The meaning of the word metaphor

A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another.^[1] It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared with other types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy, and simile.^[2] One of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the «All the world’s a stage» monologue from As You Like It:

All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His Acts being seven ages. At first, the infant…
—William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7^[3]

This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is not literally a stage, and most humans are not literally actors and actresses playing roles. By asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses points of comparison between the world and a stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the behavior of the people within it.

In the ancient Hebrew psalms (around 1000 B.C.), one finds already vivid and poetic examples of metaphor such as, «The Lord is my rock, my fortress and my deliverer; my God is my rock, in whom I take refuge, my shield and the horn of my salvation, my stronghold» and «The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want». Some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.^[4]

The word metaphor itself is a metaphor, coming from a Greek term meaning «transference (of ownership)». The user of a metaphor alters the reference of the word, «carrying» it from one semantic «realm» to another. The new meaning of the word might be derived from an analogy between the two semantic realms, but also from other reasons such as the distortion of the semantic realm — for example in sarcasm.

Etymology[edit]

The English word metaphor derives from the 16th-century Old French word métaphore, which comes from the Latin metaphora, «carrying over», and in turn from the Greek μεταφορά (metaphorá), «transference (of ownership)»,^[5] from μεταφέρω (metapherō), «to carry over», «to transfer»^[6] and that from μετά (meta), «behind», «along with», «across»^[7] + φέρω (pherō), «to bear», «to carry».^[8]

Parts of a metaphor[edit]

The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1937) by rhetorician I. A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed. In the previous example, «the world» is compared to a stage, describing it with the attributes of «the stage»; «the world» is the tenor, and «a stage» is the vehicle; «men and women» is the secondary tenor, and «players» is the secondary vehicle.

Other writers^[which?] employ the general terms ‘ground’ and ‘figure’ to denote the tenor and the vehicle. Cognitive linguistics uses the terms ‘target’ and ‘source’, respectively.

Psychologist Julian Jaynes coined the terms ‘metaphrand’ and ‘metaphier’, plus two new concepts, ‘paraphrand’ and ‘paraphier’.^[9]
[10]
‘Metaphrand’ is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms ‘tenor’, ‘target’, and ‘ground’. ‘Metaphier’ is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms ‘vehicle’, ‘figure’, and ‘source’. In a simple metaphor, an obvious attribute of the metaphier exactly characterizes the metaphrand (e.g. the ship plowed the seas). With an inexact metaphor, however, a metaphier might have associated attributes or nuances – its paraphiers – that enrich the metaphor because they «project back» to the metaphrand, potentially creating new ideas – the paraphrands – associated thereafter with the metaphrand or even leading to a new metaphor. For example, in the metaphor «Pat is a tornado», the metaphrand is «Pat», the metaphier is «tornado». As metaphier, «tornado» carries paraphiers such as power, storm and wind, counterclockwise motion, and danger, threat, destruction, etc. The metaphoric meaning of «tornado» is inexact: one might understand that ‘Pat is powerfully destructive’ through the paraphrand of physical and emotional destruction; another person might understand the metaphor as ‘Pat can spin out of control’. In the latter case, the paraphier of ‘spinning motion’ has become the paraphrand ‘psychological spin’, suggesting an entirely new metaphor for emotional unpredictability, a possibly apt description for a human being hardly applicable to a tornado.
Based on his analysis, Jaynes claims that metaphors not only enhance description, but «increase enormously our powers of perception…and our understanding of [the world], and literally create new objects».^[9]: 50

As a type of comparison[edit]

Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. It is said, for instance, that a metaphor is ‘a condensed analogy’ or ‘analogical fusion’ or that they ‘operate in a similar fashion’ or are ‘based on the same mental process’ or yet that ‘the basic processes of analogy are at work in metaphor’. It is also pointed out that ‘a border between metaphor and analogy is fuzzy’ and ‘the difference between them might be described (metaphorically) as the distance between things being compared’. A metaphor asserts the objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, while a simile merely asserts a similarity through use of words such as «like» or «as». For this reason a common-type metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile.^[11][12]

The metaphor category contains these specialized types:

• Allegory: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject.
• Antithesis: A rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences.^[13]
• Catachresis: A mixed metaphor, sometimes used by design and sometimes by accident (a rhetorical fault).
• Hyperbole: Excessive exaggeration to illustrate a point.^[14]
• Parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral or spiritual lesson, such as in Aesop’s fables or Jesus’ teaching method as told in the Bible.
• Pun: A verbal device by which multiple definitions of a word or its homophones are used to give a sentence multiple valid readings, typically to humorous effect.
• Similitude: An extended simile or metaphor that has a picture part (Bildhälfte), a reality part (Sachhälfte), and a point of comparison (tertium comparationis).^[15] Similitudes are found in the parables of Jesus.

Metaphor vs metonymy[edit]

Metaphor is distinct from metonymy, both constituting two fundamental modes of thought. Metaphor works by bringing together concepts from different conceptual domains, whereas metonymy uses one element from a given domain to refer to another closely related element. A metaphor creates new links between otherwise distinct conceptual domains, whereas a metonymy relies on pre-existent links within them.

For example, in the phrase «lands belonging to the crown», the word «crown» is a metonymy because some monarchs do indeed wear a crown, physically. In other words, there is a pre-existent link between «crown» and «monarchy».^[16] On the other hand, when Ghil’ad Zuckermann argues that the Israeli language is a «phoenicuckoo cross with some magpie characteristics», he is using a metaphor.^[17]: 4 There is no physical link between a language and a bird. The reason the metaphors «phoenix» and «cuckoo» are used is that on the one hand hybridic «Israeli» is based on Hebrew, which, like a phoenix, rises from the ashes; and on the other hand, hybridic «Israeli» is based on Yiddish, which like a cuckoo, lays its egg in the nest of another bird, tricking it to believe that it is its own egg. Furthermore, the metaphor «magpie» is employed because, according to Zuckermann, hybridic «Israeli» displays the characteristics of a magpie, «stealing» from languages such as Arabic and English.^{[17]: 4–6}

Subtypes[edit]

A dead metaphor is a metaphor in which the sense of a transferred image has become absent. The phrases «to grasp a concept» and «to gather what you’ve understood» use physical action as a metaphor for understanding. The audience does not need to visualize the action; dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché. Others use «dead metaphor» to denote both.^[18]

A mixed metaphor is a metaphor that leaps from one identification to a second inconsistent with the first, e.g.:

I smell a rat […] but I’ll nip him in the bud» — Irish politician Boyle Roche

This form is often used as a parody of metaphor itself:

If we can hit that bull’s-eye then the rest of the dominoes will fall like a house of cards… Checkmate.

An extended metaphor, or conceit, sets up a principal subject with several subsidiary subjects or comparisons. In the above quote from As You Like It, the world is first described as a stage and then the subsidiary subjects men and women are further described in the same context.

An implicit metaphor has no specified tenor, although the vehicle is present. M. H. Abrams offers the following as an example of an implicit metaphor: «That reed was too frail to survive the storm of its sorrows». The reed is the vehicle for the implicit tenor, someone’s death, and the «storm» is the vehicle for the person’s «sorrows».^[20]

Metaphor can serve as a device for persuading an audience of the user’s argument or thesis, the so-called rhetorical metaphor.

In rhetoric and literature[edit]

Aristotle writes in his work the Rhetoric that metaphors make learning pleasant: «To learn easily is naturally pleasant to all people, and words signify something, so whatever words create knowledge in us are the pleasantest.»^[21] When discussing Aristotle’s Rhetoric, Jan Garret stated «metaphor most brings about learning; for when [Homer] calls old age «stubble», he creates understanding and knowledge through the genus, since both old age and stubble are [species of the genus of] things that have lost their bloom.»^[22] Metaphors, according to Aristotle, have «qualities of the exotic and the fascinating; but at the same time we recognize that strangers do not have the same rights as our fellow citizens».^[23]

Educational psychologist Andrew Ortony gives more explicit detail: «Metaphors are necessary as a communicative device because they allow the transfer of coherent chunks of characteristics — perceptual, cognitive, emotional and experiential — from a vehicle which is known to a topic which is less so. In so doing they circumvent the problem of specifying one by one each of the often unnameable and innumerable characteristics; they avoid discretizing the perceived continuity of experience and are thus closer to experience and consequently more vivid and memorable.»^[24]

As style in speech and writing[edit]

As a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination. This allows Sylvia Plath, in her poem «Cut», to compare the blood issuing from her cut thumb to the running of a million soldiers, «redcoats, every one»; and enabling Robert Frost, in «The Road Not Taken», to compare a life to a journey.^[25][26][27]

Metaphors can be implied and extended throughout pieces of literature.

Larger applications[edit]

Sonja K. Foss characterizes metaphors as «nonliteral comparisons in which a word or phrase from one domain of experience is applied to another domain».^[28]
She argues that since reality is mediated by the language we use to describe it, the metaphors we use shape the world and our interactions to it.

The term metaphor is used to describe more basic or general aspects of experience and cognition:

• A cognitive metaphor is the association of object to an experience outside the object’s environment
• A conceptual metaphor is an underlying association that is systematic in both language and thought
• A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an individual’s understanding of a situation
• A nonlinguistic metaphor is an association between two nonlinguistic realms of experience
• A visual metaphor uses an image to create the link between different ideas

Conceptual metaphors[edit]

Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common definition of metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another, called a «conduit metaphor». A speaker can put ideas or objects into containers, and then send them along a conduit to a listener who removes the object from the container to make meaning of it. Thus, communication is something that ideas go into, and the container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors in use, including «argument is war» and «time is money». Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: «Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself.»^[29]

Experimental evidence shows that «priming» people with material from one area will influence how they perform tasks and interpret language in a metaphorically related area.^{[note 1]}

As a foundation of our conceptual system[edit]

Cognitive linguists emphasize that metaphors serve to facilitate the understanding of one conceptual domain—typically an abstraction such as «life», «theories» or «ideas»—through expressions that relate to another, more familiar conceptual domain—typically more concrete, such as «journey», «buildings» or «food».^[31][32] For example: we devour a book of raw facts, try to digest them, stew over them, let them simmer on the back-burner, regurgitate them in discussions, and cook up explanations, hoping they do not seem half-baked.

A convenient short-hand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another. A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience. For example, we have coherently organized knowledge about journeys that we rely on in understanding life.^[32]

Lakoff and Johnson greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a framework for thinking in language, leading scholars to investigate the original ways in which writers used novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking in conceptual metaphors.

From a sociological, cultural, or philosophical perspective, one asks to what extent ideologies maintain and impose conceptual patterns of thought by introducing, supporting, and adapting fundamental patterns of thinking metaphorically.^[33] To what extent does the ideology fashion and refashion the idea of the nation as a container with borders? How are enemies and outsiders represented? As diseases? As attackers? How are the metaphoric paths of fate, destiny, history, and progress represented? As the opening of an eternal monumental moment (German fascism)? Or as the path to communism (in Russian or Czech for example)?^{[citation needed]}

Some cognitive scholars have attempted to take on board the idea that different languages have evolved radically different concepts and conceptual metaphors, while others hold to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. German philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt contributed significantly to this debate on the relationship between culture, language, and linguistic communities. Humboldt remains, however, relatively unknown in English-speaking nations. Andrew Goatly, in «Washing the Brain», takes on board the dual problem of conceptual metaphor as a framework implicit in the language as a system and the way individuals and ideologies negotiate conceptual metaphors. Neural biological research suggests some metaphors are innate, as demonstrated by reduced metaphorical understanding in psychopathy.^[34]

James W. Underhill, in Creating Worldviews: Ideology, Metaphor & Language (Edinburgh UP), considers the way individual speech adopts and reinforces certain metaphoric paradigms. This involves a critique of both communist and fascist discourse. Underhill’s studies are situated in Czech and German, which allows him to demonstrate the ways individuals are thinking both within and resisting the modes by which ideologies seek to appropriate key concepts such as «the people», «the state», «history», and «struggle».

Though metaphors can be considered to be «in» language, Underhill’s chapter on French, English and ethnolinguistics demonstrates that we cannot conceive of language or languages in anything other than metaphoric terms.

Nonlinguistic metaphors[edit]

Metaphors can map experience between two nonlinguistic realms. Musicologist Leonard B. Meyer demonstrated how purely rhythmic and harmonic events can express human emotions.^[35] It is an open question whether synesthesia experiences are a sensory version of metaphor, the «source» domain being the presented stimulus, such as a musical tone, and the target domain, being the experience in another modality, such as color.^[36]

Art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting, we «feel ourselves into it» by imagining our body in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting. For example, the painting The Lonely Tree by Caspar David Friedrich shows a tree with contorted, barren limbs.^[37][38] Looking at the painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, evoking a feeling of strain and distress. Nonlinguistic metaphors may be the foundation of our experience of visual and musical art, as well as dance and other art forms.^[39][40]

In historical linguistics[edit]

In historical onomasiology or in historical linguistics, a metaphor is defined as a semantic change based on a similarity in form or function between the original concept and the target concept named by a word.^[41]

For example, mouse: small, gray rodent with a long tail → small, gray computer device with a long cord.

Some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.^[42]

Historical theories[edit]

Aristotle discusses the creation of metaphors at the end of his Poetics: «But the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that cannot be learnt from others; and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars.»^[43]

Baroque literary theorist Emanuele Tesauro defines the metaphor «the most witty and acute, the most strange and marvelous, the most pleasant and useful, the most eloquent and fecund part of the human intellect». There is, he suggests, something divine in metaphor: the world itself is God’s poem^[44] and metaphor is not just a literary or rhetorical figure but an analytic tool that can penetrate the mysteries of God and His creation.^[45]

Friedrich Nietzsche makes metaphor the conceptual center of his early theory of society in On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense.^[46] Some sociologists have found his essay useful for thinking about metaphors used in society and for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, and that it is impossible to think sociologically about religion without metaphor.^[47]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

• History of metaphor on In Our Time at the BBC
• A short history of metaphor
• Audio illustrations of metaphor as figure of speech
• Top Ten Metaphors of 2008
• Shakespeare’s Metaphors
• Definition and Examples
• Metaphor Examples (categorized)
• List of ancient Greek words starting with μετα-, on Perseus
• Metaphor and Phenomenology article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Metaphors algebra
• Pérez-Sobrino, Paula (2014). «Meaning construction in verbomusical environments: Conceptual disintegration and metonymy» (PDF). Journal of Pragmatics. 70: 130–151. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.06.008.

Metaphors are powerful tools that allow us to unleash our creativity, expose our inner worlds, and stand out in our writing and speech.

We use metaphors dozens of times every day, yet what exactly are they, how are they built, and what distinguishes them from other figures of speech?

Simply put, a metaphor is a figure of speech that states that one thing is another thing. It’s used to make a comparison between two objects or concepts that aren’t alike but have something in common.

In this article, we’ll dive into all aspects of a metaphor and show powerful examples across film, music, and literature.

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What is a metaphor?

In ancient Greek, the word metapherō means “to carry across.” In some ways, this is exactly what a metaphor does: it carries a shared quality or characteristic across two things or concepts of different natures. This is why a metaphor usually has two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject we’re trying to describe, while the vehicle is the object whose attributes we’re borrowing. In Shakespeare’s most famous “All the world’s a stage” monologue from As You Like It, «the world» is metaphorically assimilated to a stage, in which people are merely actors. Therefore, «the world» is the tenor, and «a stage» is the vehicle.

Without using comparative words, such as like or as, metaphors allow us to create new connections, and thus, convey additional meaning. A common figure of speech, they can help the audience understand an idea more clearly. Metaphors can also show us that something is a symbol of something else.

Finally, metaphors are often used to add color or emphasis to the point you’re trying to get across. For instance, if you say someone has a “heart of gold,” you’re using a metaphor to describe their good nature. While the person’s heart isn’t literally made of gold, this type of figurative language communicates the point in an intuitive, sensible and poetic way.

Metaphor examples

Metaphors are used across disciplines and genres: You can find them in the most casual conversations, complex pieces of literature, motivational quotes and diverse films. They allow any text to stand out and pull its audience into a new reality.

Metaphor examples in literature

You can find great examples of metaphors in literature and poetry. Written down, metaphors make you identify with certain emotions or experiences, carrying weight that simple descriptions rarely do.

“My thoughts are stars I cannot fathom into constellations.” —The Fault In Our Stars, John Green

“Memories are bullets. Some whiz by and only spook you. Others tear you open and leave you in pieces.” ―Kill the Dead, Richard Kadrey

“Wishes are thorns, he told himself sharply. They do us no good, just stick into our skin and hurt us.” ―A Face Like Glass, Frances Hardinge

“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.” —As You Like It, William Shakespeare

“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—I took the one less traveled by / And that has made all the difference.” —“The Road Not Taken,” Robert Frost

Metaphor examples in music

So many songs hold hidden meanings behind their seemingly simple lyrics. Metaphors are everywhere in popular music, here are a few powerful examples.

“Third floor on the West Side, me and you. Handsome, you’re a mansion with a view”—”Delicate,” Taylor Swift.

“Even when it’s rainy all you ever do is shine. You on fire, you a star just like Mariah”—”Mine,” Bazzi.

“Life is Monopoly, go cop me some land and some property”—“Stir fry,” Migos.

“You were the light for me to find my truth. I just wanna say, thank you”—“These Days,” Rudimental.

“My lover’s got humor. She’s the giggle at a funeral”—“Take me to Church,” Hozier.

Common metaphor examples

Even if you’re unfamiliar with many examples of metaphors, you must have heard these at some point in your life. These commonly used, and often cliché metaphors reveal just how prevalent this figurative device is in our everyday lives.

• Life is a highway.

• Her eyes were diamonds.

• He is a shining star.

• The snow is a white blanket.

• She is an early bird.

Metaphor examples for kids

Explaining the idea of a metaphor to kids may be challenging, but using examples always helps. Kids’ metaphors tend to be lively and exciting, full of animals and imaginative ideas, making metaphors into a great pedagogical tool.

• Her tears were a river flowing down her cheeks.

• The classroom was a zoo.

• He is a night owl.

• Mario is a chicken.

• Her eyes were fireflies.

Different types of metaphors

Metaphors are not as straightforward as they might seem. There are many different types of metaphors, each distinguished by unique characteristics. Here are some examples of the most commonly used families:

01. Absolute metaphors

These metaphors compare two things that have no obvious connection to make a point. For example, «She is doing a tightrope walk with her grades this semester.»

02. Implied metaphors

These metaphors compare two things that are not alike, without actually mentioning one of those elements. For example, “A woman barked a warning at her child.” Here, the implied metaphor compares a woman to a dog, without actually mentioning the vehicle of the metaphor. Implied metaphors make sense only when the object you’re implying (e.g., a dog) is common or well known enough by the audience.

03. Dead metaphors

Like clichés, these metaphors have lost their strength because they’ve been overused. For example, «You light up my life.»

04. Mixed metaphors

A combination of two or more different metaphors that create a sometimes silly effect. For example, «The new job has allowed her to spread her wings and really blossom.« In this example, the woman is compared to both a bird and a flower, creating an odd combination that manages to get the point across, yet must be avoided. The reason we easily understand this metaphor is because the elements the woman is being compared to are so ingrained in our mind that we don’t actually pay attention to the literal meaning—or the absurdity of combining them.

Mixed metaphors can be useful if you’re trying to be funny, but if you’re not, they can come off as awkward or even undermine the point you’re trying to make.

05. Extended (or sustained) metaphors

These lengthy metaphors are introduced and then further developed throughout all or part of a piece of literary work. Since these metaphors are used over a longer section of text, they can be a powerful literary device that provides strong, vivid imagery in the reader’s mind. Robert Frost’s “The Road Not Taken” poem is a great example. In these verses, he uses extended metaphors to convey the idea that everyone makes choices that forever shape their lives.

06. Conceptual metaphors

In these metaphors, one concept or abstract thing is understood in terms of another. For example, “Time is money”, where both “time” and “money” are conceptual objects.

How to use metaphors in your writing and speech

Metaphors can be incredibly useful because they add powerful detail to your writing. When you use metaphors, you bring your words to life and help the reader imagine and even feel certain emotions, scenes, or characters. It is important to remember not to mix metaphors and confuse your audience; that can actually take away from your work instead of enhancing it.

Moreover, when you write, it’s essential to keep your audience in mind and choose your metaphors accordingly. If you’re writing for kids, there is no reason to use overly complex, extended metaphors that may not come across as clearly.

Finally, before you begin to include metaphors in your writing, remember why you wanted to use them in the first place. It is often when it’s hard to explain something just as it is, and a comparison offers a useful reflection of the feeling you wanted to evoke. No need to overdo it. When it’s easier to just explain something for what it is, ask yourself, is a metaphor necessary here?

How to create your own metaphors

Coming up with your own metaphors can be difficult, but in reality, all you need is your imagination. Creating smart, visual and relevant metaphors is often what sets very good writers apart from the rest, showcasing an imaginative mind that is able to convey an image or a feeling through simple yet powerful comparisons.

The first step is choosing the character, object or setting you’re trying to write about. Then, focus on the particular scene you’re describing. If you’re having trouble describing it, think of other objects that share characteristics with it. Now comes the fun part—take your metaphor and expand on it. Adding your own personal touch can go a long way.

Metaphor vs. simile: What’s the difference?

Metaphors are often confused with similes because they serve similar purposes—comparing two distinct things. However, while metaphors poetically say that something is something else, similes say that something is like something else. By using words such as «like», «as», or «than», similes create a comparison that differs from the implicit comparisons metaphors draw. Here are a few common examples of similes:

• He is cute as a button

• She is brave as a lion

• This house is as clean as a whistle.

In a nutshell

A metaphor directly compares two distinct things that aren’t alike but have something in common. Unlike a simile, it doesn’t use comparison terms such as “like”, “as” or “than”, but rather states that something is something else.

Now that you know what a metaphor is, when to use it and how, you can infuse your own personal touch into your writing.

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Metaphor

According
to I.R.Galperin,the term ‘metaphor’, as the etymology of the word
reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to
another.Also the term has been known to denote the
transference of meaning from one word to another.

A
metaphor states A
is B

A
figure of speech in which an implied comparison is made between Two
unlike things that actually have something in common. A metaphor
expresses the unfamiliar (the tenor) in terms of the familiar (the
vehicle).When Neil Young sings, «Love is a rose», «rose»
is a vehicle for «love»,the tenor.

One
of the prominent examples of a metaphor in English literature is
the All
the world’s stage monologue
from As
you like it:

Ex:All
the world’s stage,

And
all the men and women merely players,

They
have their exits and their entrances

Metaphors
classified according to its degree and
unexpectedness: trite(dead) and
geniune(original).
Dead
metaphors
are fixed in dictionaries. they often sound banal like cliches:

Ex:to
burn with desire;a flight of imagination;
legs
of the table; winter comes.

Original
metaphors
are not registered in dictionaries. they are created by the
speaker’s/writer’s imagination and sound fresh and unexpected

Ex:Some
books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed
and digested.;
The
house was a white
elephant
but he couldn’t conceive of his father in a smaller place.
— describes the size and enigma of the house.

Prolonged
or sustained metaphors.:
if a sentence contains a group of metaphors; consists of
principal(the central image of sustained metaphor) and contributory
images(the other words which bear reference to the central image)

Ex.Mr
. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down. The verb to
bottle up is explained in dictionaries as follows ‘to keep in
check’,’conceal,restrain,repress.The metaphor in the word can
hardly be felt.But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb
‘to cork down’.This context refreshes the almost dead metaphor
and gives it a second life.Such metaphors are called sustained or
prolonged.

Metaphors
are used to help us understand the unknown, because we use what we
know in comparison with something we don’t know to get a better
understanding of the unknown.

Metonymy.

A
figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for
another with which it is closely associated (such as «crown»
for «royalty»).

Trite
(fixed) metonymy
represents derivative logical meaning of a word and is fixed in
dictionaries. ▲ Nothing
comes between me and my Calvins
(Calvin Klein Jeans). Contextual
m.
– unexpected substitution of one word to another. ▲ She
married into conversation
> very talkative man.

The
examples below include both the metonymy and the possible words for
which the metonymy would fill in:

• Crown
  — in place of a royal person

• The
  White House — in place of the President or others who work there

• The
  White House asked the television networks for air time on Monday
  night.

• The
  suits — in place of business people

• Dish
  — for an entire plate of food

• Cup — for
  a mug

• The
  Pentagon — to refer to the staff

• The
  restaurant — to refer to the staff

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Metaphor definition: A metaphor is a type of figurative language that expresses a comparison between two entities without using any comparison words.

A metaphor is figurative language. Therefore, its meaning is figurative, not literal.

A metaphor compares two things but it does not use any comparison terms (such as like, as, resembles, than) to do so.

In writing, metaphors are used to express deeper meaning, convey complexity, and add appeal.

An example will further explain this concept.

Metaphor Example:

• Peter is a rock.

Clearly, Peter is not literally a rock. This metaphor states that Peter is figuratively a rock. The metaphor is figurative to compare Peter’s qualities to the qualities of the rock.

In this metaphorical example, to say Peter is a rock might mean that he is study, solid, strong, trustworthy. The exact meaning of a metaphor will always depend upon the context of its use.

Modern Examples of Metaphors

Let’s take a look at a few popular examples of metaphor.

Common Metaphor Example:

• The world is your oyster.
• The world is his oyster, but that’s not what he’s consuming. The front-runner for the GOP presidential nomination eats like a teenage boy, inhaling Filets-o-Fish and Big Macs. –The Washington Post

This example is a common English phrase. This sentence is not saying that the world is literally your oyster. Rather, this metaphor uses figurative language to express deeper meaning.

This example is stating that the world is figuratively your oyster. The comparison between the world and “your oyster” might seem vague at first. This metaphor is communicating that the world is yours to open, to explore, to search and find your “pearl.”

Common Metaphor Example:

• A blanket of snow.
• Mr. Barney, who had arrived in the dining room wearing his custom-made orange ski boots, was referring to the trail named Success, with its early-morning blanket of freshly groomed, untouched snow. –The New York Times

Here we have another common English phrase. We are comparing a layer of snow to a blanket because it covers the entire land. Obviously, the snow isn’t a literal blanket to the Earth, but it looks similar to a blanket covering a field or a mountaintop.

The Function of Metaphors

Why use metaphors? Writers use metaphors to make writing more interesting. A metaphor expresses meaning that literal words cannot. Metaphors also make writing more concise.

Writers use metaphors when they want to express a comparison but do not want to directly state that comparison. Metaphors allow for interpretation and layer meaning in text.

A writer will often choose a metaphor when he wants to add greater significance to his text.

For example, to say, “Peter is a rock,” is much more effective than to say, “Peter is strong, sturdy, reliable, trustworthy,” and so on.

Metaphors add layered meaning and interest to writing.

Metaphor Examples in Literature

Since much of Shakespeare’s writing is in verse, he often used metaphors to convey greater meaning and significance.

Metaphor Examples in Shakespeare:

Here is an example from Act 2, scene 2, lines 2-3 of Romeo and Juliet:

“But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?

It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.”

In this example, Romeo is peering at Juliet as she enters her balcony. Shakespeare utilizes metaphor to compare Juliet to the sun. Romeo sees the light from Juliet’s room and compares that light, which he then calls Juliet, to the sun.

With this metaphor Shakespeare is allowing for deeper meaning in this context. It is not that Juliet is literally the sun. Rather, she is figuratively the source of light and life for Romeo, as the sun is the source of light and life for Earth.

Using this metaphor is much more effective than saying something like, “Juliet is a light source for Romeo. She provides him warmth and gives him strength to live.”

Summary: What are Metaphors?

Define metaphor: To sum up, a metaphor,

• is a comparison between two things
• DOES NOT use comparison terms
• is figurative in meaning
• is used frequently in literature

If you are ever unsure about the meaning of metaphor or wonder what does metaphor mean, bookmark this page.

We also have many other literary terms on our Grammar Dictionary. Feel free to check it out.

Contents

• 1 What is a Metaphor?
• 2 Modern Examples of Metaphors
• 3 The Function of Metaphors
• 4 Metaphor Examples in Literature
• 5 Summary: What are Metaphors?

If I were a bit dramatic, I’d start this piece with the following line: chaos is a friend of mine.

Except, chaos isn’t a friend of mine – there’s no chaos wherever I go (thankfully 😅). And, I’m also not as dramatic. What I want to do though, is to introduce you to a metaphor in the first line itself. 

It got your attention, didn’t it?

Because that’s how metaphors work. They stroke your imagination, drawing beautiful comparisons between two apparently unrelated things or ideas. Here are a few more simple metaphor examples:

Like them? We’ve a lot more metaphor examples to share with you. So read on as we share examples, dive into the definition of metaphor, and show you how to use this literary device. We’ll also clear the air around metaphor vs simile vs analogy.

On we go:

What is a metaphor?

A metaphor is a figure of speech that pulls comparisons between two unrelated ideas.

If I were to say this piece was a big, hairy project I worked on, you’d instantly imagine the comparison. And, you’d also understand I had a hard time writing it (except I didn’t. I only want to explain things as clearly as possible).

Circling back to being formal, a metaphor never makes clear comparisons. The resemblance is rather hidden and you’ve to put your brain to use to figure out how something compares to another. This means, a writer uses the literary device to keep you hooked to their work while also putting your thinking gears into motion.

In fact, back when I read William Shakespeare’s comedy As You Like It, he wrote a popular metaphor that reads:

“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players…”

I remember the entire class musing over the figure language. Everyone shared their suggestions on the resemblance between the world and a stage.

See what happened?

Shakespeare engaged us with his metaphor. Besides, the true nature of a metaphor also comes out with this example – metaphors are never clear. Instead, they imply similarities.

What is the root word of metaphor?

Before we move on any further, let’s look at the etymology of metaphor.

It’s origin traces back to the 15th century. But there’s no single root. Metaphor in English language comes from the Old French métaphore that, in turn, comes from the Latin metaphora (meaning: carrying over).

And here’s more: the Latin word comes from metaphorá in Greek, which means to transfer.

If we were to look at the big picture, the meaning of metaphor in all three of these languages is almost the same. Carrying over and transferring suggest taking the characteristic of an idea or an object and imposing it on another by way of comparison.

Examples of metaphors

Metaphors are everywhere: in your daily life, the movies, and song. There’s also a boatload of metaphor examples in literature.

Let’s look at each category for metaphor examples:

Metaphors from songs

Metaphors from literature

Metaphors from daily life

Metaphor vs simile vs analogy

Metaphors are often confused with similes and analogies. Why? Because all these literary terms compare ideas and settings. But, in different ways. I’ve explained this difference below:

Metaphor vs Simile

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two objects or ideas using the words ‘like’ and ‘as,’ giving literal meaning of how they compare.

 So a telltale sign of a simile is the prepositions it uses. Notice these aren’t present in a metaphor so you can instantly tell the difference between the two.

 

Metaphor vs. Analogy

Again, both of these work in the business of comparison. But, where a metaphor is a figure of speech, an analogy is a logical argument that elaborates on the resemblance between two things.

So how can you tell them apart? A good way to do so is to see how much explanation surrounds the comparison.

An analogy is word-friendly – it explains exactly what it’s comparing. Metaphor, on the flip side, leans on brevity and leaves you to think about potential point(s) of comparison between two ideas or concepts.

Let’s look at the examples to get this straight:

How do you identify a metaphor in 4 steps

Some metaphors, like the ones used in daily life, can be fairly simple to identify. Others can be a bit tricky to pick – tricky, but not impossible though.

Use this simple, 4-step framework to tell metaphors from a mile away:

1. Smell a comparison

Whether it’s a simile, analogy, or metaphor – all three work in the comparison business. This means the first step in identifying a metaphor is sensing a comparison in the text. If there’s one, you can tell you are in the company of a comparison literary device.

2. See if the comparison is standing on crutches

Similes lean on support. They rely on the words ‘like’ and ‘as’ to draw similarities. If you see any such crutches, you can tell it’s not a metaphor, but a simile.

 

3. Run it through the explanation monitor

Now that you’ve narrowed down your options to two: metaphor vs analogy, separate one from the other. How? By looking at how deep the comparison is explained. If the author has taken the time to explain the similarity between two ideas, the literary device is an analogy.

4. Take the metaphor under the microscope

By now, you’d know that there’s a metaphor in front of you. So this last step in the framework is to break down the metaphor and analyze the content.

Some questions to ask yourself are: what’s being compared? What characteristics are similar? How are they different? 

Common types of metaphors

Now that you know what a metaphor is, how it compares to other agents of comparison and also understand the use of metaphor, let’s dig into its types.

Altogether we’ve four types of metaphors plus 2 more that you need to be familiar with:

1. Standard metaphor

A standard metaphor states one idea is another, making a direct comparison as if the two ideas were synonyms. 

The template looks like this: X is Y so that Y is almost a metonym (substitute name for the close association) for X. 

2. Implied metaphor

As its name suggests, an implied metaphor makes an implied comparison without ever making a direct comparison between two ideas.

3. Visual metaphor

A visual image compares something to a visual image of another. This type of metaphor is common in advertising where a product is visualized with another object. For example, spicy Cheetos being compared to fire. 

There’s also another way to see visual metaphors as metaphors that compare something to another to give a visual identity. For instance, in her poem Hope is the thing with feathers, Emily Dickinson gives the visual image of a bird to hope. 

4. Extended metaphor

An extended metaphor uses descriptive language to elaborate a comparison. It’s the type of metaphor that you find referenced throughout a stanza, a full poem, a couple of paragraphs, or an entire blog post.

Example: This post that explains how to use the Swiss cheese productivity method to get things done references food items throughout the piece. 

Here’s a peek:

Two more types of metaphors that you need to know of:

Mixed metaphor

Again, the name explains what a mixed metaphor is – a combination of two commonly used metaphors.

This one’s a combination of two prominent metaphors ‘get on the same page’ and ‘get our ducks in a row.’

Dead metaphor

These are metaphors that have been overused to the point that they’ve become clichés. So you’re better off not using them as dead metaphors have lost much of their impact with their overuse.

How to create a metaphor

Now, to get you to speak some metaphorical language by writing metaphors:

1. Nail down the character, setting, idea, or object that you want to describe with a metaphor.
2. Identify exactly which characteristic of the character or object you want to compare with another character or object.
3. Look for how your chosen characteristic compares to a characteristic of another character, setting, setting, idea, or object.
4. Write the comparison. You may not get it right in the first go. So rewrite your metaphor a couple of times until you get it just right.

Let’s break down this metaphor example from Albert Einstein to understanding it’s making:

All religions, arts and sciences are branches of the same tree

In this case, three ideas: religion, arts, and sciences are compared. They’re all compared to branches of a tree. And, the aim of this metaphor? To show that all three come from the same idea just as different branches of the same tree.

Best practices for using metaphors

Beware of mixed metaphors

Mixed metaphors are slippery eels that can make their way into your writing without warning. The reason? They come from overused metaphors that are so common they go in mixtures you can’t identify at first look. Hence, it’s best you double check a metaphor before including it in your writing.

Choose a clear comparison

Sure, a good metaphor gets readers thinking, but that doesn’t mean the comparison has to be hidden in layers. Instead, the comparison has to be clear, if not literal.

In this example, “sadness” is the tenor and the “wall between two gardens” is the vehicle. Think of how this use of metaphor makes the writer’s message more powerful. He could have said, “Sadness is something that comes between times of happiness”, but that just wouldn’t have the same impact.