The meaning of the word and its structure

Word-meaning is made up of
various components described as meaning types. There are several
types of meaning.

Lexical
meaning is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its
forms and distributions
.
The most significant features of the lexical meaning of the word are:
the word’s interrelationship with the denoted objects and phenomena
of the world; the word’s interrelationship with the conceptual
matter that appears in people’s mind on perceiving a language unit;
the word’s interrelationship with the other words in a context so
lexical meaning possesses several aspects.

According
to D.
Crystal
,
lexical
items are viewed upon as signs within the sign system of the language
vocabulary
so
signification

is that aspect of the word’s meaning which stresses the sign
function of the word, in other words, it is the relation between sign
and thing or sign and concept.

Denotation
involves the relationship between a linguistic unit (a lexical item)
and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Denotational
meaning is the part of lexical meaning that makes communication
possible.
Denotational
meaning conceptualises
and classifies our experience and names objects so that our knowledge
of reality is embodied in words having essentially the same meaning
for all speakers of the language. Denotational meaning can be
segmented into semes
(seme is a minimal unit of the matter)
.
This procedure is known as componential analysis which seeks to set
up minimal semantic oppositions in order to arrive at meaning
differentiating features.

When words are used in their
factual direct meanings denotation and signification coincide

Connotational
meaning comprises the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the
word that are closely connected and even interdependent.
In
other words, connotation is supplementary emotive, evaluative,
expressive and stylistic shade which is added to the word’s
denotational meaning and which serves to express the emotional
content of the word — that is its capacity to evoke or directly
express emotion.

The
list and specification of connotational meanings varies with
different linguistic schools and individual scholars and includes
such entries as pragmatic
(directed at the perlocutionary effect of utterance), associative
(connected, through individual psychological or linguistic
associations, with related and non-related notions), ideological,
or conceptual
(revealing
political, social, ideological preferences of the user), evaluative
(stating the value of the indicated notion), emotive
(revealing the emotional layer of cognition and perception),
expressive
(aiming at creating the image of the object in question), stylistic
(indicating «the register», or the situation of the
communication).

Let’s
illustrate four
main components of connotational meaning: emotive,
evaluative, expressive (intensifying), stylistic
.

Emotive
meaning or charge is associated with emotions.

In the following sets of words with the same denotational meaning to
like, to love, to worship; big, large, tremendous; girl, girlie;
dear, dearie —
to
worship, tremendous, girlie, dearie

have
heavier emotive charge than others members of sets. We shouldn’t
confuse the emotive
charge

with emotive
implications
:
what is thought and felt when the word hospital
is used by an architect who built it, a doctor or a nurse working
there, the invalid staying there after an operation.

Evaluative
meaning expresses approval or disapproval,
e.g.,
magic
has
attractive connotation while its synonym witchcraft
has sinister accentuation.

Expressive
component serves
to
emphasise

the subjective attitude to the content of the utterance or the person
addressed,
e.g.,
magnificent,
splendid, superb

may be viewed as exaggerations.

Stylistically
words
can be subdivided into literary
(bookish), neutral and colloquial layers
(parent
— father — dad).

Literary
words can be subdivided into general literary words (harmony,
calamity);
scientific terms; poetic words and archaisms (albeit
— although
);
barbarisms and foreign words (bon
mot — a clever or witty saying, bouquet).
The
colloquial words may be subdivided into common colloquial (dad);
slang (gag
for a joke
);
professionalisms (lab); jargonisms (a
sucker — a person who is easily deceived
);
vulgarisms (shut
up
);
dialectical words (lass);
colloquial coinages (allrightnik).

The
above-mentioned meanings are classified as connotational not only
because they supply additional (and not the logical / de­notational)
information, but also because, for the most part, they are observed
not all at once and not in all words either. Some of them are more
important for the act of communication than the others. Very often
they overlap (частично совпадают). So, all words
possessing an emotive meaning are also evaluative (rascal,
ducky
),
though this rule is not reversed, as we can find non-emotive,
intellectual evaluation (good,
bad
).
Also, almost all emotive words are also expressive, while there are
hundreds of expressive words which cannot be treated as emotive
(take, for example the so-called expressive verbs, which not only
denote some action or process but also create their image, as in to
gulp — to swallow in big lumps, in a hurry; to sprint — to run fast).

The number, importance and the
overlapping character of connotational meanings incorporated into the
semantic structure of a word, are brought forth by the context, i. e.
a concrete speech act that identifies and actualizes each one. More
than that: each context does not only specify the existing semantic
(both denotational and connotational) possibilities of a word, but
also is capable of adding new ones, or deviating rather considerably
from what is registered in the dictionary. Because of that all
contextual meanings of a word can never be exhausted or
comprehensively enumerated.

Grammatical
meaning is the component of meaning recurrent in identical forms of
individual forms of different words
.
On the one hand, grammatical meaning unites words in such large
groups as parts of speech, e.g., the grammatical meaning of
substuntivity
for
nouns, the grammatical meaning of process
for
verbs, and so on. On the other hand, it is the property of identical
sets of word-forms. It may be defined as the indication in certain
grammatical categories, e.g., such word-forms as tables,
books

manifest the grammatical meaning of plurality. Grammatical meaning
may also de defined as the realization of a concept or a notion by
means of a definite language system, e.g., the word forms go,
goes, went, gone, going

express one and the same concept, that of the process of movement,
which is restricted in their lexical meaning. It follows that by
lexical meaning we understand the meaning proper to the linguistic
unit in all its forms, by grammatical meaning we understand the
meaning proper to the sets of word-forms common to all words of a
certain class, e.g., the word takes
has the same lexical meaning as took,
taken
,
but its grammatical meaning is that which is shared by works,
stands
;
the same is true about grammatical meaning of the following examples:
boys, girls; boy’s, girl’s; helped, met; better, smaller
.

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Semasiology — the branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of words and word equivalents.
(Greek) semasia — signification (значение, смысл) and logos — learning.

Word meaning and its structure

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2

Слайд 2: The main objects of semasiological study:

types of lexical meaning
polysemy and semantic structure of words
semantic development of words
the main tendencies of the change of word-meanings
semantic grouping in the vocabulary system (synonyms, antonyms)
semantic fields

The main objects of semasiological study:

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3

Слайд 3: Approaches to Meaning

Referential approach
Functional approach

Approaches to Meaning

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Слайд 4: Referential approach to meaning

The meaning is in some form or other connected with the referent (object of reality denoted by the word).
The meaning is formulated by establishing the interdependence between words and objects of reality they denote.
The meaning is often understood as an object or phenomenon in the outside world that is referred to by a word.

Referential approach to meaning

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Слайд 5: Functional approach to meaning

Words are studied in context; a word is defined by its functioning within phrase or a sentence.
The meaning of linguistic unit is studied only through its relation to other linguistic units.
The meaning is viewed as the function of a word in speech.

Functional approach to meaning

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a category of human cognition (понятие, идея; общее представление; концепция).
the thought of the object that singles out the most typical, the most essential features of the object.

Concept

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Слайд 7: the concept of » a building for human habitation »

English
house
«fixed residence of family or household» −
home
Ukrainian
дім
домівк a

the concept of " a building for human habitation "

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Слайд 8: The difference between meaning and concept:

Concepts are always emotionally neutral
Meaning of many words not only conveys some reflection of objective reality but also the speaker’s attitude to what he is speaking about, his state of mind.
The concept of size: big / large / tremendous

The difference between meaning and concept:

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(thought or reference)
Concept
Word —————— Referent
(symbol) (object denoted
by the word)

Word meaning and its structure

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10

Слайд 10: The branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning is called semantics

Meaning is a certain reflection in our mind of objects, phenomena or relations that makes part of the linguistic sign − its so-called inner facet (аспект, грань, сторона), whereas the sound-form functions as its outer facet.

The branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning is called semantics.

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Слайд 11: grammatical and lexical meanings

Grammatical meaning − the expression in speech the relationships between words.
Lexical meaning − the realization of concept or emotion by means of a definite language system.

grammatical and lexical meanings

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Слайд 12: three types of lexical meaning of words:

1. Nominative meaning determined by reality. The direct nominative meaning stands in one-to-one relationship with a word. cat, table, sun
2. Phraseologically bound meaning of words depending on the peculiarities of their usage in a given language, e.g. to take care, to have a smoke, to catch a cold.

three types of lexical meaning of words:

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3. Syntactically conditioned meanings
of words are those which change with the change of the environment. Compare the following verbs:
«to look» — to look for— to look after

Word meaning and its structure

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Слайд 14: The structure of lexical meaning of a word

denotative meaning
connotative meaning

The structure of lexical meaning of a word

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Слайд 15: Denotative meaning

a linguistic expression for a concept or a name for an individual object.
makes communication possible.
is bound up with its referent.
may have one constant referent – a moon
may have several referents — a hand

Denotative meaning

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Слайд 16: Connotative meaning

additional non-literal meaning of a word.
contains various shades of meaning called connotations.
connotations reflect subjective, emotional attitude of people toward object or phenomenon.
is unstable. In most cases it reveals itself only through contexts.

Connotative meaning

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Слайд 17: four main types of connotations:

stylistic connotation is what the word conveys about the speaker’s attitude to the social circumstances and the appropriate functional style ( slay vs kill )
emotional connotation conveys the speaker’s emotions ( mummy vs mother )

four main types of connotations:

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evaluative connotation may show his approval or disapproval of the object spoken of ( clique vs group )
expressive/intensifying connotation is conveyed by degree of intensity (adore vs love)

Word meaning and its structure

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the denotative component of the lexical meaning of the word is «frightening“.
the expressive or intensifying connotation is «very, very good» or «very great»:
terrific beauty, terrific pleasure

terrific

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It is the connotative meaning in a word which helps create irony, sarcasm, metaphor and other figures of speech.

Word meaning and its structure

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the ability of words to have more than one meaning.
A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and most English words are like this.

POLYSEMY

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1) a flat horizontal slab or board, usually supported by one or more legs, on which objects may be placed
2) a) such a slab or board on which food is served we were six at table b) (as modifier) table linen c) (in combination) a tablecloth
3) food as served in a particular household or restaurant
4) such a piece of furniture specially designed for any of various purposes
5) a) a company of persons assembled for a meal, game, etc b) (as modifier) table talk
6) any flat or level area, such as a plateau
7) a rectangular panel set below or above the face of a wall
8) architecture another name for cordon
9) an upper horizontal facet of a cut gem
10) music the sounding board of a violin, guitar, or similar stringed instrument

table

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Слайд 23: Change of lexical meaning in words

linguistic
— the influence of linguistic environment
— analogy
— the context
extra-linguistic
— cultural
— social
— psychological

Change of lexical meaning in words

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Слайд 24: ways of change of word-meaning:

1. extension of meaning (generalization);
2. narrowing of meaning (specialization);
3. transference of meaning (metaphor and metonymy);
4. elevation of meaning (amelioration);
5. degradation of meaning (pejoration).

ways of change of word-meaning:

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25

Слайд 25: 1. Extension /expanding of meaning (or generalization)

In the process of extension a word-meaning may acquire a higher degree of abstraction or more generalized character.
“manuscript” originally meant only something handwritten. Now it refers to any copy either written by hand or printed.

1. Extension /expanding of meaning (or generalization).

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26

Слайд 26: 2. Narrowing of meaning/contraction, (specialization)

In the process of narrowing, a word-meaning acquires a specialized sense in which it is applicable only to some of the objects or phenomena it previously denoted.
a corpse — a human or animal body, living or dead. Now this word has been specialized to mean «a dead body», usually that of a human being.

2. Narrowing of meaning/contraction, (specialization).

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27

Слайд 27: 3. Elevation of meaning ( amelioration )

In the process of elevation a word acquires the meaning of a greater importance than its original meaning.
marshal — originally meant a horse servant, now its meaning is «an officer of the highest rank»

3. Elevation of meaning ( amelioration )

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Слайд 28: 4. Degradation of Meaning (degeneration, pejoration)

In the process of pejoration the word acquires unfavourable connotations or falls into disrepute.
«vulgar» — originally meant «common, ordinary»;
«gossip» — originally meant «a god parent»;
«silly» — originally meant «happy».

4. Degradation of Meaning (degeneration, pejoration).

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29

Слайд 29: 5. Transference of meaning

Transference of meaning takes place when the figures of speech are used.
Figures of speech are expressive means and stylistic devices such as metaphor and metonymy.

5. Transference of meaning.

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the transference of the literal meaning in a word based on the association of similarity between the objects or phenomena.
a woman can be called «a peach» if she is young and beautiful, or « a lemon » if she is ugly and boring.

Metaphor

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Последний слайд презентации: Word meaning and its structure: Metonymy

the transference of the literal meaning of a word based on the association of contiguity between objects or phenomena.
«cash» is an adaptation of the French word «caisse» which means «box» and in which money was contained. Now the meaning of this word is «money».
«crown» in the meaning of «monarchy»

Metonymy

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Слайд 1
Word meaning and its structure

Semasiology —

the branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of words

and word equivalents.
(Greek) semasia — signification (значение, смысл) and logos — learning.

Word meaning and its structure  Semasiology - the branch of linguistics concerned


Слайд 2The main objects of semasiological study:
types of lexical meaning
polysemy

and semantic structure of words
semantic development of words
the main tendencies

of the change of word-meanings
semantic grouping in the vocabulary system (synonyms, antonyms)
semantic fields

The main objects of semasiological study: types of lexical meaningpolysemy and semantic structure of wordssemantic development of


Слайд 3Approaches to Meaning

Referential approach

Functional approach

Approaches to MeaningReferential approach Functional approach


Слайд 4Referential approach to meaning
The meaning is in some form

or other connected with the referent (object of reality denoted

by the word).
The meaning is formulated by establishing the interdependence between words and objects of reality they denote.
The meaning is often understood as an object or phenomenon in the outside world that is referred to by a word.

Referential approach to meaning The meaning is in some form or other connected with the referent (object


Слайд 5Functional approach to meaning
Words are studied in context; a

word is defined by its functioning within phrase or a

sentence.
The meaning of linguistic unit is studied only through its relation to other linguistic units.
The meaning is viewed as the function of a word in speech.

Functional approach to meaning Words are studied in context; a word is defined by its functioning within


Слайд 6Concept
a category of human cognition (понятие, идея; общее представление; концепция).

the thought of the object that singles out the most

typical, the most essential features of the object.

Concepta category of human cognition (понятие, идея; общее представление; концепция). the thought of the object that singles


Слайд 7the concept of «a building for human habitation»
English

house

«fixed residence of family or household» −

home
Ukrainian

дім

домівкa

the concept of


Слайд 8The difference between meaning and concept:
Concepts are always emotionally neutral

Meaning of many words not only conveys some reflection of

objective reality but also the speaker’s attitude to what he is speaking about, his state of mind.

The concept of size: big / large / tremendous

The difference between meaning and concept:Concepts are always emotionally neutral Meaning of many words not only conveys


Слайд 9

(thought or reference)
Concept

Word ——————Referent
(symbol)

(object denoted

by the word)

(thought or reference)	Concept			   Word -----------------Referent	(symbol) 	        (object denoted


Слайд 10The branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of

meaning is called semantics.
Meaning is a certain reflection in

our mind of objects, phenomena or relations that makes part of the linguistic sign − its so-called inner facet (аспект, грань, сторона), whereas the sound-form functions as its outer facet.

The branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning is called semantics. 	Meaning is a


Слайд 11grammatical and lexical meanings
Grammatical meaning − the expression in speech

the relationships between words.
Lexical meaning − the realization of

concept or emotion by means of a definite language system.

grammatical and lexical meaningsGrammatical meaning − the expression in speech the relationships between words. Lexical meaning −


Слайд 12three types of lexical meaning of words:
1. Nominative

meaning determined by reality. The direct nominative meaning stands in

one-to-one relationship with a word. cat, table, sun
2. Phraseologically bound meaning of words depending on the peculiarities of their usage in a given language, e.g. to take care, to have a smoke, to catch a cold.

three types of lexical meaning of words: 1. Nominative meaning determined by reality. The direct nominative meaning


Слайд 13 3. Syntactically conditioned meanings
of words are

those which change with the change of the environment. Compare

the following verbs:
«to look» — to look for— to look after

3. Syntactically conditioned meanings  of words are those which change with the change of the


Слайд 14The structure of lexical meaning of a word

denotative

meaning

connotative meaning

The structure of lexical meaning of a word denotative meaning connotative meaning


Слайд 15Denotative meaning
a linguistic expression for a concept or a

name for an individual object.
makes communication possible.
is bound up

with its referent.
may have one constant referent – a moon
may have several referents — a hand

Denotative meaning a linguistic expression for a concept or a name for an individual object. makes communication


Слайд 16Connotative meaning
additional non-literal meaning of a word.
contains various shades

of meaning called connotations.
connotations reflect subjective, emotional attitude of

people toward object or phenomenon.
is unstable. In most cases it reveals itself only through contexts.

Connotative meaningadditional non-literal meaning of a word. contains various shades of meaning called connotations. connotations reflect subjective,


Слайд 17four main types of connotations:
stylistic connotation is what the word

conveys about the speaker’s attitude to the social circumstances and

the appropriate functional style (slay vs kill)
emotional connotation conveys the speaker’s emotions (mummy vs mother)

four main types of connotations:stylistic connotation is what the word conveys about the speaker's attitude to the


Слайд 18evaluative connotation may show his approval or disapproval of the

object spoken of (clique vs group)

expressive/intensifying connotation is conveyed

by degree of intensity (adore vs love)

evaluative connotation may show his approval or disapproval of the object spoken of (clique vs group) expressive/intensifying


Слайд 19terrific
the denotative component of the lexical meaning of the

word is «frightening“.
the expressive or intensifying connotation is

«very, very good» or «very great»:
terrific beauty, terrific pleasure

terrific the denotative component of the lexical meaning of the word is


Слайд 20 It is the connotative meaning in a word which

helps create irony, sarcasm, metaphor and other figures of speech.

It is the connotative meaning in a word which helps create irony, sarcasm, metaphor and other


Слайд 21POLYSEMY
the ability of words to have more than one meaning.

A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and

most English words are like this.

POLYSEMYthe ability of words to have more than one meaning.  A word having several meanings is


Слайд 22table
1) a flat horizontal slab or board, usually supported by

one or more legs, on which objects may be placed
2)

a) such a slab or board on which food is served we were six at table b) (as modifier) table linen c) (in combination) a tablecloth
3) food as served in a particular household or restaurant
4) such a piece of furniture specially designed for any of various purposes
5) a) a company of persons assembled for a meal, game, etc b) (as modifier) table talk
6) any flat or level area, such as a plateau
7) a rectangular panel set below or above the face of a wall
8) architecture another name for cordon
9) an upper horizontal facet of a cut gem
10) music the sounding board of a violin, guitar, or similar stringed instrument

table1) a flat horizontal slab or board, usually supported by one or more legs, on which objects


Слайд 23Change of lexical meaning in words
linguistic
— the influence of

linguistic environment
— analogy
— the context
extra-linguistic
— cultural
— social

psychological

Change of lexical meaning in wordslinguistic - the influence of linguistic environment- analogy - the context extra-linguistic


Слайд 24ways of change of word-meaning:
1. extension of meaning (generalization);
2. narrowing

of meaning (specialization);
3. transference of meaning (metaphor and metonymy);
4. elevation

of meaning (amelioration);
5. degradation of meaning (pejoration).

ways of change of word-meaning:1. extension of meaning (generalization);2. narrowing of meaning (specialization);3. transference of meaning (metaphor


Слайд 251. Extension /expanding of meaning (or generalization).
In the

process of extension a word-meaning may acquire a higher degree

of abstraction or more generalized character.

“manuscript” originally meant only something handwritten. Now it refers to any copy either written by hand or printed.

1. Extension /expanding of meaning (or generalization).  In the process of extension a word-meaning may acquire


Слайд 262. Narrowing of meaning/contraction, (specialization).
In the process of

narrowing, a word-meaning acquires a specialized sense in which it

is applicable only to some of the objects or phenomena it previously denoted.
a corpse — a human or animal body, living or dead. Now this word has been specialized to mean «a dead body», usually that of a human being.

2. Narrowing of meaning/contraction, (specialization).  In the process of narrowing, a word-meaning acquires a specialized sense


Слайд 273. Elevation of meaning (amelioration )
In the

process of elevation a word acquires the meaning of a

greater importance than its original meaning.

marshal — originally meant a horse servant, now its meaning is «an officer of the highest rank»

3. Elevation of meaning (amelioration )  In the process of elevation a word acquires the meaning


Слайд 284. Degradation of Meaning (degeneration, pejoration).
In the

process of pejoration the word acquires unfavourable connotations or falls

into disrepute.
«vulgar» — originally meant «common, ordinary»;
«gossip» — originally meant «a god parent»;
«silly» — originally meant «happy».

4. Degradation of Meaning (degeneration, pejoration).  In the process of pejoration the word acquires unfavourable connotations


Слайд 295. Transference of meaning.
Transference of meaning takes place when

the figures of speech are used.

Figures

of speech are expressive means and stylistic devices such as metaphor and metonymy.

5. Transference of meaning. Transference of meaning takes place when the figures of speech are used.


Слайд 30Metaphor
the transference of the literal meaning in a

word based on the association of similarity between the objects

or phenomena.

a woman can be called «a peach» if she is young and beautiful, or «a lemon» if she is ugly and boring.

Metaphor  the transference of the literal meaning in a word based on the association of similarity


Слайд 31Metonymy
the transference of the literal meaning of a

word based on the association of contiguity between objects or

phenomena.

«cash» is an adaptation of the French word «caisse» which means «box» and in which money was contained. Now the meaning of this word is «money».
«crown» in the meaning of «monarchy»

Metonymy  the transference of the literal meaning of a word based on the association of contiguity


17. Types of meaning. Semantic structure
of the word.

Types of meaning

Типы значений

There are two main types of meaning:

1) the grammatical meaning,

2. the lexical meaning.

Есть два основных типа значения:

1) грамматический смысл,

 2. лексический смысл.

1. The grammatical meaning is the formal meaning of a word. It is
defined as the meaning belonging to the lexico-grammatical classes and
grammatical categories. It is expressed by the word’s form. Every word
belongs to a definite part of speech and every part of speech has a certain
grammatical categories. E.g. verbs have tense, voice, mood, person etc. Nouns
have the categories of case, number etc. E.g. the words “asked”, “thought”,
“talked”, “took, ran” have the grammatical meaning of tense. The grammatical
meaning unites words into big groups such as parts of speech.

1.Грамматический смысл — это формальный смысл слова.
Он определяется как значение, относящееся к лексико-грамматическим классам и
грамматическим категориям. Это выражается формой слова. Каждое слово
принадлежит определенной части речи, и каждая часть речи имеет определенные
грамматические категории.
Ex. Глаголы имеют напряженный,
голос, настроение, лицо и т. Д. Существительные имеют категории случаев,
число и т. Д. Пример. Слова «спросили», «подумали», «поговорили», «взяли,
побежали», имеют грамматический смысл времени. Грамматический смысл
объединяет слова в большие группы, такие как части речи

2.  The lexical meaning is the material meaning of a word. This is
a meaning which gives the concept of a word. By the lexical meaning the word
expresses the basic properties of the thing the word denotes.

2.Лексический смысл — это
материальный смысл слова. Это значение, которое дает понятие слова. По
лексическому значению слово выражает основные свойства вещи, которую
обозначает слово.

The lexical meaning of a word falls into two:

1) the denotational meaning,

2) the connotational meaning.

Denotational meaning makes communication
possible because words denote things, concepts, they name them.

E.g. the denotational meaning of the word
“table” is a piece of furniture consisting of a flat top with four supports
(called legs).

The denotational meaning is associated with
emotions (e.g. He besought a favour of the judge: Here the word “beseech”
means “to ask eagerly and also anxiously”). Evaluative connotation denotes
approval or disapproval relations to the thing or phenomena,

 E.g. colt, a young male horse used for a young
inexperienced person; pup- a young dog used for a person. These words have
negative evaluation.

But in English we have words which have positive
evaluation (ex. bunny —
кролик, bunting-лапочка).

Intensifying connotation is the reinforcement of
the sign: it indicates the special importance of the thing expressed. E.g.
awfully glad, terribly important.

Лексический смысл слова делится на два:

1) денотационный смысл,

 2) коннотационный смысл.

Денотационный смысл делает общение
возможным, потому что слова обозначают вещи, понятия, они называют их.

Ex. Денотационный смысл слова «стол» —
это предмет мебели, состоящий из плоской вершины с четырьмя опорами
(называемых ногами).

Денотационный смысл связан с эмоциями
(например, он просил о помощи судьи: здесь слово «умолять» означает «спросить
с нетерпением, а также с тревогой»). Оценочная коннотация означает одобрение
или неодобрение отношений с вещью или явлениями, например.

Colt — молодой мужской конь,
используемый для молодого неопытного человека; Pup — молодая собака,
используемая для человека. Эти слова имеют отрицательную оценку.

Но на английском языке мы имеем слова,
которые имеют положительную оценку (например, кролик — кролик,
bunting-лапочка.

Усиление связи — это усиление знака: оно
указывает на особую важность выраженной вещи. Ex. Ужасно рад, ужасно важно

The connotational meaning is
a meaning which has a stylistic shade. It serves to express all sorts of
emotions, expressiveness. Connotation may be shortly defined as emotional and
evaluative component of the lexical meaning, Comparing the meanings of
English words “well-known”, “famous”, “notorious” we see that all these words
express the denotational meaning “widely known”. But the word “famous” has a
positive evaluative meaning and “notorious has a negative evaluation. So, the
words “well-known”, “famous”, “notorious” differ in their emotional colouring
and evaluation.

The connotational meaning may be expressed also
either in the emotive charge or in stylistic reference.

E.g. “aunt” and “auntie”. These words have the
same denotational meaning but the word “aunt” has no emotive charge but
“auntie” has it.

Коннотационный смысл — это значение,
имеющее стилистический оттенок. Он служит для выражения всех видов эмоций,
выразительности. Коннотация может быть коротко определена как эмоциональная и
оценочная составляющая лексического значения. Сравнивая значения английских
слов «хорошо известные», «знаменитые», «печально известные», мы видим, что
все эти слова выражают денотационное значение «широко известно». Но слово
«знаменитый» имеет положительный оценочный смысл, а «печально известная»
отрицательная оценка. Итак, слова «хорошо известны», «знаменитые», «печально
известные» отличаются своей эмоциональной окраской и оценкой.

 Коннотационный смысл может быть выражен либо в
эмоциональном заряде, либо в стилистической ссылке.

Ex. «Тетя» и «тетушка». Эти слова имеют
одинаковый денотационный смысл, но слово «тетя» не имеет эмоционального
заряда, но «тетушка» имеет его.

Stylistically words can be subdivided into literary,

neutral and colloquial
layers.

Neutral words are words of
general use. E.g. the words “to begin” (
начинать) and “to commence”(начинать) “dad”
and “ father” have the same denotational meanings but “to begin” and “father”
are stylistically neutral words, whereas “dad” is a colloquial word and “ to
commence” stylistically is a literary word.

Стилистически
слова
можно подразделить на
литературные,

 нейтральные и

разговорные слои.

 Нейтральные слова —
это слова общего пользования. Ex. Слова «начать» (начинать) и «начать»
(начинать) «папа» и «отец» имеют одинаковые денотационные значения, но
«начать» и «отец» являются стилистически нейтральными словами, тогда как
«папа» — это разговорный Слово и «начать» стилистически — это литературное
слово.

Besides the lexical and grammatical meanings we
can observe

differential,

functional and

distributional meanings of a word.

 Differential meaning is the semantic component
that serves to distinguish one word from other in words containing the same (identical)
morphemes.

E.g. “note-book”. The morpheme “note” serves to
distinguish the word from other words: exercise-book, copy-book or:
bookshelf, bookcase.

The functional meaning may be seen in derivational
morphemes. If we see words with the suffixes -ment, -er, -ity, -or, we say
that they are nouns.

E.g. establishment, plurality, teacher,
translator, sailor.

If -ful, -less, -able, -al etc. are present in
words we say adjectives.

E.g. helpful, handless, guiltless, readable,
national, writable, operational, openable, proposal.

The distributional meaning is found in all words
having more than one morpheme. It is found in the arrangement and order of
morphemes making up the word.

E.g. “teacher” but not *erteach.

“boyishness”
but not *nessboyish.

Помимо лексических и грамматических
значений, мы можем наблюдать

 дифференциальные,

 функциональные и

распределительные значения слова.

Дифференциальное значение — это
семантическая составляющая, которая служит для того, чтобы отличить одно
слово от другого в словах, содержащих одни и те же (зубные) морфемы.

Ex. «блокнот». Морфема
«примечание» служит для того, чтобы отличить слово от

Другими словами: тетрадь, тетрадь или
книжная полка, книжный шкаф.

Функциональное значение можно увидеть в
деривационных морфемах. Если мы видим слова с суффиксом, -er, -ity, -или, мы
говорим, что они существительные.

Например. Создание, множественность,
учитель, переводчик, матрос.

If -ful, -less, -able, -al и т. Д.
Присутствуют в словах, мы говорим прилагательные.

Ex. Полезный, бесшумный, невинный,
читаемый, национальный, доступный для записи, операционный, открываемый,
предложение.

Значение распределения содержится во
всех словах, имеющих более одной морфемы. Он находится в расположении и
порядке морфем, составляющих слово.

Ex. «Учитель», но не * erteach.

«Боязливость», но не
* nessboyish.

Different types of the lexical meaning of one and the same word
are considered its lexico-semantic variants. Lexico-semantic variants in
their correlations and interconnection form the semantic structure of the
word. In the semantic structure of the word there is  special information on
the members and the conditions of communication. The intercourse and personal
contacts in real situations may reveal the pragmatic aspect of the lexical
meaning of the word.

E.g. “Hello” is used in unofficial situations giving a signal at
the same time to the friendly relations of the members of the communication.

Различные лексические значения одного и того же слова считаются
его лексико-семантическими вариантами. Лексико-семантические варианты в их
корреляциях и взаимосвязи образуют семантическую структуру слова. В
семантической структуре слова есть специальная информация о членах и условиях
общения. Взаимоотношения и личные контакты в реальных ситуациях могут выявить
прагматический аспект лексического значения слова.

Ex. «Hallo» используется в неофициальных ситуациях, давая сигнал
в то же время к дружеским отношениям членов сообщения.

Semantic
structure of the word.

The semantic structure of the word. Types of lexical meaning.

The branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of different
linguistic units is called Semantics. The part of Lexicology which studies
the meaning and the development of meaning of words is called Semasiology.

There are different approaches to the problem of word meaning:

1) The referential, or denotational approach is characterised by
the thought that (тем что) the essence (суть) of meaning lies in the
interconnection and interdependence between: the word as the sound form, the
referent, and the concept. Here meaning is the realisation of the
concept/notion by means of a definite language system.

 2) The functional, or contextual approach is characterised by
the idea that the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through
its relation to other linguistic units. Thus, meaning is understood as the
function of linguistic signs, or their use in context.

Word meaning is represented by different types of meaning:
grammatical, lexical, lexico-grammatical.

Grammatical meaning is the component of word meaning, recurrent
in identical sets of individual forms of different words. It is expressed by:

word-form (such as books, girls, boys – the meaning of plurality;
looked, asked – tense meaning);

The position of the word in relation to other words (e.g. He
sings well, She dances badly – ‘sings’ and ‘dances’ are found in identical
positions between a pronoun and an adverb, their identical distribution
proves that they have identical gr.m.)

Lexico-grammatical meaning of the word is the common denominator
(знаменатель) to all the meanings of the words belonging to a certain
lexico-grammatical class or group of words.

Lexical meaning is the component of word meaning recurrent in
all the forms of the word. The word forms go, goes, went, gone, going have
different gr.m., but they have one and the same l.m. ‘the process of
movement’.

The main component of L.m. are: the denotational meaning of
words is the same for all the speakers. It is the realisation of the concept
by means of the given language.

Семантическая структура слова. Типы лексического значения.

Филиал Лингвистики, изучающий значение различных языковых
единиц, называется семантикой. Часть Лексикологии, которая изучает смысл и
развитие смысла слов, называется Семасиология.

Существуют различные подходы к проблеме смыслового значения:

1) ссылочный или денотационный подход характеризуется мыслью,
что (тем что) суть (суть) смысла заключается в взаимосвязи и
взаимозависимости между: словом как звуковой формой, Референт и концепция.
Здесь смысл заключается в реализации понятия / понятия с помощью определенной
языковой системы.

 2) Функциональный или контекстуальный подход характеризуется
тем, что значение лингвистической единицы может изучаться только через ее
связь с другими лингвистическими единицами. Таким образом, смысл понимается
как функция лингвистических знаков или их использование в контексте.

Значение слова представлено различными типами значений:
грамматическим, лексическим, лексико-грамматическим.

Грамматический смысл — это компонент значения слова,
повторяющийся в идентичных наборах отдельных форм разных слов. Это
выражается:

Слово-форма (например, книги, девочки, мальчики — значение
плюрализма, взгляд, заданное значение);

Положение слова по отношению к другим словам (например, он поет хорошо,
она плохо танцует — «поющие» и «танцы» находятся в одинаковых положениях
между местоимением и наречием, их идентичное распределение доказывает, что
они имеют одинаковые грамм .)

Лексико-грамматический смысл слова является общим знаменателем
(знаменатель) ко всем значениям слов, относящихся к определенному
лексико-грамматическому классу или группе слов.

Лексическое значение — это компонент слова, повторяющийся во
всех формах слова. Слово «формы» уходит, уходит, уходит, уходит, уходит
разное
gr.m., но у них одно и то же l.m. «Процесс движения».

Основной компонент L.m. находятся: Денотационный смысл слов для всех динамиков
одинаковый. Это реализация концепции с помощью данного языка

The pragmatic aspect is the part of the meaning, that conveys information
on the situation of communication: information on the ‘time and space’
relationship of the participants, information on the participants in the
given language community, information on the register of communication.

The connotational meaning conveys the speaker’s attitude toward
what he is speaking about. There are 4 main types of connotations: a) The
emotional connotation expresses human emotions and feelings (e.g. daddy,
father); b) The evaluative connotation expresses approval or disapproval (e.g.
agent and spy, planning and scheming=planning secretly); c) The intensifying
connotation adds emphasis (
усиление) to
the meaning. (e.g. enormous, huge, tremendous=very large); d) The stylistic
connotation determines the functional speech style characteristic of the word
usage (dad-father-parent; colloquial-neutral-bookish).

Прагматический аспект Является частью смысла, которая передает
информацию о ситуации коммуникации: информацию о взаимоотношениях участников
«времени и пространства», информацию об участниках данного языкового
сообщества, информацию о реестре сообщений.

Коннотационный смысл передает отношение говорящего к тому, о чем
он говорит. Существует четыре основных типа коннотаций: а) эмоциональная
коннотация выражает человеческие эмоции и чувства (например, папа, отец); Б)
оценочная коннотация выражает утверждение или неодобрение (например, агент и
шпион, планирование и интриги = планирование тайно); В) Усиление коннотации
добавляет акцент (усиление) на смысл. (Например, огромные, огромные, огромные
= очень); D) Стилистическая коннотация определяет функциональный стиль речи,
характерный для использования слова (отец-отец-родитель,
разговорный-нейтральный-книжный).

Слайд 1Lecture 3

Semantic Structure of the Word and Its Changes

Lecture 3 
 
 Semantic Structure of the Word and Its Changes


Слайд 2Plan:
Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning.
Types of word-meaning.
Polysemy. Semantic

structure of words. Meaning and context.
Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results.

Plan: Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning. Types of word-meaning.  Polysemy. Semantic structure of words.


Слайд 3List of Terms:
semantics
referent
referential meaning
grammatical meaning
lexical meaning
denotational meaning
connotational meaning
polysemantic word
polysemy
lexical-semantic variants
basic meaning
peripheral

meaning
primary meaning
secondary meaning

radiation
concatenation
lexical context
grammatical context
thematic context
ellipsis
differentiation of synonyms
linguistic analogy
metaphor
metonymy
restriction of meaning
extension of meaning
ameliorative development of meaning
pejorative development of meaning

List of Terms: semantics referent referential meaning grammatical meaning lexical meaning denotational meaning connotational meaning polysemantic word


Слайд 4
It is meaning that makes language useful.
George A. Miller,

The science of word, 1991

It is meaning that makes language useful.  George A. Miller,  The science of


Слайд 5
1. Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning

1. Semantics / semasiology. Different approaches to word-meaning


Слайд 6
The function of the word as a unit of

communication is possible by its possessing a meaning.

Among the word’s various characteristics meaning is the most important.

The function of the word as a unit of communication is possible by its


Слайд 7
«The Meaning of Meaning» (1923) by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards

– about 20 definitions of meaning


Слайд 8Meaning of a linguistic unit, or linguistic meaning, is studied by

semantics

(from Greek – semanticos ‘significant’)

Meaning of a linguistic unit, or linguistic meaning, is studied by semantics   (from Greek –


Слайд 9
This linguistic study was pointed out in 1897 by

M. Breal

This linguistic study was pointed out in 1897 by M. Breal


Слайд 10
Semasiology is a synonym for ‘semantics’

(from

Gk. semasia ‘meaning’ + logos ‘learning’)

Semasiology is a synonym for 'semantics'     (from Gk. semasia 'meaning'


Слайд 11Different Approaches to Word Meaning:

ideational (or conceptual)
referential
functional

Different Approaches to Word Meaning:
  ideational (or conceptual) referential functional


Слайд 12
The ideational theory can be considered the earliest theory

of meaning.
It states that meaning originates in the mind in the form of ideas, and words are just symbols of them.

The ideational theory can be considered the earliest theory of meaning.


Слайд 13A difficulty:
not clear why communication and understanding are possible if

linguistic expressions stand for individual personal ideas.

A difficulty:  not clear why communication and understanding are possible if linguistic expressions stand for individual


Слайд 14Meaning:
a concept with specific structure.

Meaning:  a concept with specific structure.


Слайд 15
Do people speaking different languages have different conceptual systems?
If people

speaking different languages have the same conceptual systems why are identical concepts expressed by correlative words having different lexical meanings?

Do people speaking different languages have different conceptual systems?  If people speaking different languages have


Слайд 16
finger ‘one of 10 movable parts of joints at the end

of each human hand, or one of 8 such parts as opposed to the thumbs‘
and

палец ‘подвижная конечная часть кисти руки, стопы ноги или лапы животного’

finger 'one of 10 movable parts of joints at the end of each human hand, or


Слайд 17
Referential theory is based on interdependence of things,

their concepts and names.

Referential theory is based on interdependence of things, their concepts and names.


Слайд 18

The complex relationships between referent (object denoted by the

word), concept and word are traditionally represented by the following triangle:
Thought = concept

Symbol = word Referent = object

The complex relationships between referent (object denoted by the word), concept and word


Слайд 19

an animal, with 4
legs and a tail, can bark and

bite

dog

an animal, with 4 
 legs and a tail, can bark


Слайд 20Meaning concept
different words having different meanings may be

used to express the same concept

Meaning    concept different words having different meanings may be used to express the same


Слайд 21Concept of dying
die
pass away
kick the bucket
join the majority,

etc

Concept of dying  die pass away  kick the bucket  join the majority, etc


Слайд 22Meaning symbol
In different languages:

a word with the same

meaning have different sound forms (dog, собака)
words with the same sound forms have different meaning (лук, look)

Meaning    symbol In different languages:  a word with the same meaning have different


Слайд 23Meaning referent
to denote one and the same object

we can give it different names

Meaning    referent to denote one and the same object we can give it different


Слайд 24A horse
in various contexts:
horse,
animal,
creature,
it, etc.

A horse in various contexts: horse,  animal,  creature,  it, etc.


Слайд 25Word meaning:
the interrelation of all three components of

the semantic triangle: symbol, concept and referent, though meaning is not equivalent to any of them.

Word meaning:    the interrelation of all three components of the semantic triangle: symbol, concept


Слайд 26
Functionalists study word meaning by analysis of the way

the word is used in certain contexts.

Functionalists study word meaning by analysis of the way the word is used in


Слайд 27
The meaning of a word is its use

in language.

The meaning of a word is its use in language.


Слайд 28cloud and cloudy
have different meanings because in speech they function

differently and occupy different positions in relation to other words.

cloud and cloudy  have different meanings because in speech they function differently and occupy different positions


Слайд 29Meaning:
a component of the word through which a concept

is communicated

Meaning:   a component of the word through which a concept is communicated


Слайд 31According to the conception of word meaning as a specific structure:

functional

meaning: part of speech meaning (nouns usually denote «thingness», adjectives – qualities and states)
grammatical: found in identical sets of individual forms of different words (she goes/works/reads, etc.)
lexical: the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit highly individual and recurs in all the forms of a word (the meaning of the verb to work ‘to engage in physical or mental activity’ that is expressed in all its forms: works, work, worked, working, will work)

According to the conception of word meaning as a specific structure:
  functional meaning: part of speech


Слайд 32Lexical Meaning:
denotational

connotational

Lexical Meaning: denotational   connotational


Слайд 33
Denotational lexical meaning provides correct reference of a word to an

individual object or a concept.
It makes communication possible and is explicitly revealed in the dictionary definition (chair ‘a seat for one person typically having four legs and a back’).

Denotational lexical meaning provides correct reference of a word to an individual object or a concept.


Слайд 35
Connotational lexical meaning is an emotional colouring of the

word. Unlike denotational meaning, connotations are optional.

Connotational lexical meaning is an emotional colouring of the word. Unlike denotational meaning, connotations


Слайд 36Connotations:
Emotive charge may be inherent in word meaning (like in attractive,

repulsive) or may be created by prefixes and suffixes (like in piggy, useful, useless).

It’s always objective because it doesn’t depend on a person’s perception.

Connotations: Emotive charge may be inherent in word meaning (like in attractive, repulsive) or may be created


Слайд 37
2. Stylistic reference refers the word to a certain style:
neutral words
colloquial
bookish,

or literary words

Eg. father – dad – parent .

2. Stylistic reference refers the word to a certain style: neutral words colloquial bookish, or literary


Слайд 38
3. Evaluative connotations express approval or disapproval (charming, disgusting).

4. Intensifying connotations

are expressive and emphatic (magnificent, gorgeous)

3. Evaluative connotations express approval or disapproval (charming, disgusting).  4. Intensifying connotations are expressive and


Слайд 39
Denotative component

Lonely = alone, without company

To glare = to look

Connotative component

+ melancholy, sad (emotive con.)

+ 1) steadily, lastingly (con. of duration)
+ 2) in anger, rage (emotive con.)

Denotative component  Lonely = alone, without company  To glare = to look  Connotative


Слайд 40
3. Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and context

3. Polysemy. Semantic structure of words. Meaning and context


Слайд 41
A polysemantic word is a word having more than one meaning.

Polysemy

is the ability of words to have more than one meaning.

A polysemantic word is a word having more than one meaning.  Polysemy is the ability


Слайд 42
Most English words are polysemantic.

A well-developed polysemy is a great advantage in a language.

Most English words are polysemantic.    A well-developed polysemy is


Слайд 43Monosemantic Words:
terms (synonym, bronchitis, molecule),
pronouns (this, my, both),
numerals, etc.

Monosemantic Words: terms (synonym, bronchitis, molecule),  pronouns (this, my, both),  numerals, etc.


Слайд 44The main causes of polysemy:
a large number of:
1) monosyllabic words;

2) words of long duration (that existed for centuries).

The main causes of polysemy: a large number of:  1) monosyllabic words;  2) words of


Слайд 45The sources of polysemy:

1) the process of meaning change (meaning specialization:

is used in more concrete spheres);
2) figurative language (metaphor and metonymy);
3) homonymy;
4) borrowing of meanings from other languages.

The sources of polysemy:
  1) the process of meaning change (meaning specialization: is used in more


Слайд 46blanket
a woolen covering used on beds,
a covering for keeping a house

warm,
a covering of any kind (a blanket of snow),
covering in most cases (used attributively), e.g. we can say: a blanket insurance policy.

blanket a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a house warm,  a covering


Слайд 47
Meanings of a polysemantic word are organized in a

semantic structure

Meanings of a polysemantic word are organized in a semantic structure


Слайд 48Lexical-semantic variant
one of the meanings of a polysemantic word used

Lexical-semantic variant  one of the meanings of a polysemantic word used in speech


Слайд 49A Word’s Semantic Structure Is Studied:
Diachronically (in the process of its

historical development): the historical development and change of meaning becomes central. Focus: the process of acquiring new meanings.

Synchronically (at a certain period of time): a co-existence of different meanings in the semantic structure of the word at a certain period of language development. Focus: value of each individual meaning and frequency of its occurrence.

A Word's Semantic Structure Is Studied: Diachronically (in the process of its historical development): the historical development


Слайд 50

The meaning first registered in the language is called primary.

Other

meanings are secondary, or derived, and are placed after the primary one.

The meaning first registered in the language is called primary.   Other meanings are


Слайд 51table
a piece of furniture (primary meaning)
the persons

seated at the table
the food put on the table, meals
a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood
slabs of stone
words cut into them or written on them
an orderly arrangement of facts
part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on
a level area, a plateau

table  a piece of furniture    (primary meaning) the persons seated at the table


Слайд 52
The meaning that first occurs to our mind, or is understood

without a special context is called the basic or main meaning.

Other meanings are called peripheral or minor.

The meaning that first occurs to our mind, or is understood without a special context is


Слайд 53Fire

1. flame (main meaning)

2. an instance of destructive burning
e.g. a forest fire

4. the shooting of guns
e.g. to open fire

3. burning material in a stone, fireplace
e.g. a camp fire

5. strong feeling, passion
e.g. speech lacking fire

Fire


Слайд 54Processes of the Semantic Development of a Word:
radiation (the primary meaning

stands in the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning)
concatenation (secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. It is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one)

Processes of the Semantic Development of a Word: radiation (the primary meaning stands in the center and


Слайд 55crust
hard outer part of bread
hard part of anything (a

pie, a cake)
harder layer over soft snow
a sullen gloomy person
Impudence

crust  hard outer part of bread  hard part of anything (a pie, a cake) harder


Слайд 56
Polysemy exists not in speech but in the language.

It’s

easy to identify the main meaning of a separate word. Other meanings are revealed in context.

Polysemy exists not in speech but in the language.    It’s easy to


Слайд 57Context:
linguistic
1. lexical – a number of lexical units

around the word which enter into interaction with it (i.e. words combined with a polysemantic word are important).
2. grammatical – a number of lexical units around the world viewed on the level of parts of speech.
3. thematic – a very broad context, sometimes a text or even a book.

extralinguistic – different cultural, social, historical factors

Context: linguistic    1. lexical – a number of lexical units around the word which


Слайд 58
4. Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results

4. Change of word-meaning: the causes, nature and results


Слайд 59
The meaning of a word can change in a course

of time.

The meaning of a word can change in a course of time.


Слайд 60Causes of Change of
Word-meaning:

1. Extralinguistic (various changes in the life

of a speech community, in economic and social structure, in ideas, scientific concepts)
e.g. “car” meant ‘a four-wheeled wagon’; now – ‘a motor-car’, ‘a railway carriage’ (in the USA)
“paper” is not connected anymore with “papyrus” – the plant from which it formerly was made.
2. Linguistic (factors acting within the language system)

Causes of Change of 
 Word-meaning:
  1. Extralinguistic (various changes in the life of a speech


Слайд 61Linguistic Causes:
1. ellipsis – in a phrase made up of two

words one of these is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner.
e.g. “to starve” in O.E. = ‘to die’ + the word “hunger”. In the 16th c. “to starve” = ‘to die of hunger’.
e.g. daily = daily newspaper

Linguistic Causes: 1. ellipsis – in a phrase made up of two words one of these is


Слайд 62Linguistic Causes:
2. differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms – when a new

word is borrowed it may become a perfect synonym for the existing one. They have to be differentiated; otherwise one of them will die.
e.g. “land” in O.E. = both ‘solid part of earth’s surface’ and ‘the territory of the nation’. In the middle E. period the word “country” was borrowed as its synonym; ‘the territory of a nation’ came to be denoted mainly by “country”.

Linguistic Causes:  2. differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms – when a new word is borrowed it may


Слайд 63Linguistic Causes:
3. linguistic analogy – if one of the members of

the synonymic set acquires a new meaning, other members of this set change their meaning too.
e.g. “to catch” acquired the meaning ‘to understand’; its synonyms “to grasp” and “to get” acquired this meaning too.

Linguistic Causes: 3. linguistic analogy – if one of the members of the synonymic set acquires a


Слайд 64
The nature of semantic changes is based on the

secondary application of the word form to name a different yet related concept.
Conditions to any semantic change: some connection between the old meaning and the new.

The nature of semantic changes is based on the secondary application of the word


Слайд 65Association between Old Meaning and New:
similarity of meanings or metaphor –

a semantic process of associating two referents one of which in some way resembles the other
contiguity (closeness) of meanings or metonymy – a semantic process of associating two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it

Association between Old Meaning and New: similarity of meanings or metaphor – a semantic process of associating


Слайд 66Types of Metaphor:

a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage),

bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb);
b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession);
c) similarity of function, behavior, e.g. a bookworm (a person who is fond of books);
d) similarity of color, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut.

Types of Metaphor:
  a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a


Слайд 67Types of Metonymy:
‘material — object of it’ (She is wearing a

fox);
‘container — containее’ (I ate three plates);
‘place — people’ (The city is asleep);
‘object — a unit of measure’ (This horse came one neck ahead);
‘producer — product’ (We bought a Picasso);
‘whole — part’ (We have 10 heads here);
‘count — mass’ (We ate rabbit)

Types of Metonymy: 'material — object of it' (She is wearing a fox); 'container — containее' (I


Слайд 68Results of Semantic Change:
changes in the denotational component

changes in the connotational

meaning

Results of Semantic Change: changes in the denotational component  changes in the connotational meaning


Слайд 69Changes in the Denotational Component:

restriction – a word denotes a restricted

number of referents.
e.g. “fowl” in O.E. = ‘any bird’, but now ‘a domestic hen or chicken’

extension – the application of the word to a wider variety of referents
e.g. ‘‘a cook’’ was not applied to women until the 16th century.

Changes in the Denotational Component:
  restriction – a word denotes a restricted number of referents.


Слайд 70
generalization – the word with the extended meaning passes from the

specialized vocabulary into common use and the meaning becomes more general.
e.g. “camp” = ‘the place where troops are lodged in tents’; now – ‘temporary quarters’.

specialization – the word with the new meaning comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group.
e.g. “to glide” = ‘to move gently and smoothly’ and now has acquired a special meaning – ‘to fly with no engine’.

generalization – the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use


Слайд 71Changes in the Connotational Meaning:
pejorative development (degradation) – the acquisition by

the word of some derogatory emotive charge.
e.g. “accident” ‘a happening causing loss or injury’ came from more neutral ‘something that happened’;

ameliorative development (elevation) – the improvement of the connotational component of meaning.
e.g. “a minister” denoted a servant, now – ‘a civil servant of higher rank, a person administering a department of state’

Changes in the Connotational Meaning: pejorative development (degradation) – the acquisition by the word of some derogatory


Слайд 72List of Literature:
Антрушина, Г. Б. Лексикология английского языка: учебник для студ.

пед. ин-тов по спец. № 2103 «Иностр. яз.» / Г. Б. Антрушина, О. В. Афанасьева, Н. Н. Морозова; под ред. Г. Б. Антрушиной. – М.: Высш. школа, 1985. – С. 129–142, 147–160.
Воробей, А. Н. Глоссарий лингвистических терминов / А. Н. Воробей, Е. Г. Карапетова. – Барановичи: УО «БарГУ», 2004. – 108 с.
Дубенец, Э. М. Современный английский язык. Лексикология: пособие для студ. гуманит. вузов / Э. М. Дубенец. – М. / СПб.: ГЛОССА / КАРО, 2004. – С. 74–82, 123–127.
Лексикология английского языка: учебник для ин-тов и фак-тов иностр. яз. / Р. З. Гинзбург [и др.]; под общ. ред. Р. З. Гинзбург. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Высш. школа, 1979. – С. 13–23, 28–39, 47–51.
Лещева, Л. М. Слова в английском языке. Курс лексикологии современного английского языка: учебник для студ. фак-в и отдел. английского языка (на англ. яз.) / Л. М. Лещева. – Минск: Академия управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь, 2001. – С. 36–56.

List of Literature: Антрушина, Г. Б. Лексикология английского языка: учебник для студ. пед. ин-тов по спец. №


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