously adjectives,
wrist-watch, baby-sit­ter, road-building
which are nouns.

It
must be mentioned that though a distinction between coordinative and
subordinative compounds can generally be made, there is no hard and
fast borderline between them. On the contrary, the borderline, and
this is especially true of additive coordinative compounds, is rather
vague and tran­sitions are greatly fluctuating. It often happens
that one and the same compound may with equal right be interpreted
ei­ther way—as a coordinative or a subordinative compound, e.g.
woman-doctor
may be understood as ‘a woman who is at the same time a doctor’;
clock-tower—’a
tower that at the same time serves as a clock’ or there can be traced
a difference of importance between the components—a
woman-doctor is
primarily felt to be
‘a doctor
who happens to be a woman’; a
clock-tower—’a tower
with a clock fitted in’;
mother-goose is
primarily understood as
‘a goose,
who is a mother’, etc.; thus the relations between the components
tend to be under­stood as relations of apposition, i.e. relations
of subordina­tion. Coordinative compounds make a comparatively
small group of words whereas the bulk of Modern English com­pound
words belong to subordinative words, so in our further treatment we
shall confine ourselves to the description of subordinative
compounds.

c)
distributional
formulas
of subordinative compaunds.

The internal structure of
subordinative compounds is marked by a specific pattern of order and
arrangement in The order in which the stems are placed within a
compound is rigidly fixed in Modern English as the structural centre
of the word is always its second component. Stems of almost every
part of speech are found in compounds but they are combined to make
up compound words accord­ing to a set of rigid rules for every
part of speech. The choice of stems and the rules of their
arrangement and order are known as distributional or structural
formulas and patterns of compound words.

As to the order of components
subordinative compound words may be classified into two groups:

a)
Syntactic
compounds
whose components are placed in the order that resembles the order of
words in free phrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of
Modern English.

The
order of the stems in compounds, e.g.
bluebell, slow­coach, mad-doctor
(a+n) reminds one of the order and arrange­ment of the
corresponding words in phrases like
a blue bell, a slow coach, a mad doctor
(A+N); compounds like, e.g. know-nothing,
kill-joy, tell-tale
made up on the formula v+n
resemble the arrangement of words in phrases like (to) kill
joy, (to) know nothing, (to) tell tales
(V+N); the order of components in compounds consisting of two
noun-stems door-handle,
day-time
(n+») resembles the order of words in nominal phrases with the
attributive function of the first noun as in
stone wall, spring time, peace movement, etc. (N+N).

b)
Asyntactic
compounds
whose stems are not placed in the order in which the corresponding
words can be brought together under the rules of syntax of the
language. For example it is universally known that in free phrases
adjec­tives cannot be modified by adjectives, noun modifiers
can­not be placed before adjectives or participles, yet this kind
of asyntactic arrangement of stems is typical of compounds among
which we find combinations of two adjective stems, e.g.
red-hot, bluish-black, pale-blue;
words made up of noun-stems placed before adjective or participle
stems, e.g. oil-rich,
tear-stained,
etc.

Both
syntactic and asyntactic compound words in each part of speech should
be described in terms of their distribu­tional formulas. For
example, compound adjectives are mostly formed of noun, adjective or
participle stems according to the formulas n+a,
e.g.
oil-rich, world-wide;
n+Ved¹,
e.g. snow-covered,
home-grown;
a+a, e.g.
pale-green, red-hot,
etc.

Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]

• #
• #
• #
• #
• #
• #
• #
• #
• #
• #
• #

Main types of word-formation: compounding and conversion Lecture 8.

§ 1. Compounding is joining together two or more stems to form one compound word. Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms. The structural cohesion (unity) of a compound may depend upon: n unity of stress, n solid or hyphenated spelling, n semantic unity, n unity of morphological and syntactic functioning

Compounds are made up of a determining and a determined part. sunbeam determining part the basic part determined part (head element) • serves to differentiate it from other beams • undergoes inflection brothers in law, passers by

1. 1. Criteria of compounds Phonological criterion Usually there is a heavy stress on the first element in nouns (the only exception — nouns with all and self ): ‘self con’trol Compound adjectives are double stressed: ‘gray ‘green, ‘easy ‘going, ‘new ‘born NB! Stress may have a distinctive function: ‘overwork ‘extra work‘ vs. ‘over’work ‘hard work injuring one’s health’ ‘bookcase ‘a piece of furniture with shelves for books‘ vs. ‘book’case ‘a paper cover for books’ , man’kind ‘the human race‘ vs. ‘mankind ‘men’ (contrasted with women)

Graphic criterion No consistency in the language airline, air line; matchbox, match box; break up, breakup; loudspeaker, loud speaker Morphological criterion n formal integrity – having a structure non-existent in a phrase shipwreck (the) wreck of (a) ship n connective elements are a sign of a compound rather than a phrase Anglo Saxon, craftsman, beeswax, salesman, (they are few) n difference in paradigm: still lifes (not still lives)

Semantic criterion a combination forming a unit expressing a single idea which is not identical in meaning to the sum of the meanings of its components in a free phrase dirty work with the figurative meaning ‘dishonorable proceedings‘ (they are few in English) (to rain) cats and dogs? , to pay through the nose? Syntactic criterion Starlit does not follow the syntactic patterns of English as particles can’t be modified by nouns a stone wall can be transformed into the phrase a wall of stone, but a toothpick cannot be replaced by a pick for teeth NB! none is reliable, only a combination

“The stone wall problem» rose garden life story book review crime report office management steel production language teacher stone wall Phrases and not words? The first element a noun used as an attribute or an adjective? English nouns are regularly used to form nominal phrases that are semantically derivable from their components but in most cases develop some unity of referential meaning

1. 2. Peculiarities of English compounds Both immediate constituents of an English compound are free forms n The regular pattern for the English language is a two-stem compound If more, the determining element is a compound rather than the determined part aircraft carrier Words waste paper basket n baby outfit village schoolmaster Phrases night watch man n Phrases easily turn into compounds four year course last minute changes the let sleeping dogs lie approach He wasn’t working class enough The man I saw yesterday’s daughter

1. 3. Compounds are usually characterized by: 1) the relation of the whole to its members (idiomatic & non-idiomatic), 2) the relations of the members to each other (subordinative & coordinative), and 3) correlation with equivalent free phrases (syntactic & asyntactic; endocentric &exосentric)

1) Parts to the whole relations: non-idiomatic, if the meaning of the whole is the sum total of the meanings of the components. They can be easily transformed into free phrases: flower bed, homeland; night flight—’flying at night’ n idiomatic compounds are different in meaning from the corresponding free phrases (have petrified meaning): a night cap «a drink taken before going to bed at night» , butterfingers «a person who is likely to let things fall or slip through his fingers» . blackboard wheel chair (for invalids) and push chair (for infants) n

2) According to degree of semantic independence of components (element-toelement relations): subordinate compounds (one of the components is the semantic and structural centre and the second component is subordinate) Types of subordinative relations: comparative (world wide, snow white); instrumental or agentive relations (sunrise, dogbite); relations of purpose (bookshelf); emphatic relations (dead-cheap); functional relations (bathrobe, textbook); sex relations (he goat); various relations of adverbial type (colour blind), etc. a)

coordinative compounds (both components are semantically independent): n reduplicative compounds made up by the repetition of the same base: goody, go go; n compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems: a walkie talkie, boogie woogie, chit chat; n additive compounds are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech Afro American, a secretary stenographer; b)

3) Compound-to-free phrase relations 3. 1. According to the order of l. Cs : syntactic — formed by merely placing components in direct order that resembles the order of words in free phrases: blacklist, handcuffs, a turnkey; n asyntactic are compounds with indirect order (the order of bases runs counter to the order in which the motivating words can be brought together): oil rich, rain driven; n

3. 2. According to the clarity of functional roles of the elements: endocentric compounds Ashtray= a tray for ashes Hairbrush= a brush for hair Paperknife= a knife for paper n exосentric compounds (the determined part is not expressed but implied) A killjoy ‘a person who throws gloom over social enjoyment‘; it is neither ‘joy’ nor ‘kill’ cut throat, dare devil, scarecrow n

According to the means of composition used to link the two ICs together: neutral-formed by joining together two stems without connecting elements: scarecrow, goldfish, crybaby; 2. morphological — components are joined by a linking element, i. e. vowels “o” and “I” or the consonant “s”: videophone, tragicomic, handicraft, craftsman, microchip; 3. syntactical — the components are joined by means of form-word stems: man of war, forget me not, bread and butter, face to face; 1.

According to their structure: compounds proper are formed by joining together two stems: film star, earthquake; n compound-derived words (stem + affixes): long legged, broad minded, globe trotter, a two seater; n compound-shortened words: h bag, A bomb; n compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem: wastepaper basket; n

Types of compound words According to the parts of speech compound words represent: 1. nouns: night gown, waterfall, looking glass; 2. verbs: to honeymoon, to outgrow; 3. adjectives: peace loving, hard working, pennywise; 4. adverbs: downstairs, ankle deep; 5. prepositions: within; 6. numerals: thirty seven;

§ 2. Conversion n n He was knocked out in the first round (noun). Round (verb) the number off to the nearest tenth. The neighbors gathered round (preposition) our barbecue. The moon was bright and round (adjective). People came from all the country round (adverb). Conversion is the type of word-formation which results in phonetic identity of initial wordforms of two words belonging to different parts of speech

Causes and characteristics 1) The English words lack formal signs marking the part of speech to which the word belongs. 2) Many affixes are homonymous and the general sound pattern does not contain any information as to the possible part of speech (maiden, whiten, wooden, often) n n Conversion is regular with monosyllabic words of a simple morphological structure It is a predominant method of English verbformation

Terms used and their implications n n Conversion (but the original word continues its existence alongside the new one) Zero derivation (but it does not permit us to distinguish this type from sound interchange) Root formation (but the process can involve not only root words, but also words containing affixes and compounds) Transposition or functional change (but it implies that the process in question concerns usage, not word-formation)

Opinions on the means of formation of conversion word- I. Smimitsky: formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm B. H. Marchand, V. N. Yartseva: a combined morphological and syntactic way of wordbuilding (change of paradigm and syntactic function) C. Derivation by adding a zero-morpheme I goø; we goø – functional zero morphemes To look → look +ø(derivational) = a look A.

Semantic groups of converted words The items mainly produced in this way are verbs and nouns. 1. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs) may denote: a) instrumental use of the object: screw → to screw, eye → to eye; to hammer, to knife, to machine gun, to pivot, to pump b) action characteristic of the object: ape → to ape; с) acquisition: fish → to fish; d) deprivation of the object dust → to dust.

2. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives) denote: a) an instance of an action: to move → a move; b) an agent of an action: to bore → a bore; bore, cheat, flirt, scold (mostly derogatory) c) a place of an action: to walk → a walk; d) result of the action: to cut → a cut burn, catch

Practical task # 7 Define the type of the compound, using the following oppositions idiomatic vs. non-idiomatic subordinative vs. coordinative syntactic vs. asyntactic endocentric vs. exосentric a) a wall flower (a shy person who remains unnoticed at social events, especially a woman without a dance partner) b) a waterfall 1.

2. State the type of semantic relation in the case of conversion used to coin a word in the phrase from a label on a bottle of wine “bottled in France” 3. What is “garden stone wall” a compound or a phrase?

4. Give a TRUE or FALSE answer a) “To milk” was derived from the noun “milk” and not vice versa. b) Conversion mostly affects polysyllabic words. c) “Blackboard” is a good example of an idiomatic compound. d) Conversion is more common in English than in Russian, because in the former there are no morphological part-of-speech markers. e) Compounds are mostly double-stressed.