Proceeding
from the differences in linguistic signs we claim that word-signs be
subdivided into two principal groups: lexical words and grammatical
words.
Lexical
words
are the linguistic signs which possess denotative
ability. They are denotators of extralingual objects and phenomena,
objective and subjective: a
window, a country, to judge,
etc. Their function consists in nominating or designating the denoted
objects and phenomena. The nominative character of denotative words,
which correlate with notions and have full denotative content, helps
to distinguish
nominative
words
from
non-nominative ones. Lexical
words in contrast to “grammatical words’’are nominative units
which function as lingual nominators of denoted referents.
The
term “notional”, however acceptable it might be, is not probably
exact because, in fact, all words, this way or another, correlate
with notions. But the correlative notions may be different, and the
ways of correlation may differ too. The term seems somewhat
misleading. Grammar resorts to it but interprets it conventionally as
a designation of denotative units only.
Grammatical
words are
also linguistic signs but they possess significative ability.
They
are
significators of general conceptual notions.
They
do not designate or nominate them as the word “significate”
itself
does.
They
may or may not have reference to objective reality.If they have any,
grammatical words are said to possess certain referential and
reflective ability. The significative character of the main stock of
grammatical words is obvious. This results from their function of
signification, i.e. the representation of general conceptual notions
(categories) not in the way of nominating but by signifying or
marking them grammatically. Hence, it is the way of lingual
representation and the nature of conceptual referents, significative
generic notions or categories, that predetermine the specific
lingual function of signification. Nomination and signification
are correlative and distinctive they lie at the basis of
differentiating lexical words from grammatical ones.
Since
grammatical words are devoid of nominative power they can be
characteristically qualified as “function-words”, i. e. words
attributed with particular functional design such as to signify
conceptual categories, to form up language units in their
function and relationships or to provide orientation in speech
situations. The functionality of grammatical words makes it
necessary to regard them together with other grammatical devices of
linguistic means of expression. Both types of words are bilateral
entities having their content and expression sides.
The
notion of ‘grammatical meaning’.
The word
combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and
grammatical. Lexical
meaning
is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table).
Grammatical
meaning
is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the
class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness.
If we take a noun (table)
we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it
corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical
meaning of thingness
(this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’
has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness.
Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical
meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An
adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the
grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives –
qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess
the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote
quality of qualities.
There are some classes of
words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the
grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they
have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong
to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc.
Types of grammatical
meaning.
The
grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit
grammatical
meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the word table
does
not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The
explicit
grammatical
meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In
the word cats
the
grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun;
cat’s
–
here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form
‘s;
is
asked –
shows the explicit grammatical meaning of passiveness.
The
implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and
dependent. The general
grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part
of speech (e.g. nouns – the general grammatical meaning of
thingness). The dependent
grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part
of speech. For instance, any verb possesses the dependent grammatical
meaning of transitivity/intransitivity,
terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-stativeness;
nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of
contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The most
important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it
influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them
to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of
countableness/uncountableness influences the realization of the
grammatical category of number as the number category is realized
only within the subclass of countable nouns, the grammatical meaning
of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the
grammatical category of case, teminativeness/non-terminativeness —
the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity – the category
of voice.
GRAMMATICAL
MEANING
EXPLICIT
IMPLICIT
GENERAL
DEPENDENT
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Denote main characteristics of words.
The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and the internal structures of the word.
When we consider the “external structure” of the word, we mean its morphological structure. For instance, in the word post-impressionists the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefix: post-, im-, the root press, the noun-forming suffixes -ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s. All these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word post-impressionists
We will study the external structure of words, and also typical word-formation patterns in the session on word-building.
The internal structure of word, or its meaning, is nowadays commonly referred to as the word’s semantic structure.
This is certainly the word’s major aspect. Word can serve the purposes of human communication solely due to their meanings, and it is the most unfortunate when this fact is ignored by some contemporary scholars who, in their obsession with the fetish of structure, tend to condemn as irrelevant anything that eludes mathematical analysis. And this is exactly what meaning, with its subtle variation and shifts, is apt to do.
The area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is called semantics. Another structural aspect of the word is sometimes inaccurately interpreted as indivisibility. The example of post-impressionists has already shown that the word is not, strictly speaking, indivisible.
Its component morphemes are permanently linked together in opposition to word-groups, both free and with fixed contexts, whose components possess a certain structural freedom, example bright light, to take for granted .
A further structural feature of the word is its susceptibility to grammatical employment. In speech most words can be used in different grammatical forms in which their interrelations are realized.
So far we have only underlined the word main peculiarities, but this suffices to convey the general idea of the difficulties and questions faced by the scholars attempting to give a detail definition of the word.
The difficulty does not merely consist in the considerable number of aspects that are to be taken into account, but, also in the essential unanswered questions of word theory which concern the nature of its meaning.
All that we have studied the word can be summed up as follows:
The word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity.
1. Ефименко А.З. Цены и ценовая политика. // Экономика строительства. — 2000. — №1. — С.54-61.
2. Цены и ценообразование: Учебник для вузов / Под ред. И.К. Салимжанова. — М.: ЗАО «Финстатинформ», 2003.
3. Дерябин А.А. Система ценообразования и финансов, пути совершенствования. М., Экономика, 2001
4. Певший Ф.М. Мировой рынок, конъюнктура, цены и маркетинг. М., МО, 2003
5. Ценообразование и рынок под ред. Салижманова И.K. М., Финстатинформ, колл. авторов, М., Прогресс, 2002
The Object of Lexicology
Antrushina G.B. English Lexicology
(pp. 6 – 11)
1. What is lexicology?
2. The structure of the word.
3. The main problems of lexicology.
4. Phraseology.
5. Vocabulary as a system.
What’s in a name? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet…
(W. Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet)
Что в имени твоём? То, что зовём мы розой, —
И под другим названьем сохраняло б
Свой сладкий запах!
(перевод Щепкиной-Куперник)
1. What is lexicology?
These famous lines reflect one of the fundamental problems of linguistic research: what is in a name, in a word? Is there any direct connection between a word and the object it represents? Could a rose have been called by “any other name” as Juliet says?
These and similar questions are answered by lexicological research. Lexicology,a branch of linguistics, is the study of words.
“Lexicology (from Gr lexis ‘word’ and logos ‘learning’) is the part of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language. The term vocabulary is used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words that the language possesses.
The term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. A word therefore is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.”
(I. Arnold, Lexicology, p.9)
We do not know much about the origin of language and, consequently, of the origin of words. We know almost nothing about the mechanism by which a speaker’s mental process is converted into sound groups called “words”, nor about the reverse process whereby a listener’s brain converts the acoustic phenomena into concepts and ideas, thus establishing a two-way process of communication.
We know very little about the nature of relations between the word and the referent (i.e. object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. denoted by the word). If we assume that there is a direct relation between the word and the referent it gives rise to another question: how should we explain the fact that the same referent is designated by quite different sound groups in different languages.
We do know by now that there is nothing accidental about the vocabulary of the language (the total sum of its words);that each word is a small unit within a vast, efficient and perfectly balanced system.
What do we know about the nature of the word?
First, we know that the word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. Thus, the word can be defined as a unit of communication.
Secondly, the word can be perceived as the total of the sounds which comprise it.
Third, the word, viewed structurally, possesses several characteristics.
The structure of the word
The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and the internal structures of the word.
By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word post-impressionists the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root press, the noun-forming suffixes — ion, — ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s. All these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word post-impressionists.
The internal structure of the word,or its meaning,is commonly referred to as the word’s semantic structure. This is the word’s main aspect. Words can serve the purposes of human communication solely due to their meanings.
The area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word is called semantics.
Another structural aspect of the word is its unity. The word possesses both external (or formal) unity and semantic unity. Formal unity of the word is sometimes interpreted as indivisibility. The example of post-impressionists has already shown that the word is not indivisible. Yet, its component morphemes are permanently linked together in opposition to word-groups, both free and with fixed contexts, whose components possess a certain structural freedom, e.g. bright light, to take for granted.
The formal unity of the word can best be illustrated by comparing a word and a word-group comprising identical constituents. The difference between a blackbird and a black bird is explained by their relationship with the grammatical system of the language. The word blackbird, which is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing: blackbird/s. The first constituent black is not subject to any grammatical changes. In the word-group a black bird each constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own: the blackest birds I’ve ever seen. Other words can be inserted between the components: a black night bird.
The same example may be used to illustrate what we mean by semantic unity.
In the word-group a black bird each of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept: bird – a kind of living creature; black – a colour.
The word blackbird conveys only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features of any word: it always conveys one concept, no matter how many component morphemes it may have in its external structure.
A further structural feature of the word is its susceptibility to grammatical employment. In speech most words can be used in different grammatical forms in which their interrelations are realized.
All that we have said about the word can be summed up as follows.
The word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity.
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