The genuine international word

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Композиция из абстрактных геометрических фигур Данная композиция состоит из линий, штриховки, абстрактных геометрических форм…

Важнейшие способы обработки и анализа рядов динамики Не во всех случаях эмпирические данные рядов динамики позволяют определить тенденцию изменения явления во времени…

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ МЕХАНИКА Статика является частью теоретической механики, изучающей условия, при ко­торых тело находится под действием заданной системы сил…

Теория усилителей. Схема Основная масса современных аналоговых и аналого-цифровых электронных устройств выполняется на специализированных микросхемах…

В эволюции растений и животных. Цель: выявить ароморфозы и идиоадаптации у растений Цель: выявить ароморфозы и идиоадаптации у растений. Оборудование: гербарные растения, чучела хордовых (рыб, земноводных, птиц, пресмыкающихся, млекопитающих), коллекции насекомых, влажные препараты паразитических червей, мох, хвощ, папоротник… Типовые примеры и методы их решения. Пример 2.5.1. На вклад начисляются сложные проценты: а) ежегодно; б) ежеквартально; в) ежемесячно Пример 2.5.1. На вклад начисляются сложные проценты: а) ежегодно; б) ежеквартально; в) ежемесячно. Какова должна быть годовая номинальная процентная ставка… Выработка навыка зеркального письма (динамический стереотип) Цель работы: Проследить особенности образования любого навыка (динамического стереотипа) на примере выработки навыка зеркального письма…

100
— академік М. Марр, 80 — видатний археолог
Генріх Шліман, понад
60 — український науковець і письменник
Агатангел Кримський.

Знання
іноземних мов здавна вважалося за
невід’ємну ознаку
духовної культури. Київський князь
Володимир Мономах писав
у своєму «Поученні»: «Що знаєте доброго,
того не забувайте,
а чого не знаєте, того навчайтесь — як
батько мій, перебуваючи
вдома, знав п’ять мов, від того бо честь
в інших країнах».
Кількома іноземними мовами володіли
видатний полководець
і державний діяч України Богдан
Хмельницький і гетьман Іван Виговський.

Чимало
поліґлотів (від грецького «полі» —
багато, глотта» —
мова) є і в наш час. У Римському університеті
працює професор Карло
Тальїавіні, який досконало володіє 35
мовами, викладає 25-ма,
а всього знає їх понад 120. «Батько»
кібернетики Норберт Вінер
вивчив 13 мов, професор Тартуського
університету Пауль Арісте
та викладач Московського Андрій Залізняк,
родом з Чернігівщини,
знають десь по 40 мов. До двох десятків
знав їх український
письменник-перекладач Микола Лукаш.
Він автор чудових
перекладів «Фауста» Ґете, «Декамерона»
Боккаччо, «Дон Кіхота»
Сервантеса та інших шедеврів світової
літератури. Поліглоти
визнають, що процес вивчення іноземних
мов дуже складний,
і в кожного з них свої власні методи.

UNITS
OF INTERNATIONAL LEXICON AND WAYS OF RENDERING THEIR MEANING AND
LINGUAL FORM

By
internationalisms are meant such language units which are borrowed
from one and the same source language by at least three
genealogically
different languages in the same or similar lingual form and
identical meaning (cf. долар,
атом, інтерес, директор, база, стадіон,
театр, фізика, etc.).
International, however, may be not only words
and phrases/word-groups, but also morphemes —
prefixes,
suffixes
and even inflexions, nothing to say about root morphemes as
the English or Ukrainian words fund фонд,
gas
ґаз,
lord
лорд,
ohm
ом,
park
парк,
pound
фунт,
smog
смоґ
and
many others.

These
morphemes are conveyed with the help of the translator’s
transcription (i.e. either transliterated or transcribed) sometimes,
through, the combination of boh these methods may be and is employed.

Among the most often occurring
international affixes in English

128

and Ukrainian are the
following:

1. Prefixes:
   апІі-/анти-, ех-/екс-, inter-Днтер-,
   tгапs-/транс-,
   ul-
   Іга-/ультра-;
   as
   in
   antibody
   антитіло, export
   (v.
   експортувати,
   international
   інтернаціональний, transmission
   трансмісія,
   ultraviolet
   ультрафіолетовий.

2. Suffixes:
   -ar/-ap,
   -er/-ep,
   -ізt/-ист/-іст,
   -ззіоп/-сія, -йоп/-ція,
   etc.
   as
   in
   quasar/квазар,
   actor/актор,
   volunteer/волонтер,
   humanist/гуманіст,
   constitution/конституція,
   agression/
   агресія,
   humorist/гуморисі,
   etc.

3. Inflexions:
   -ит/-ум, (memorandum
   меморандум). -us/-yc,
   (ra
   dius
   радіус), -а/-а (formula
   формула), etc.

The
lexicon of each developed language comprises a very large layer of
foreign by origin words, word-groups/phrases and even a small number
of sentences. These lexical and syntactic level units have been
acquired by the borrowing languages to designate notions hitherto
unknown in them. The bulk of these borrowed morphemes, lexemes
and syntaxymes are found in many languages of a culturally,
historically, and often geographically common area as Europe, the
Middle East or the Far East. They are used to designate notions
belonging
to different domains of human knowledge or activity.

Hence,
there is distinguished: a) the social and political terminology
comprising the most commonly used political, economic, philosophical,
historical, sociological units of lexicon (audit, bank, constitution,
parliament, party, president, barter, sophism, etc.). Here also
belong
terms designating international law, diplomacy, numerous literary
terms (cf. drama, poet, metaphor, epithet, hyperbole, etc.); b)
natural history/sciences terminology (physics, mathematics, genetics,
chemistry) used not only in special but also in scientific and
popular
works and in mass media (chemical/physical reaction, genes,
pneumonia,
etc.); c) numerous technical terms (names of machines and
their parts: motor, carter, starter, accelerator, battery), as well
as names
of different means of transport (bus, metro, taxi) and communication
(fax, telegraph, telex, radio, e-mail), etc.

These
and other words and phrases of the kind are referred to as
internationalisms, or more precisely genuine internationalisms. The
latter never considerably change their lingual (orthographic or
sounding)
form nor their internationally established meaning. (Cf.: motor
мотор,
audit
аудит,
therapeutic
терапевтичний).

The
main characteristic feature of genuine internationalisms, whether
single words or words-combinations, is their semantic singularity.
It means that their lexical identity and orthographic similarity

129

in
the source language and in all target languages remains unchanged
both
at language level (when taken separate) and at speech level, i.e.,
when used in texts/speech.

Apart from
many thousands of genuine international words and
word-combinations, which retain in several languages an identical
or similar lingual form and identical meaning, there exists one more
group of international lexis called translation
loan units of lexicon.
These
have also a generally common structural form (of word,
word-combination) but rarely a similarity in their orthographic form
or sounding. Loan
internationalisms are
mostly different terms designating
scientific and technological notions, in the main: brake гальмо,
citric
add
лимонна
кислота’, lead
oxide окис
свинцю; specific
gravity питома
вага; surplus
value додана
вартість; nonconducting
непровідність;
agreement
узгодження;
government
керування,
juxtaposition
прилягання
(gram.),
etc.

Along
with these two groups of word internationalisms there also
exist many stable international phraseological/idiomatic expressions
in each language’s lexicon. Their fund is constituted by the
so-called absolute and near equivalents having a common language
of origin —
Greek,
Latin or modern. Absolute and near international
equivalents of this subgroup retain in different languages
of a geographical area the same (or nearly the same) denotative
and connotative meaning, the same expressive force and
picturesqueness: Heel of Achilles ахіллесова
п’ята; sword
of
Damocles дамоклів
меч; to
cross/pass the Rubicon перейти
Рубікон;
the
die is cast жереб
кинуто; after
us the deluge після
нас
хоч потоп; the
fair sex прекрасна
стать; tilt
at windmills «воювати
з вітряками» («донкіхотствувати»); the
tree of knowledge
дерево
пізнання, etc.

The
use of international idioms is restricted in all languages to
belles-lettres, partly to social and political texts and to
conversational speech
style. These idioms are also occasionally used in didactic style
and are practically not used in scientific and technical matter
texts.

A separate
subgroup of genuine internationalisms constitute proverbs,
sayings and set expressions which are used in their foreign/original
lingual form (they are predominantly of Latin, French, English,
German origin). Due to centuries long usage they have become
regular mots often referred to as barbarisms: sine qua non неодмінна
умова; status
in statu держава
у державі; repetitio
est mater
studiorum (Lat.) повторення
— мати навчання; sotto
voce

130

тихо
(впівголоса); finita
la
commedia
(Ital.)
настав кінець, крах (справі
кінець); da
ist
der
Hund
begraben!
(Germ.)
ось де собака закопаний! O.K.,
all
right
(Engl.)
усе гаразд; c’est
la
vie
(Fr.)
таке життя.

The
number of these idiomatic/stable word-combinations unlike the fund of
genuine internationalisms and translation loans remains
practically unchanged. That is mainly because idioms/phraseological
expressions penetrate into different languages through scholastic,
literary and cultural channels, as a rule. This may be conditioned by
some extralingual factors, which may facilitate in some important
political situations their spontaneous appearance and penetration
into several languages during a short period of time. For the last
half a century there have appeared few stable expressions of this
kind, e.g.: «the fifth column» (1936,
Spain),
«Iron Curtain» (1947),
«peaceful
coexistence» (1950’s), «cold war» (1946,
USA),
«permissive
society» (1967,
Gr.
Br.) and a few others.

The
structural form of international idioms in most languages is
identical or similar. The occasional absence of identity in their
structural
form is explained by the divergences in the grammatical systems
and forms of expression in the source language and in the target
language (cf. the heel of Achilles/Achilles’ heel ахіллесова
п’ята,
the
Pillars of Hercules/Hercules’ Pillars (Herculean Pillars) геркулесові
стовпи or
стовпи
Геркулеса).

As
has been noted, the units of genuine international lexicon are
identified on the basis of their common in different languages
lexical meaning and identical or only similar lingual form. Loan
internationalisms,
on the other hand, are identified mainly on the basis of
their common sphere of use, their lexical meaning, functional
significance
and party —
structural
form.

The
identification of genuine or loan internationalisms presents no
difficulty so far as the monosemantic language units are concerned.
That is explained by the terminological nature of the signs, which
are used to signify social, political, scientific, technological,
cultural
and other notions (cf. parliament, theatre, theory, poet, arithmetic,
artillery, botany, phoneme, suffix, theorem, proton, volt, decimal
fractions, space probe, management, motor, computer, internet,
electricity,
etc.). These and many other internationalisms are monosemantic
words or word-combinations.which constitute a peculiar
layer of lexicon in quite different languages. They are characterized
by a similarity of their lexical meaning, by an identity or
similarity

131

in
their orphographic and sounding form, by their denotative meaning and
sometimes by their motivation. The meaning of these and a lot of
other
international words and phrases/word-groups of the kind does not
change in any other contextual environment. Consequently, their
nature
is constantly monolithic.

The
identification of the international meaning of some lexemes becomes
much more difficult, however, when dealing with polysemantic language
signs, which are a common feature in present-day English but
less common in Ukrainian. That is because in English a lot of lexemes
may often have one and the same lingual form for several notions,
which is shown below in the vectorial representation of meanings
pertained to the noun conductor:

Conductor

кондуктор

провідник

провід

громовідвід

диригент

керівник¹

genuine
internationalism international
loan word international loan word international loan word
pseudo-internationalism
pseudo-internationalism

As
can be seen, only one out of six lexemes above has a common lingual
form and meaning in English and Ukrainian («кондуктор»).
The
same vectorial disposition of denotative meanings can be observed in
several other polysemantic English words of the kind. Hence, in
order to avoid mistakes in translation, one must carefully study the
contextual environment of such and the like language
signs. Though sometimes the corresponding vectorial meanings
of polysemantic words can be identified already at word-combination
level. Cf.: a fit of depression/depression
fit
приступ/припадок
депресії:
depression
of trade занепад/застій
у торгівлі; the
structure
of
the sentence структура
речення; a
multi-storied structure багатоповерхова
споруда (будова/будівля).

Naturally,
not every adjunct (identifying word or word-group) forming
a word-combination with a polysemantic word, can discriminate
the real nature and meaning of the lexeme. Because of this care
should be taken when translating such polysemantic words, which
may have under the same lingual form either a genuine or a

¹
An
illustration of this pseudo-international meaning of the noun
conductor
can
be seen
in the following excerpt from The Economist journal (February 28,
1998): A
spectacular example of Oxford Health Plans once fastest-growing HMO
in America. The conductor
Stephen
Wiggins was forced to resign as chairman on February 24th.

132

pseudo-international,
e.i., common, non-international meaning, the latter
being realized in a definite context only. A few
more
examples of
such words may be useful:

dramatic

industry

{художній
мистецький
артистичний

театральний
драматичний

хвилюючий
яскравий
раптовий
непередбачений

індустрія

промисловість
галузь промисловості старанність
працьовитість

Civil

громадський
цивільний

ввічливий
чемний

практичний

Practical

доцільний
фактичний

революція
переворот

Revolution
< оберт (навколо осі)
сівозміна (с/г)

кругообіг

Apart
from
the
polysemantic
words
with
several
meanings,
one
of
which
is
genuine
international
and
the
rest
pseudo-international,
i.e.,
non-international
as
in
the
examples
above,
there
are
also
quite
a
few
words
in
present-day
English
and
Ukrainian
which
have
an
identical
orthographic
form
but
quite
different
lexical
meaning:
accu—rate
точний,
правильний, влучний but
not
акуратний: billet
ордер
на
постій, приміщення для постою but
not
квиток; compositor
складач
(друк.) but
not
композитор; data
дані but
not
дата; decade
десятиріччя but
not
декада; decoration
нагорода,
прикраса but
not
декорація; Dutch
голландський
but
not
данський: fabulist
байкар,
вигадник but
not
фабуліст; intelligence
розум,
кмітливість but
not
інтелігенція: momentous
важливий
but
not
моментальний; matrass
колба
but
not
матрац (mattress):
obligation
зобов’язання
but
not
облігація; potassium
калій
but
not
поташ; prospect
перспектива
but
not
проспект; production
виробництво,
випуск but
not
only
продукція: replica
точна
копія but
not
репліка; spectre
привид
but
not
спектр, etc.

As
can be ascertained, these English words quite accidentally coincide
in their lingual form with some other borrowed words in Ukrainian.
Thus, «replica», for example, has quite a different denotative
meaning
in Ukrainian than our репліка
(cue,
remark). So is the deno-

133

tative
meaning of many other words, whose number by far exceeds that
on the above-given list. These and the like pseudo-international
words
are often referred to as «false friends of the translator» (удавані
друзі
перекладача).

Unlike
common lexical units, whose orthographic and sounding
forms never coincide in the target language and in the source
language,
the lingual form of genuine international lexemes in all languages
is always either identical or similar. It does not mean that the
structural form of genuine internationalisms is necessarily always
transplanted
to the target language as it is observed in simple lexemes like
drama, poet, opera, suffix, lord, kimono, sari, kiwi, motor, proton
(драма,
поет, опера, суфікс, лорд, кімоно, сарі,
etc.).

More
often the same genuine international lexemes in English and
Ukrainian may have a different morphological structure. In Ukrainian
they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes
which
is rarely observed in present-day English. As a result, most of
genuine
international words in Ukrainian are structurally more complicated
than in English (cf. apathy-апат/я,
dietic-дієтичний,
form
-форма,
exploit
—
експлуатувати, economic-економічний),
etc.

Some
genuine
international
words,
however,
may
be
structurally
more
complicated
in
English
than
in
Ukrainian:
Cf.:
Greek:
analysis
аналіз, diagnosis
діагноз, sclerosis
склероз, academician
академік,
geographer
географ, mathematician
математик, philosopher
філософ, geologist
геолог; Latin:
appendicitis
апендицит, tuberculosis
туберкульоз, rheumatismus
ревматизм, etc.

Hence,
the structural models according to which different logico-grammatical
classes of internationalisms are adopted in English
and in Ukrainian mostly differ. On this ground relevant for the
identification, as well as for the translation of any international
word, remains
its root morpheme, i.e., its sense bearing seme. Taking this into
account, lexemes like anti-trade,
arch-enemy,
inventor
consisting
of international affixes and having common root morphemes are
to be treated as non-internationalisms,
i.e., as pseudo-internationalisms.
The
international nature/status of a source language
lexeme is considered to be fully retained, when the root morpheme or
at least the sense and lingual form (part of it) can be rendered in
the target language. Consequently, the compounds consisting
of a genuine international and a common root morpheme as school-male,
coal-gas,
washing-тасш’пе.
etc.
are to be defined in English
as partly international, i.e., mixed-type lexical units. Similarly in
Ukrainian: Газосховище,
радіохвилі,
водно-спиртовий.

134

WAYS
OF CONVEYING THE LEXICAL MEANING OF
GENUINE INTERNATIONALISMS

From what
has been pointed out concerning the nature and componental structure
of genuine internationalisms becomes clear, that
a faithful rendering of their lexical meaning often requires
considerable attention on the part of translators. At any rate, in
the process
of their translation several factors have to be taken into
consideration
both at language level and at speech level. These factors imply
the lingual form, the lexical meaning, the structure, the source of
origin and the orthographic presentation of internationalisms in both
the languages. As a result, expresing of meaning of some
internationalisms
may not always be termed «translation» proper since it is a regular
and complete transplantation of the source language units to the
target language (cf. atom атом,
plan
план,
professor
професор,
algebra
алґебра,
poetnoem,
etc).
Besides,
translating
of international lexemes may sometimes depend on the established
model stereotype according to which they are generally adopted in
the target language. Taking into account various peculiarities of
meaning
and form of international lexemes, several ways of conveying
their meaning can be suggested.

1.
Literal
Translating of Genuine Internationalisms. It
should be
pointed out that the lingual form of all componental parts in genuine
international words and phrases is more often completely
transplanted,
when they originate from languages, whose orthographic systems have
been arranged on phonetical principles. Hence, the authenticity
of literal translating from languages as Latin, Greek, Italian,
Ukrainian, partly Russian and Spanish will be always higher than that
from the English or French languages, whose orthographic systems are
based on the historical and etymological principles. It does not
mean, however, that a less exact literal transplantation should be
regarded as less faithful or inferior. Any of them is faithful enough
when it conveys the form and meaning of internationalisms. In this
view
literal translating of genuine internationalisms should not be
regarded
as a mechanical substitution of each letter of the source language
lexeme for a corresponding letter of the target language. In many a
case a letter may be dropped or added (substituted for another)
in the target language when it is not in full conformity with its
sound or spelling systems. Nevertheless, there are many
letter-to-letter
transliterated genuine internationalisms in English and Ukrainian.
Latin:
angina
анґіна,
dentist
дентист,
symposium
симпозіум,

135

gladiator
гладіатор,
microscope
мікроскоп,
rector
ректор;
Greek:
poet
поет,
micron
мікрон,
electron
електрон,
stadium
стадіон,
drama
драма,
theatre
театр;
Italian:
macaroni
макарони,
pizza
піцца,
concerto
концерт,
duet
дует,
solo
соло;
Spanish:
armada
армада,
tango
танґ’о,
El
Dorado ельдорадо,
embargo
ембарго,
etc.

It would be
wrong to assume that genuine internationalisms from
other than the above-mentioned languages can not be fully or almost
fully transliterated. Literal translating can faithfully convey the
lexical
meaning of many English, French, German and also other than
European by origin lexemes: English: bulldog бульдог¹,
club
клуб,
mister
містер,
shelf
шельф,
shilling
шилінґ,
shrapnel
шрапнель;
French:
chef
шеф,
festival
фестиваль,
chiffon
шифон,
franc
франк;
Germ.:
Diktat
диктат,
Deutsche
Mark дойч
марк; Portugese:
cobra
кобра,
flamingo
фламінго;
Czech:
robot
робот;
Hindi:
brahmin
брамін,
khaki
хакі,
sari
сарі;
Japanese:
kimono
кімоно,
tsunami
цунамі;
Arabic:
algebra алгебра,
atlas
атлас,
harem
гарем;
African:
banana
банан,
baobab
баобаб,
zebra
зебра;
Australian
aboriginal: dingo
дінго,
kiwi
ківі,
etc.

Literal
translation of some of these and other genuine internationalisms
may not be fully trusted, perhaps, as it has been performed
not directly from the original languages but through English,
which is an intermediary language here. The existence of literal
forms of genuine internationalisms from these languages, however,
is beyond any doubt like those from Ukrainian (cf. steppe,
Cos-sack/Kozak,
hryvnia); or Russian (balalaika, samovar, vodka, etc.). Nevertheless,
in many genuine internationalisms there is no absolute
literal/orthographic coincidence in the source language and in the
target language: basin басейн,
monsoon
мусон,
waltz
вальс,
wine
вино,
salt
сіль,
степ steppe,
devil диявол,
muscle
мускул,
etc.

These
divergences in the literal rendering are to be explained either
by the influence of the intermediary languages or by the peculiarity
of the target language admitting or not admitting the source language
orthographic representation (cf. brahmin брамін,
class
клас,
diet
дієта,
molecule
молекула,
etc.)
or foreign signs by the target language.

драматичний

хвилюючий яскравий раптовий непередбачений

{індустрія промисловість галузь промисловості старанність працьовитість

Apart from the polysemantic words with several meanings, one of which is genuine international and the rest pseudo-international, i.e., non-international as in the examples above, there are also quite a few words in present-day English and Ukrainian which have an identi­cal orthographic form but quite different lexical meaning: accurate точний, правильний, Влучний but not акуратний; billet ордер на постій, приміщення для постою but not квиток; compositor складач (друк.) but not композитор; data дані but not дата; decade десятиріччя but not декада; decoration нагорода, прикраса but not декорація; Dutch голландський but not данський; fabulist байкар, вигадник but not фабуліст; intelligence розум, кмітливість but not інтелігенція; momentous важливий but not моментальний; matrass колба but not матрац (mattress); obligation зобов’язання but not облігація; potassium калій but not поташ; prospect перспектива but not проспект; production виробництво, випуск but not only продукція; repjica точна копія but not репліка; spectre привид but not спектр, _etc.

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tative meaning of many other words, whose number by far exceeds that on the above-given list. These and the like pseudo-international words are often referred to as «false friends of the translator» (удавані друзі перекладача).

Unlike common lexical units, whose orthographic and sound­ing forms never coincide in the target language and in the source language, the lingual form of genuine international lexemes in all lan­guages is always either identical or similar. It does not mean that the structural form of genuine internationalisms is necessarily always trans­planted to the target language as it is observed in simple lexemes like drama, poet, opera, suffix, lord, kimono, sari, kiwi, motor, proton (драма, поет, опера, суфікс, лорд, кімоно, сарі, etc.).

More often the same genuine international lexemes in English and Ukrainian may have a different morphological structure. In Ukrai­nian they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes which is rarely observed in present-day English. As a result, most of genuine international words in Ukrainian are structurally more compli­cated than in English (cf. apathy — апат/я, dietic-дієтичний, form-форма, exploit — експлуатувати, economic — економічний), etc.

Some genuine international words, however, may be structur­ally more complicated in English than in Ukrainian: Cf.: Greek: analy­sis аналіз, diagnosis діагноз, sclerosis склероз, academician академік, geographer географ, mathematician математик, philoso­pher філософ, geologist геолог; Latin: appendicitis апендицит, tuber­culosis туберкульоз, rheumatismus ревматизм, etc.

From what has been pointed out concerning the nature and componental structure of genuine internationalisms becomes clear, that a faithful rendering of their lexical meaning often requires consid­erable attention on the part of translators. At any rate, in the process of their translation several factors have to be taken into consideration both at language level and at speech level. These factors imply the lingual form, the lexical meaning, the structure, the source of origin and the orthographic presentation of internationalisms in both the lan­guages. As a result, expresing of meaning of some internationalisms may not always be termed «translation» proper, since it is a regular and complete transplantation of the source language units to the tar­get language (cf. atom атом, plan план, professor професор, alge­bra алґебра, poet поет, etc). Besides, translating of international lexemes may sometimes depend on the established model stereo­type according to which they are generally adopted in the target lan­guage. Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of international lexemes, several ways of conveying their meaning can be suggested.

1. Literal Translating of Genuine Internationalisms. It should be pointed out that the lingual form of all componental parts in genu­ine international words and phrases is more often completely trans­planted, when they originate from languages, whose orthographic sys­tems have been arranged on phonetical principles. Hence, the au­thenticity of literal translating from languages as Latin, Greek, Italian, Ukrainian, partly Russian and Spanish will be always higher than that from the English or French languages, whose orthographic systems are based on the historical and etymological principles. It does not mean, however, that a less exact literal transplantation should be re­garded as less faithful or inferior. Any of them is faithful enough when it conveys the form and meaning of internationalisms. In this view literal translating of genuine internationalisms should not be regarded as a mechanical substitution of each letter of the source language lexeme for a corresponding letter of the target language. In many a case a letter may be dropped or added (substituted for another) in the target language when it is not in full conformity with its sound or spell­ing systems. Nevertheless, there are many letter-to-letter transliter­ated genuine internationalisms in English and Ukrainian. Latin: an­gina анґіна, dentist дантист, symposium симпозіум, gladiator

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135

гладіатор, microscope мікроскоп, rector ректор; Greek: poet поет, micron мікрон, electron електрон, stadium стадіон, drama драма, theatre театр; Italian: macaroni макарони, pizza піцца, concerto концерт, duet дует, solo соло; Spanish: armada армада, tango танґо, El Dorado ельдорадо, embargo ембарго, etc.

It would be wrong to assume that genuine internationalisms from other than the above-mentioned languages can not be fully or almost fully transliterated. Literal translating can faithfully convey the lexical meaning of many English, French, German and also other than European by origin lexemes: English: bulldog бульдог¹, club клуб, mister містер, shelf шельф, shilling шилінг¹, shrapnel шрапнель; French: chef шеф, festival фестиваль, chiffon шифон, franc франк; Germ.: Diktat диктат, Deutsche Магкдойч марк; Portugese: cobra кобра, flamingo фламінго; Czech: robot робот; Hindi: brahmin брамін, khaki хакі, sari сарі; Japanese: kimono кімоно, tsunami цунамі; Arabic: algebra алґебра, atlas атлас, harem гарем; Afri­can: banana банан, baobab баобаб, zebra зебра; Australian ab­original: dingo дінґо, kiwi ківі, etc.

Literal translation of some of these and other genuine internationalisms may not be fully trusted, perhaps, as it has been performed not directly from the original languages but through En­glish, which is an intermediary language here. The existence of literal forms of genuine internationalisms from these languages, however, is beyond any doubt like those from Ukrainian (cf. steppe, Cossack/ Kozak, hryvnia); or Russian (balalaika, samovar, vodka, etc.). Never­theless, in many genuine internationalisms there is no absolute lit­eral/orthographic coincidence in the source language and in the tar­get language: basin басейн, monsoon мусон, waltz вальс, wine вино, salt сіль, степ steppe, devil диявол, muscle мускул, etc.

These divergences in the literal rendering are to be explained either by the influence of the intermediary languages or by the peculiar­ity of the target language admitting or not admitting the source lan­guage orthographic representation (cf. brahmin брамін, class клас, diet дієта, molecule молекула, etc.) or foreign signs by the target language.

2. Translating via Transcribing/Conveying the Sounding Structure

Many genuine internationalisms are also faithfully rendered into the target language in their sounding form. This kind of translating pro­vides the rendition of the lexical meaning of a lot of internationalisms originating from English, French and some other languages, which have their orthographic systems based on other than phonetical principles.

Cf.: English: boom бум, box бокс, yeans джинси, knock-out нокаут, leader лідер, raid рейд, round раунд, ггас/стрек; French: boulevard бульвар, bouquet букет, bourgeoisie буржуазія, bureau бюро, drape драп, prize приз, pince-nez пенсне, etc.

The English and French international lexemes above belong to the lexico-grammatical class of nouns. But the number of genuine internationalisms, whose lexical meaning is faithfully conveyed in their unchanged original lingual form is small. More units of the layer of lexicon in English and Ukrainian do not fully coincide in their ortho­graphic, sounding and morphological (structural) form. This is to be explained by the differences in the phonetic and morphological sys­tems of the two languages and also by the possible influence of a third language as an intermediary between the source/target language and the language from which the international lexeme originates. To render faithfully the denotative meaning and the lingual form of these genuine internationalisms other ways of translating are to be employed.

3. Translating by Practical Transcribing

International morphemes and lexemes are adopted in all lan­guages according to the historically established traditions of their own. These find their expression in stereotype models for each lexico-grammatical class of words. As a result, any international word, what­ever the language of its origin and irrespective of the source language, from which it is translated, will have one and the same lingual and structural form in the target language. Thus, whether it is bankruptcy in English, bankerott’m German, banqueroute’m French or bancarot-ta in Italian, it will always remain «банкрутство» in Ukrainian. Hence, only some degree of likeness is retained between the lingual form of bankruptcy and its Ukrainian equivalent «банкрутство». The adopted word has obtained in the target language an orthographic, sounding and morphological/structural form, which is only similar to that of En­glish, French, German, or Italian. This kind of adopting international­isms is traditionally called «practical transcribing» or translator’s transcription.

Hense, some internationalisms may retain still less similarity/ likeness in their lingual form when they are translated from English into Ukrainian: Ьасле/огбакалавр, cocoa какао, crown корона/крона, dance танець, giant гігант, grade градус, hocus-pocus фокус, mother-of-pearlперламутр, mosque мечеть, oil олія, outpost аванпост, pa­pal папський, pound фунт (from German Pfund), etc.

The number of internationalisms making up this group is com­paratively small in the two contrasted languages. The bulk of interna-

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tional lexemes, when conveyed by way of practical transcribing, still retain a considerable degree of lingual and structural similarity in the two languages. These are first of all nouns of Greek and Latin origin and also some adjectives, adverbs and verbs. They may often differ consid­erably in their morphological structure, mostly taking additional affixal morphemes in Ukrainian: ambition амбіція, apathy ana™, condenser конденсатор, devil диявол, diplomacyдипломатія, hierarchy ієрархія, lecturer лектор, vegetarian вегетаріанський, condense конденсувати, criticize критикувати, stabilize стабілізувати, seriously серйозно, eco­nomic економічний, etc.

Translating of genuine and mixed-type international compounds is performed on the basis of and in accordance with the lingual form and structure of their componental parts. As a result, English interna­tional compounds can be rendered in the following ways:

1. 
   with the help of corresponding compounds having the same international root morphemes as in the source language: electro-biol­ogyелектробіологія, film-actor кіноактор, gas-meter газометр, mo­tor-cyclist мотоцикліст, radio-active радіоактивний, six-footer шестифутовий, etc.
   
2. 
   by word-combinations consisting of the same componental parts as in the international English compound words but of different than in the source language morphological structure and nature of a componental part of speech: dance-music (N+N) танцювальна (adj.) музика, gas-collector газовий (а.) колектор, nerve-centre нервовий (а.) центр, olive-coloured оливкового (а.) кольору, police-station поліційне (а.) відділення, radio-active element радіоактивний (а.) елемент, telegraph-line телеграфна (а.) лінія, etc. Thus, only radio­active and радіоактивний are adjectives in both languages.
   

Mixed-type compounds consisting of international and com­mon Ukrainian root morphemes are translated in accordance with their complex nature. Their equivalents in Ukrainian, however, may be both compound words and word-combinations consisting of international and non-international (as in the original) component parts (or even simple words): gas-mask протигаз, taxi-cab таксі, river-basin басейн річки, toilet-table туалетний столик, to/pedo-boaf торпедний катер, turning-point поворотний пункт, etc.

4. Descriptive Translating of International Lexemes Many genuine international lexemes are semantically con­densed and can be translated into the target language only in a de­scriptive way. Depending on the nature of the lexemes, their transla­tion may have two somewhat different realizations:

1. 
   the lingual form of the source language lexeme/s can be re­tained as the main lexeme/s of the target language word-combination/ sentence: civilizable той (та,те), що піддається цивілізуванню/ цивілізації; classifiable той (та,те), що піддається класифікації; barony 1 .володіння барона; 2.титул барона; energize викликати (збуджувати) енергію; examinee той, що екзаменується/складає іспит; golf-club 1. клуб гравців з ґольфу; 2. ключка для гри в Гольф;
   
2. 
   the lingual form of the internationalism is not or can not be retained in the target language. It happens when the internationalism has not been adopted yet by the target language. Thus, the noun epi­logue is a genuine internationalism in many European languages but the adjective epilogic derived from it, though semantically quite pellu­cid, is unknown in Ukrainian. Besides, some internationalisms can be substituted in the process of translation with the aim of achieving ex­pressiveness (for the reasons of style) or for the sake of explaining their denotative meaning: deputize (v) виступати (бути представником) від когось; epilogic заключний, кінцевий; park (parking) ставити машину на стоянку; регселгеглихвар («процентник»); гмзреллунікчемний/ копійчаний (вартий двох пенні).
   

5. Translating by Way of Synonymous Substitution An international lexeme of the target language can be often sub­stituted in the process of translation for another international lexeme of synonymous or close to it (or of the same) meaning. The substitutions are mostly performed in larger context, though sometimes they may also be carried out at language level. This kind of substitution becomes possible due to the existence in the target language of internationalisms borrowed by it at different previous historical periods. Such international lexemes are of the same logico-grammatical/lexico-grammatical class. The faithfulness of translation achieved through this kind of synony­mous substitutions may be usually established in a text, at word level or at word-group leevel. The existence of some equivalent internationalisms for a notion is explained by its contacts in different periods with different languages. Cf. base (Greek) база, фундамент (Lat.); elixir (Arab.+Greek) еліксир, панацея (Greek); Fata Morgana (Ital.) фата морґана, міраж(Fr.); diagram (Greek) діаграма, графік (Ibid.), схема (Ibid.); fashion (Fr.) фасон, мода (Fr.+Latin); athletics (Greek) атлетика, гімнастика (Ibid.), ect. Such kind of translation presents, of course, an equivalent conveying of meaning and structurtural forms.

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TRANSLATING OF LOAN INTERNATIONALISMS

Forming a common fund of lexicon in different languages of a geographical area, the loan units usually retain an identical/similar surface structure, i.e., form of a word, word-combination or sentence. Like genuine internationalisms, they are constantly appearing in dif­ferent languages as a result of unceasing progress in various domains of science, technology and culture. A great many of international loans have long become an integral part of each language’s lexicon. De­spite all that, they preserve in each national language the unity of their componental parts, i.e., their structural peculiarly, an absolutely identical notional meaning and a common sphere of functioning: loud­speaker: Germ. Lautsprecher, Ital. altoparlante, Ukr. гучномовець, Russ. громкоговоритель; steam-engine: Germ. Dampfmaschine, Ital. macchina a vapore, Ukr. парова машина, Russ. паровая машина; long/short waves (radio), Germ. /ange/fcurzeWellen, Ital. onde lunge/ code, Ukr. довгі/короткіхвилі, Russ. длинньїе/короткие волньї, etc.

A bulk of international loan words and expressions are used to designate various grammatical, lexicological, stylistic and other no­tions. Depending on their nature, as well as on their denotative mean­ing and their sphere of functioning, international loan units can be rendered into Ukrainian in one of the following three ways:

a) by direct translation of the componental parts without chang­ing considerably their structural form cf.: coefficient of afficiency коефіцієнт корисної дії, conjugation/declension дієвідмінювання/ відмінювання (слів); genitive/dative case родовий/давальний відмінок; personal/possessive pronouns особові/присвійні займенники; prepositional government прийменникове керування; compound nominal predicate складений іменний присудок; literal/ verbal translation буквальний/дослівний переклад, etc.

Note. It is worth mentioning that some Ukrainian or Russian loan internationalisms may be genuine internationalisms in other lan­guages and vice versa. Thus, підмет, присудокапб other parts of the sentence are genuine internationalisms in English, German, Italian and in some other West European languages. Cf.: the subject, the predicate, the object; German: derSubjekt, das Pradicat, das Objekt; Italian: il soggetto, il predicate etc. Consequently, these and other loan internationalisms are practically rendered only with the help of the phonological level units, i.e., they are trancsribed or transliterated in these three languages.

1. 
   with the help of componental translation and some replace­ments, omissions or substitutions arising from the national peculiari­ties of the target language, i.e, depending on its stylistic mode of usage. Thus, the equivalent of the English set expression foreign trade is not іноземна торгівля but зовнішня торгівля, and living standard is not життєвий стандарт but життєвий рівень. Similarly in other cases with single loan internationalisms. Cf.: homogeneous parts of the sentence однорідні члени речення but not частини речення; structure of matter is будова матерії but not структура матерії, national anthem is державний гімн but not національний гімн. Simi­larly with national serviceman військовослужбовець, а не наці­ональний службовець and parts of speech are частини мови, but not члени мови.
   
2. 
   with the help of descriptive translation as in the examples like: digital computer цифрова обчислювальна машина; compound/ complex sentence складносурядне/складнопідрядне речення; in­volution (math.) піднесення до ступеня; pluralia tantum іменники, що вживаються тільки в множині; singularia tantum іменники,що вживаються тільки в однині; evolution (mathem.) винесення з-під радикала (витягнення кореня), common fraction (mathem.) простий дріб.
   

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Types and kinds of genuine internationalisms as to their form/

structure and lexical meaning in English and Ukrainian.

1. 
   The main way of distinguishing between the genuine internationalisms and loan internationalisms.
   
2. 
   The lingual form (expression) and meaning of some words being the genuine internationalisms in one contextual environment and pseudo-internationalisms (non-internationalisms) in some other environment.
   
3. 
   Express your point of view on the term and notion of «partial» or «half-internationalism». Use some examples from Exercise III be­low to justify or reject the use of the suggested term.
   

5. Expand on the ways of translation of the genuine

internationalisms and exemplify: a) the method of their transliteration

only; b) the method of their transcription only; c) the method of their

transliteration and partial transcription or vice versa (as in compound

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141

words); d) the method of the translator’s transcription; e) the descrip­tive method. Use the exercises below to illustrate the above-men­tioned methods of conveying the meanings of internationalisms.

1. 
   Identify and exemplify the pseudo-internationalisms referred to as «the false friends of the translator». Use the exercises on the forthcoming pages for the purpose.
   
2. 
   Name the main criterion of distinguishing the genuine internationalisms from loan internationalisms. Exemplify the latter on simple lexemes/words and lexico-syntactic units (word-groups) from various domains of social sciences.
   

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SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Types and kinds of genuine internationalisms as to their form/
structure and lexical meaning in English and Ukrainian.

2. The main way of distinguishing between the genuine internationalisms and loan internationalisms.

3. The lingual form (expression) and meaning of some words being the genuine internationalisms in one contextual environment and pseudo-internationalisms (non-internationalisms) in some other environment.

4. Express your point of view on the term and notion of «partial» or «half-internationalism». Use some examples from Exercise III be­low to justify or reject the use of the suggested term.

5. Expand on the ways of translation of the genuine
internationalisms and exemplify: a) the method of their transliteration
only; b) the method of their transcription only; c) the method of their
transliteration and partial transcription or vice versa (as in compound

words); d) the method of the translator’s transcription; e) the descrip­tive method. Use the exercises below to illustrate the above-men­tioned methods of conveying the meanings of internationalisms.

6. Identify and exemplify the pseudo-internationalisms referred to as «the false friends of the translator». Use the exercises on the forthcoming pages for the purpose.

7. Name the main criterion of distinguishing the genuine internationalisms from loan internationalisms. Exemplify the latter on simple lexemes/words and lexico-syntactic units (word-groups) from various domains of social sciences.

Exercise I. State whether the words below are genuine or pseudo-international. Substantiate your judgements:

adressee, adequate, admiral, algebraic, allergy, Alpine, annul­ment, archive, bamboo, botanist, bronchitis, capillary, cockatoo, cy­bernetics, dissymetric, ellipsis, epochal, evacuee, fantasia, geom­eter, hierarchical, hypotaxis, iambus, inductor, lectureship, morphe­mic, morphologist, non-metal, parallelepiped, parataxis, professorate, quixotry, reduction, rhematic, sable, scenery, sonorant, stereometry, subcommittee, sublieutenant, substantival (gram.), synthetic, systemic (gram.), technologist, utilize, vacuum, voltameter, waffle, zinc, xylonite.

Exercise II. Identify the genuine international and the pseudo-international (non-international) meanings in the follow­ing lexemes:

accumulator, accuracy, ambition, analyst, autocrat, balance, barbarity, buffet; calendar, civil, code, colours, co-ordination; damask, desperation, diminutive, dramatic, dynamic; effective, elementary, expedition; faction, fiction, film, figure, front; gentleman; harmonious, humanity, hypothetical; imitation, instrument; juridical; liberal, loco­motive; marshal, medicine, minister; nation, natural; objective, officer, original; pamphlet, paragraph, petition, press, pygmy; racing, record, revolution; scene, storm; tank, tattooing, terror, twist; vector, vulgar; wag(g)on; zodiacal; frigid zone.

Exercise III. Translate the following English compounds. Point out which of their lexical equivalents in Ukrainian are compound/simple words or word-combinations and which are partially/fully international or pseudo-international:

a) air-mechanic, administer, arch (n), barman, club-law, coffee-bean, dessert-knife, gas-main, lieutenant-colonel, mine-layer, motive­less, paper-cutter, phrase-book, soda-fountain, soda-water, submachine-gun, sugar-cane, tiger’s-eye, cane-sugar, motoring, mythi­cize, narcotism, number, orchestric;

b) day-school, field-hospital, fire-bomb, fire-brigade, fish-torpedo, hand-grenade, opium-eater, horsemaster, seeding-machine, stamp-album, steam-turbine, stock-farm, telegenic, teleshow, talking-film, tape-machine, travel-bureau, washing-machine, zenith-distance;

c) boxing-match, consul-general, electro-dynamic, figure-artist, flag-captain, grammar-school, office-copy, orange-coloured, palm-oil, party-club, press-corrector, press-box, radio-controlled, station-mas­ter, sugar-refinery, tram-line, yacht-club.