The morphemes which may occur alone and coincide with word forms or immutable words are

The
largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came
into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only
the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents
were written by French scribes as the local population was mainly
illiterate, and the ruling class was
French.

“v”
was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of “f” in the
intervocal position /lufian-love/, the digraph “ch” was
introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter “c”
(chest),
The
digraph “qu” substituted the combination “cw” to denote the
combination of sounds /kw/ (queen)
etc.

Borrowing
of French words. There following semantic groups of French
borrowings:

a)
words relating to government: administer, empire, state, government:

b)
words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier,
battle;

c)
words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence,
barrister;

d)
words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat,
embroidery;

e)
words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl;

f)
words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to
roast, to stew.

Words
were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through
French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are
not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups
of these borrowings:

a)
words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie,
brochure, pirouette, vaudeville;

b)
words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage,
manouvre;

c)
words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau;

d)
words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.

1. Morpheme. Meaning in morphemes.

Morpheme
– is the smallest meaningful unit having a sound form and occurring
in speech only as a part of the word. (roots, affixes)

Morphemes
occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not
independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme. Nor
are they divisible into smaller meaningful language units.

morphemes
are subdivided into roots and affixes. The latter are further
subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and
infixes, and according to their function and meaning, into
derivational and functional affixes.

Lexical
meaning of morphemes may be analysed into denotational and
connotational components. The denotational meaning in affixes is more
generalized than in root-morphemes, e.g. –er carries the meaning
the doer of the action: reader, teacher, singer.

All
suffixes and some prefixes possess grammatical (part-of-speech)
meaning: -ness (emptiness) carries the nominal meaning of thigness.
Rootmorphemes do not possess any grammatical meaning.

In
all polymorphemic words their constituent morphemes possess two more
types of meaning: differential and distributional. Differential
meaning distinguishes a word from all others containig identical
morphemes: in the word teacher the root teach- differentiates it from
other words beginning in teach (teaching). Distributional meaning is
the meaning of the order and arrangement of the constituent
morphemes: ring-finger, singer.

1. Morpheme,
   IC and UC analysis, derivation, stem.

The
definition of IC analysis — The approach to divide a sentence up into
its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining
its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis.

IC
analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the
different constituents at different structural levels based on the
distribution of linguistic forms.

The
first divisions or cuts of a sentence or a smaller construction such
as a phrase are immediate constituents (ICs).

UC
— The final divisions or cuts of a phrase are the ultimate
constituents (UCs).

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Derivational
morphemes can change the grammatical
category (or part
of speech) of a word. For example, adding -ful to beauty changes
the word from a noun to
an adjective(beautiful).
The form that results from the addition of a derivational morpheme is
called aderived
word or
a derivative.

In linguistics,
a stem is
a part of a word. In
one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be
attached.^[1] Thus,
in this usage, the English wordfriendships contains
the stem friend,
to which the derivational suffix -ship is
attached to form a new stemfriendship,
to which the inflectional suffix -s is
attached. In a variant of this usage, the root of
the word (in the example, friend)
is not counted as a stem.

In
a slightly different usage, which is adopted in the remainder of this
article, a word has a single stem, namely the part of the word that
is common to all its inflected variants.^[2] Thus,
in this usage, all derivational affixes are part of the stem. For
example, the stem of friendships is friendship,
to which the inflectional suffix -s is
attached.

Stems
may be root e.g. run,
or they may be morphologically complex, as in compound
words (cf.
the compound nouns meat
ball or bottle
opener)
or words with derivational morphemes
(cf. the derived verbsblack-en or standard-ize).

The
stem of the verb wait is wait:
it is the part that is common to all its inflected variants.

1. wait (infinitive)

2. wait (imperative)

3. waits
   (present, 3rd person, singular)

4. wait (present,
   other persons and/or plural)

5. waited
   (simple past)

6. waited
   (past participle)

7. waiting
   (progressive)

1. Types
   of morphemes

By
the degree of their independence morphemes are classified into free
and bound. Free morphemes may occur alone and coincide with
word-forms or immutable words: at, by, water- (water, watery). Bound
morphemes occur only in combination with other morphemes: dis-
(dislike), -y (watery). Most roots are free but some are bound: cran-
(cranberry). Affixes
are always bound.

By
their frequency morphemes are classified into recurrent and unique.
Recurrent morphemes are found in a number of words: sing-ing = sing-
(singer, sing-song) + -ing (walking, drawing). Unique morphemes are
found only in a given word: pock (pocket). By their activity in the
language affixes are subduvided into productive and non-productive.
Productive affixes are used to build new words: -ism (escapism), —
ize (nationalize). Non-productive affixes do not build new words: -th
(growth), — ous (monotonous).

By
their position in the word affixes are subdivided into prefixes and
suffixes. A prefix stands before the root and modifies its lexical
meaning: kind – unkind. In some cases it changes the word‘s
grammatical or lexico-grammatical meaning: sleep (noun) – asleep
(stative). A suffix follows the root, modifying its lexical meaning
and changing the word‘s grammatical or lexico-grammatical meaning:
appear (verb) – appearance (noun). The suffix renders a very
general meaning and is often fused with the root semantically.

Inflection
– is an morpheme, carrying just grammatical meaning (forming word
form).

(Morpheme
can be: lexical (the root of word), lexico-grammatical, free (can
stand as individual words), bound.)

1. Affixes
   and their types.

An affix is
a morpheme that
is attached to a word stem to
form a new word. Affixes may be derivational,
like English -ness and pre-,
or inflectional,
like English plural -s and
past tense -ed.
They are bound
morphemes by
definition; prefixes and suffixes may
beseparable
affixes. Affixation is, thus, the linguistic process speakers use
to form different words by adding morphemes (affixes) at the
beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end
(suffixation) of words.

A prefix is
an element placed at the beginning of a word to adjust or qualify its
meaning, for example de-, non-,
and re-.

A suffix is
an element placed at the end of a word to form a derivative, such
as -ation, -fy, -ing,
frequently one that converts the stem into another part of speech.

A combining
form can
be either a prefix or a suffix; the difference is that the combining
form adds a layer of extra meaning to the word. For
example, bio- adds
the idea of life or living things to words, as in biochemistry,
the study of the chemical processes which occur within living
organisms; -cide adds
the idea of killing or a killing agent, as in pesticide.
Compare these examples with a prefix such as ex- or
a suffix such as -ic,
neither of which add meaning, but only modify an existing meaning.

Combining
forms only appear as elements in a compound. If it can stand alone as
a word it is not a combining form. For example, carbo- only
appears in compounds to indicate carbon, but there are many related
words that begin withcarbon-;
these are considered to be compound words and carbon- is
not listed on this site as a combining form. Having said that, in
some cases a combining form has at some point in its life taken on
the status of a free-standing word (cyber- is
an example), but if its primary function is as a combining form, it
appears in its place in the text.

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Практическая грамматика

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• Практическая грамматика (1-1)

• Read the following statement about Imperative Sentences and state whether it is true or false

• Imperative Sentences giving a command must always end with an exclamation (!).

• As you … remember, I was always interested in scientific experiments.

• The letter and the parcel … (to post) tomorrow.

• Determine whether the following rule about the exclamatory sentence is true or false.

• An exclamatory sentence may give command sometimes.

• Choose the noun in the plural form: “a baby”

• Complete the given imperative sentence by filling in with appropriate word from the choices provided.

• … your elders always.

• Choose the noun which is only used in the singular form:

• The program of the conference can’t … , I’m afraid.

• Choose the noun which is only used in the singular form:

• People use a lot of paper and only a small part of it .. .

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: Where you … since last Thursday:

• Read the following statement about Imperative Sentences and state whether it is true or false

• The verbs in imperative sentences are also known as ‘Bossy Verbs’.

• I doubt that Mr.Green will … with you.

• Choose the noun in the plural form: “a child”

• By external structure of the word we mean …

• State whether the following compound statement is correct or incorrect, based on the coordinating conjunctions or transitional interjections, semicolon (;).

• She stayed alone for she never felt lonely.

• My dentist says I … eat so many sweets.

• State whether the following statement is True or False, with regard to Complex Sentences.

• “After he called me, I left immediately is also a right formation.

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• Neil is a little nervous, … he will perform well.

• Which of the two main approaches to lexical meaning studies the connection between words and things or concepts they denote:

• Complete the given imperative sentence by filling in with appropriate word from the choices provided.

• … leave the room untidy.

• Convert the Affirmative Present Simple sentence into Interrogative Sentence in Present/Past/Future form by filling in the sentences with appropriate choice provided.

• She is waiting for you. (Affirmative)

• … waiting for you? (Interrogative)

• State whether the following statement is True or False, with regard to Complex Sentences.

• In the statement- “If he comes to the school, he will conduct the assembly.”

• “If he comes to the school” is an Independent Clause.

• Choose the noun in the plural form: “a wife”

• State whether the following statement is Imperative or not- Imperative

• Don’t spoil the mood.

• You will … speak English in another few months.

• Choose the noun in the plural form: “a factory”

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• Choose the appropriate choice which correctly converts the given affirmative sentence into negative sentence.

• He is going to the college. (Positive)

• He is … going to the college. (Negative)

• Dad phoned us and asked if our luggage (already/to pack).

• Determine whether the following rule about the exclamatory sentence is true or false.

• “Exclaimed” is used while converting a direct exclamatory sentence into an indirect one.

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: I … since that night.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• The morphemes which may occur alone and coincide with word-forms

• or immutable words are …

• Fill in the suitable adverb in the sentence: I … sleep with my windows open.

• Complete the given statement with the choices given to make a declarative statement.

• … studying well for the exams.

• The doctor said that Tommy’s leg … (to be X-rayed) the following day.

• Complete the given statement with the choices given to make a declarative statement.

• … going home tomorrow.

• Read the following statement about Imperative Sentences and state whether it is true or false

• Imperative Sentences ending with a period cannot be Declarative Sentences; because, the Declarative Sentences don’t issue command or make wishes.

• The problem … (to study) for three years, but they haven’t got any results.

• Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which deals with…

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: The earth always ….

• Look! The bridge … (to repair).

• The word has …

• Complete the given complex sentences by choosing from the choices given.

• He will definitely come … he is not invited.

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• Students were not allowed to dance; …, they enjoyed a lot.

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• He fed the poor free of cost; … , a noble act of kindness.

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• Jack has much on hands experience; … , he was not into the panel.

• Nobody answers the phone. They … be out.

• Choose the appropriate choice which correctly converts the given affirmative sentence into negative sentence.

• I have been working on the project since 2015. (Positive)

• I have not been … on the project since 2015. (Negative)

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• Oliver is happy today; …. , it’s his birthday today.

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: I … homework tomorrow at 3 o’clock.

• Choose the right variant:

• Your dog is … than your cat.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:“a box”

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• Jack has much on hands experience; … , he was not into the panel.

• It is recommended that you consult a doctor; … , I insist that you do it fast.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:“a night”

• Complete the following sentence by choosing the appropriate choice from the options provided.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• Choose the right variant:

• Mike is a careless driver, he drives … than you:

• The analysts … their estimates on the figures for the last three years.

• Convert the following Affirmative Present Simple sentence into Interrogative Sentence in Present/Past/Future form by filling in the sentence with appropriate choice provided.

• They go to the college regularly. (Affirmative)

• … they go to the college regularly? (Interrogative)

• State whether the following compound statement is correct or incorrect.

• He was getting late he; hurried to office.

• Convert the following Affirmative Present Simple sentence into Interrogative Sentence in Present/Past/Future form by filling in the sentence with appropriate choice provided.

• He plays basketball. (Affirmative)

• … he play basketball? (Interrogative)

• Convert the Affirmative Present Simple sentence into Interrogative Sentence in Present/Past/Future form by filling in the sentences with appropriate choice provided.

• The kids will be playing in the park. (Affirmative)

• … be playing in the park? (Interrogative)

• Which of the following words has the suffix –er in the comparative degree:

• In Greece the Olympic Games ……. (to hold) once in four years.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• To my mind, the government … take care of old people.

• Complete the below given statements with the choices given to make a declarative statement.

• Choose the correct variant: many …

• Find the right variant: We turned the house upside down but we couldn’t find your ring …

• Choose the right answer in the possessive case: The … tables.

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: I felt sure they … the same problem when I called.

• Complete the sentence: This is … car.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• I’m sorry, I … have phoned to tell you I was coming.

• Complete the following sentence by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• He is leaving early, … he is feeling sick.

• Complete the sentence:

• It costs four … dollars.

• Complete the below given statements with the choices given to make a declarative statement.

• …. finding it difficult to meet the demands.

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: At lunch the rain …

• Word-formation …

• Complete the given imperative sentence by filling in with appropriate words from the choices provided.

• … the oven before you bake.

• ..… you mind passing me the salt?

• Management accountants need to … the effects of rapid market changes.

• What a pity, John won’t come. He ……. (to tell) about the meeting beforehand.

• Complete the given imperative sentence by filling in with appropriate words from the choices provided.

• … the kids play.

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: After we … our dinner my sister washed the dishes.

• State whether the following compound statement is correct or incorrect.

• She loved children; however, she had no time to play with them.

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: I can’t hear what they … about.

• Complete the following sentences by filling in with appropriate choice given.

• Students were not allowed to dance; … , they enjoyed a lot.

• Find the sentence with a possessive noun:

• Choose the noun which is only used in the singular form:

• Not much information about the plane crash … since that time.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• Fill the blank space in the sentences given below, to form a Compound Sentence.

• He was getting late; … , he managed to be on time.

• Different meanings of a polysemantic word develop into…

• Fill in the blank with the appropriate form of the verb: She constantly … of being lonely.

• Choose the noun in the plural form:

• Choose the right answer in the possessive case:

• Where is your … umbrella?

• Choose the noun in the plural form: “a match”

• Choose the appropriate choice which correctly converts the given affirmative sentence into negative sentence.

• She was dancing on the stage. (Positive)

• She … on the stage. (Negative)

• This book ……. (to publish) by the end of September.

• Define the language means used to mark the gender distinctions of the nouns: The tom-cat was sleeping on the window-sill.

• Margaret …… (to know) to be a very industrious person. 

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