The morphemic structure of the word types of morphemes

Morphology
is a branch of linguistics which studies the form, inner structure,
function, and patterns of occurrence of a morpheme
as
the smallest meaningful unit of language.

The
term morphology
(Gr. morphé

‘form, shape’ and lógos
‘study’)
was borrowed from biology by the German writer J. W. von Goethe in
the 19th century; it was taken up by linguistics to designate the
study of form and structure of living organisms as a cover term for
inflection and word formation.

Theoretical
foundations of morphology were laid in Aristotle’s grammars and
Stoics’ works, who were the first to define four parts of speech
(the noun, the verb, the conjunction, and the link), introduced the
notions of case, gender system of nouns, the system of verbal tenses.

The
fundamental principles of modern European grammars were established
by Aristotle’s disciple Dionysus
from
Fracia
(II
c. BC),
who singled out eight parts of speech (the noun, the verb, the
participle, the link, the pronoun, the preposition, the adverb, and
the conjunction).

In
the 19th c. interest in morphology was stimulated by the development
of approaches to world languages
classification resulting in the study of general
laws of structure and
significant
elements such as prefixes and
inflections.

In
the 20th c. the
field of
morphology has
been narrowed
to the study of the internal structure of words.

The
structure of English words:

A
morpheme
(Gr.
morphé

‘form, shape’)
is one of the fundamental units of a language, a minimum sign that is
an association of a
given meaning
with a
given form
(sound and graphic), e.g. old,
un+happy, grow+th,
blue+colour+ed.

Depending
on the number of morphemes, words are divided into:

monomorphic
are root-words consisting of only one root-morpheme, i.e. simple
words, e.g. to
grow, a book, white, fast
etc.

polymorphic
are words consisting of at least one root-morpheme and a number of
derivational affixes, i.e. derivatives, compounds, e.g.
good-looking,
employee, blue-eyed
etc.

Types
of morphemes:

An
allomorph
(a morphemic
variant)
(Gr. állos ‘different’ and morphé
‘form,
shape’) is a phonetically conditioned positional variant of the
same derivational or functional morpheme identical in meaning and
function and differing in sound only insomuch, as their complementary
distribution
produces various phonetic assimilation effects, e.g. please /pli:z/
pleasure /pleʒ/
pleasant /plez/.

Complementary
distribution
takes place when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same
environment, e.g. in-competent,
il-logical,
ir-responsible,
im-possible;
cat-s,
box-es;
organis-ation,
corrup-tion.

Contastive
distribution
characterises different morphemes occurring in the same linguistic
environment, but signaling different meanings, e.g. –able
in measurable
and –ed
in measured.

A
pseudo-morpheme
(a quasi-morpheme)
is a morpheme which has a differential
meaning and a distributional
meaning but does not possess any lexical
or functional
(part-of-speech) meaning, e.g. re-
and -tain
in retain,
con-
and
–ceive
in conceive
etc.

A
unique
morpheme
is an isolated
pseudo-morpheme
which does not occur in other words but is understood as meaningful
because the constituent morphemes display a more or less clear
denotational meaning, e.g. ham-
in hamlet
(cf. booklet,
ringlet),
cran-
in cranberry
(журавлина),
mul-
in
mulberry (шовковиця),
-et
in pocket
etc.

Structural
classification of morphemes:

free
morphemes
are morphemes which coincide with a word-form of an independently
functioning word; they can be found only
among roots, e.g. hero-
as in heroism,
event—
as in eventful;

bound
morphemes
are morphemes which do not coincide with a separate word-form; they
include all affixes, e.g. de-
as in decode,
-less
as in fearless,
-s
as in girls;
some root-morphemes, e.g. docu-
as in
document,
horr-
as
in horrible,
theor-
as in theory
etc;

semi-bound
(semi-free)
morphemes
are
morphemes which stand midway between a root and an affix; they can
function as an independent full-meaning word and an affix at the same
time, e.g. to speak ill
of sb – to be ill-dressed
/ ill-bred
/ ill-fed;

Semi-prefixes:
half-,
mini-, midi-, maxi-, self-, by-
etc.;

Semi-suffixes:
-man,
-like, -proof, -friendly, -oriented, -ware
etc

Semantic
classification of morphemes:

According
to the role
they play in the structure of words, morphemes fall into:

root
(radical)
morphemes
–
the
lexical nuclei of words which are characterised by individual lexical
meaning shared
by no other morpheme of the language; the root remains after the
removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit
any further analysis, e.g teach—
in to
teach, teacher, teaching;

non-root
morphemes represented
by
inflectional
morphemes (inflections) and affixational morphemes (affixes).

According
to the position
in a word, affixational morphemes fall into:

prefixes
– derivational affixes standing before the stem and modifying its
meaning, e.g. ex-minister,
in-sensitive,
re-read
etc.; about 51 in the system of Modern English;

suffixes
– derivational affixes following the stem and forming a new
derivative within the same part of speech (e.g. king-dom,
book-let,
child-hood
etc.) or in a different word class (e.g. do-er,
wash-able,
sharp-en
etc.);

infixes
–
affixational
morphemes
placed
within a word, e.g –n–
in stand.

According
to their functions
and meaning,
affixes fall into:

derivational,
e.g. suffixes: abstract-noun-makers
(-age,
-dom, -ery, -ing, -ism);
concrete-noun-makers (-eer,
-er, -ess, -let);
adverb-makers (-ly,
-ward(s),
-wise);
verb-makers (-ate,
-en, -ify,
—ize/-ise);
adjective-/noun-makers (-ful,
-ese, -(i)an, -ist),
etc.; they are attached to a derivational
base;
they are the object of study of derivational
morphology
which investigates the way in which new items of vocabulary can be
built up out of combinations of elements;

functional
(inflectional), e.g. -s
(plurality; 3rd person singular); ‘s
(genitive case); —n’t
(contracted negative); -ed
(past tense; past participle); -ing
(present participle); -er,
-est
(comparison); they are attached to a morphological
stem;
they are the object of study of inflectional
morphology which
deals with the way words vary in their form in order to express a
grammatical contrast.

derivational
affixes

encode
lexical meaning;

are
syntactically irrelevant;

can
occur inside derivation;

often
change the part of speech;

are
often semantically opaque;

are
often restricted in their
productivity;

are
not restricted to suffixation.

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WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH

  I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.

II.   Structural types of words.

III.   Principles of morphemic analysis.

  IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.

I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.

Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.

Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.

Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.

 Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes  pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.

It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.

The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.

Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.

Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.

Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.

Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.

II. Structural types of words.

The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.

According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.

These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.

But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.

III. Principles of morphemic analysis.

In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.

A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:

un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.

A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

1. un- / gentlemanly

2.   un- / gentleman / — ly

3.   un- / gentle / — man / — ly

4.   un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.

The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number  of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.

According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.

According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree-  in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.

As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or  receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes  re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.

It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.

IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.

The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.

Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.

In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.

Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.

Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.

Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

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  1 слайд

  MORPHEMIC
  STRUCTURE
  OF THE WORD
  2

• 

  2 слайд

  1. Morphological system of the language.
  2. General characteristics of morphemes.
  3. Speech variants of the morpheme (morphs and allomorphs).
  4. Classification of morphemes.
  2

• 

  3 слайд

  1. The Morphological System of
  Language

  The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words.
  2

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  4 слайд

  ?

  What are the units of morphology?
  2

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  5 слайд

  The Morphological System of
  Language

  — the word (the main unit of morphology);
  — the morpheme

  2

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  6 слайд

  ?

  What do you know about the word?
  2

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  7 слайд

  The Morphological System of
  Language

  The WORD is:
  a basic nominative unit;
  an elementary indivisible constituent part of the lexicon;
  communication means.
  2

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  8 слайд

  The Morphological System of
  Language

  According to Prof. Blokh (Ch. II § 2),

  The WORD is:
  — a basic nominative unit of language formed by morphemes;

  2

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  9 слайд

  The Morphological System of
  Language

  — elementary component of the lexicon (i.e. a component indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function);

  2

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  10 слайд

  The Morphological System of
  Language

  — used for the formation of the sentence (= a unit of information in the communication process).

  2

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  11 слайд

  2. General Characteristics
  of Morphemes

  What is a morpheme?
  2

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  12 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  Morphemes are significative components of words, their elementary meaningful parts.
  2

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  13 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  NB:
  in studying the morpheme we actually study the word in the necessary details of its composition and functions.
  2

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  14 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  The meaning of words can be defined in terms of:
  — syllables
  E.g. par-ty, par-ting
  — morphemes
  E.g. party, part-ing (*par-ting)
  meet-ing
  pass-ing

  2

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  15 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  So,
  the word is made up of morphemes (elements of meaning):
  part and -ing
  ↓ ↓
  independent dependent
  free bound

  2

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  16 слайд

  ?

  Is “par-”
  in «parcel», «parking», «particle», etc.
  a morpheme?

  2

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  17 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  «par-» does not signal anything semantically in common,
  -cel, -king and -ticle do not seem to attach themselves as bound morphemes to any other words in English.

  2

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  18 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  NB:
  in English the syllable as a unit of sound has no correspondence with the morpheme as a unit of meaning
  «party» (2 syllables, 1 morpheme);
  «parting» (2 syllables, 2 morphemes).

  2

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  19 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  As the unit of morphological level the morpheme can be defined as an abstract element of meaning.

  In other words, it is a minimal meaningful unit.

  2

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  20 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  As all other language units morphemes are twofold signs which have:
  the plane of content;
  the plane of expression.

  2

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  21 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  In the hierarchy of meaningful language units (the word, the word-group, the sentence and the text) the morpheme can be described as the minimal and indivisible unit: it cannot be segmented further without losing its constitutive essence, that is, the meaning of a definite form.
  E.g.: -ed ≠ e and d

  2

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  22 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Unlike a word, the morpheme is not an autonomous unit.
  ↓

  It occurs in speech only as a constituent of the word.

  2

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  23 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Therefore,
  the morpheme is the minimal indivisible meaningful unit which participates in the formation of the word and regularly occurs in other words.

  2

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  24 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  According to Prof. Blokh (Ch. II § 2)
  the MORPHEME is:
  meaningful segmental component of the word (expresses abstract, «significative» meanings, used as constituents for the formation of more concrete, «nominative» meanings of words);

  2

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  25 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  formed by phonemes (the shortest morphemes include only one phoneme)
  E.g.: cos-y [-i]; a-blaze [ә-]; enter-s [-z]);

  2

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  26 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes

  elementary component of the word (i.e. indivisible into smaller segments as regards its significative function).

  2

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  27 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Words vs Morphemes:
  The words, being autonomous units, name objects of reality or objects of our thought.
  The morphemes are not autonomous and the meaning of root morphemes is best described as associative.
  E.g.: friend evokes associations with many words that are built with the help of this morpheme (a friend, friendship, to befriend, friendly.
  2

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  28 слайд

  General Characteristics of Morphemes
  Words vs Morphemes:

  Unlike the morpheme — friend, the word friend evokes in our minds the concept of a friend (which, by the way, may be different in different cultures).

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  3.Morphs and Allomorphs

  The morpheme is a language unit. It is realized in speech as the morph.
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  Morphs and Allomorphs

  Morphs are the smallest meaningful successions of phonemes into which words are broken up.

  E.g.: paint, paint — s, paint — ed, paint — ing, paint — er

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Different morphs if being the variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs of the morpheme.
  ↓
  In other words allomorphs manifest the same morpheme in speech.
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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Allomorphs can be:
  phonemically conditioned
  E.g.: /s/, /z/, /iz/ (allomorphs for the plural “-s”);
  /id/, /d/, /t/ (allomorphs for the past tense “-ed”).
  2) morphemically conditioned
  E.g.: “-en” in the words «oxen», «children”.

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Allomorphs are singled out on the basis of distributional analysis.

  3 main types of distribution:
  • Non-contrastive (meanings or functions are the same)
  E.g., learnt, learned

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  Morphs and Allomorphs

  • Contrastive (meanings or functions are different)
  E.g., look – ed, look – ing;

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  • Complementary (different environments of formally different morphs which are united by the same meaning or function)
  E.g.: 1) illiterate, irrelevant, innumerous, impossible;
  2) [z] / [s] / [iz] (a phonemic complementary distribution;
  3) [z] / [s] / [iz] – [әn] in oxen, children (a morphemic complementary distribution).

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Conclusion 1:

  morpheme is a kind of abstraction. It is the notion of the sphere of language (paradigmatics);

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Conclusion 2:
  Morphs are its speech realizations which regularly occur in different utterances and belong to the sphere of speech (syntagmatics);

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  Morphs and Allomorphs
  Conclusion 3:
  morpheme as a set of morphs may be represented by their variants — allomorphs.

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  4. Classification of Morphemes

  The morpheme may be characterized by a lot of criteria, i.e. its semantics, form and distribution.

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  4. Classification of Morphemes
  1. According to their semantics:
  lexical (roots)
  E.g.: teach — er, part-ing, un-like-able
  grammatical (inflections)
  E.g.: write-s, cross-ing, play-ed),
  lexical-grammatical (affixes)
  E.g.: sing-er, happi-ness, love-ly.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  The ROOT:
  expresses the concrete, «material» part of the word meaning;
  obligatory;
  the common lexical element of words within a word family
  E.g.: formate, formative, formatively, formation, formational, formalistic, formality.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  AFFIXES:
  are meaningful dependent elements;
  specify lexico-semantic and grammatico-semantic meaning of the word.
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  Classification of Morphemes

  According to their place:
  prefixes (affixes which precede the root);
  suffixes (affixes which follow it).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  Prefixes in English have a purely lexical role. They allow the construction of a large number of new words:
  E.g.: un-, de-, anti-, super-, etc.: unhelpful, defrost, antisocial, superstructure.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Suffixes in English are of two kinds:
  Most are purely lexical (derivational suffixes). Their primary function is to change the meaning of the root form (E.g.: -ness, -ship, -able: happiness, friendship, workable).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  2. Inflexions (purely grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories. Their role is to show how the word must be used in a sentence
  E.g.: plural -s,
  past tense -ed,
  comparative –er.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  NB:
  The abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word is
  ‘prefix + root + lexical suffix + grammatical suffix”.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  2. In accordance with the functions within a word:
  — lexical (the invariant component of all word forms);
  — grammatical (the variant component in the morphological paradigm of word forms);
  word-building (the variant component in the lexicological pattern of word forms).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  3. According to the degree of self dependence:
  — free,
  — bound
  — semi-bound.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  A free morpheme is a one-morpheme word that can function independently (e.g. box, dark). It can form words.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  A bound morpheme functions only as a constituent part of the word. It:
  cannot form the word by itself;
  has no meaning in itself (it acquires its meaning only in combination with the free morpheme).

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Bound morphemes can be productive.
  They are few and homonymous:
  -e(s) [z] / [s] / [iz]: the plural of the nouns, the possessive case of nouns, the third person singular present of verbs
  -(e)d [d] / [t] / [id]: the past indefinite and past participle of verbs;
  -ing: the gerund and present participle
  -er, — est: the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  Semi-bound morphemes can function in the analytical form both as a part of this form and as a free morpheme. They are auxiliary morphemes.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  E.g.: “will”
  — occurs as a free morpheme in the context that makes its identity clear (He will do it tomorrow — I know he will)

  — occurs as a bound morpheme being the immediate constituent of the semantic and functional unit (He will come).

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  Classification of Morphemes

  4. On the basis of formal presentation:
  — overt;
  covert.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  The overt morphemes are expressed explicitly. They build the words.

  The covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of the morpheme expressing a certain function, zero morpheme.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  E.g.:
  deer sg (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme) — deer pl (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme);
  boy sg (1 overt morpheme + 1 covert morpheme) — boys pl (2 overt morphemes).

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  Classification of Morphemes
  5. On the basis
  of grammatical alternation:
  additive (outer grammatical suffixes, opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical alteration)
  E.g.: look — ed, small – er
  replacive (the root phonemes of grammatical interchange)
  E.g.: men, feet, stood, forgot-forgotten

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  Classification of Morphemes

  6. On the basis of linear characteristics:
  — continuous (linear);
  discontinuous.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Continuous morphemes are expressed uninterruptedly.

  Discontinuous morphemes can be found in grammatical units which consist of an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix
  E.g.: be … ing — for the continuous forms
  have… en — for the perfect forms
  be … en — for the passive forms

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  Classification of Morphemes

  7. According to the function:
  notional,
  functional.

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  Classification of Morphemes
  Notional morphemes serve as carriers of the material part of the lexical meaning of a word.
  Functional morphemes change either the lexical meaning of a word (derivational, or word-building morphemes) or the grammatical meaning (form-building, or inflectional morphemes).

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  Classification of Morphemes
  NB:
  The borderline between the notional and the functional morphemes is not rigid and they can change their status in the course of time:
  — dom, and hood developed from root morphemes;
  the present-day English: the morpheme man in such words as a seaman and a policeman.

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  Classification of Morphemes

  Usually morphemes evolutionize from notional to functional, but the opposite direction is also possible:
  — the derivational suffix – teen acquires the status of a notional morpheme in a teenager, teen problems, teen tunes, teen fashion, etc.

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Morphology is the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like prefixes, suffixes and base words, are defined as the smallest meaningful units of meaning. Morphemes are important for phonics in both reading and spelling, as well as in vocabulary and comprehension.

Why use morphology

Teaching morphemes unlocks the structures and meanings within words. It is very useful to have a strong awareness of prefixes, suffixes and base words. These are often spelt the same across different words, even when the sound changes, and often have a consistent purpose and/or meaning.

Types of morphemes

Free vs. bound

Morphemes can be either single words (free morphemes) or parts of words (bound morphemes).

A free morpheme can stand alone as its own word

• gentle
• father
• licence
• picture
• gem

A bound morpheme only occurs as part of a word

• -s as in cat+s
• -ed as in crumb+ed
• un- as in un+happy
• mis- as in mis-fortune
• -er as in teach+er

In the example above: un+system+atic+al+ly, there is a root word (system) and bound morphemes that attach to the root (un-, -atic, -al, -ly)

system = root un-, -atic, -al, -ly = bound morphemes

If two free morphemes are joined together they create a compound word. These words are a great way to introduce morphology (the study of word parts) into the classroom.

For more details, see:
Compound words

Inflectional vs. d​​erivational

Morphemes can also be divided into inflectional or derivational morphemes.

Inflectional morphemes change what a word does in terms of grammar, but does not create a new word.

For example, the word <skip> has many forms: skip (base form), skipping (present progressive), skipped (past tense).

The inflectional morphemes -ing and -ed are added to the base word skip, to indicate the tense of the word.

If a word has an inflectional morpheme, it is still the same word, with a few suffixes added. So if you looked up <skip> in the dictionary, then only the base word <skip> would get its own entry into the dictionary. Skipping and skipped are listed under skip, as they are inflections of the base word. Skipping and skipped do not get their own dictionary entry.

Skip

Another example is <run>: run (base form), running (present progressive), ran (past tense). In this example the past tense marker changes the vowel of the word: run (rhymes with fun), to ran (rhymes with can). However, the inflectional morphemes -ing and past tense morpheme are added to the base word <run>, and are listed in the same dictionary entry.

Run

Derivational morphemes are different to inflectional morphemes, as they do derive/create a new word, which gets its own entry in the dictionary. Derivational morphemes help us to create new words out of base words.

For example, we can create new words from <act> by adding derivational prefixes (e.g. re- en-) and suffixes (e.g. -or).

Thus out of <act> we can get re+act = react en+act = enact act+or = actor.

Whenever a derivational morpheme is added, a new word (and dictionary entry) is derived/created.

For the <act> example, the following dictionary entries can be found:

Act

React

Enact

Actor

Teachers should highlight and encourage students to analyse both Inflectional and Derivational morphemes when focussing on phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension.

For more information, see: 

Prefixes, suffixes, and roots/bases

Many morphemes are very helpful for analysing unfamiliar words. Morphemes can be divided into prefixes, suffixes, and roots/bases.

• Prefixes are morphemes that attach to the front of a root/base word.
• Suffixes are morphemes that attach to the end of a root/base word, or to other suffixes (see example below)
• Roots/Base words are morphemes that form the base of a word, and usually carry its meaning.
  • Generally, base words are free morphemes, that can stand by themselves (e.g. cycle as in bicycle/cyclist, and form as in transform/formation).
  • Whereas root words are bound morphemes that cannot stand by themselves (e.g. -ject as in subject/reject, and -volve as in evolve/revolve).

Most morphemes can be divided into:

• Anglo-Saxon Morphemes (like re-, un-, and -ness);
• Latin Morphemes (like non-, ex-, -ion, and -ify); and
• Greek Morphemes (like micro, photo, graph).

It is useful to highlight how words can be broken down into morphemes (and which each of these mean) and how they can be built up again).

For example, the word <unreliability> may be unfamiliar to students when they first encounter it.

If <unreliability> is broken into its morphemes, students can deduce or infer the meaning.

So it is helpful for both reading and spelling to provide opportunities to analyse words, and become familiar with common morphemes, including their meaning and function.

Compound words

Compound words (or compounds) are created by joining free morphemes together. Remember that a free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand along as its own word (unlike bound morphemes — e.g. -ly, -ed, re-, pre-). Compounds are a fun and accessible way to introduce the idea that words can have multiple parts (morphemes). Teachers can highlight that these compound words are made up of two separate words joined together to make a new word. For example dog + house = doghouse

Examples

Example activities of highlighting morphemes for phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension

There are numerous ways to highlight morphemes for the purpose of phonics, vocabulary and comprehension activities and lessons.

Highlighting the morphology of words is useful for explaining phonics patterns (graphemes) and spelling rules, as well as discovering the meanings of unfamiliar words, and demonstrating how words are linked together. Highlighting and analysing morphemes is also useful, therefore, for providing comprehension strategies.

Examples of how to embed morphological awareness into literacy activities can include:

• Sorting words by base/root words (word families), or by prefixes or suffixes
• Word Detective — Students break longer words down into their prefixes, suffixes, and base words
• e.g. Find the morphemes in multi-morphemic words like: dissatisfied unstoppable ridiculously hydrophobic metamorphosis oxygenate fortifications
• Word Builder — students are given base words and prefixes/suffixes and see how many words they can build, and what meaning they might have:
• Prefixes: un- de- pre- re- co- con-
  Base Words: play help flex bend blue sad sat
  Suffixes: -ful -ly -less -able/-ible -ing -ion -y -ish -ness -ment
• Etymology investigation — students are given multi-morphemic words from texts they have been reading and are asked to research the origins (etymology) of the word. Teachers could use words like progressive, circumspect, revocation, and students could find out the morphemes within each word, their etymology, meanings, and use.

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