The english word presentation

1. Structure of English Words

2. Plan

• Morpheme as the important
component of word structure.
• Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.
• Types of affixes.
• Immediate Constituents Analysis.

3.

• The most important component of word
structure is the morpheme – the smallest
unit of language that carries information
about meaning or function.
• Builder → 2 morphemes: build (with
the meaning of “construct”) and -er
(which indicates that the entire word
functions as a noun with the meaning
“one who builds”).
• Houses → house (with the meaning of
“dwelling”) and -s (with the meaning of
“more than one”).

4. A word may consist of one, two or more morphemes:

• act, act-ive, act-iv-ate, re-act-iv-ate.
• Morphemes are the smallest indivisible twofacet language units. They are always used
as parts of words.
free (boy)
A free morpheme
coincides with the stem
or a word-form.
bound (-s)
A bound morpheme
occurs only as a
constituent part of a word.
• Affixes are bound morphemes.

5.

• Morphemes in various texts can have
different phonemic shapes.
• All the representatives of the given
morpheme are called allomorphs (from
Greek allos «other») of that morpheme.
• The morpheme used to express
indefiniteness in English, for instance, has
two forms – a before a word that begins with
a consonant (a car) and an before a word
that begins with a vowel (an accent).
• The variant forms of a morpheme are its
allomorphs.

6.

• Cats → /s/
• Dogs → /z/
• Judges → /iz/
Selection of the proper allomorph is dependent
on phonological facts.
• Assert → [ t ]
• Assertion → [ ∫ ]
• Permit – permiss-ive, electric – electricity,
impress – impress-ion.
An allomorph is a positional variant of that or
this morpheme occurring in a specific
environment.

7.

• Words can have two or more parts: a core
called a root and one or more parts added to
it and called affixes (something fixed or
attached to something else).
• The root is the morpheme that expresses the
lexical meaning of the word: teach – teacher
– teaching.
• Affixes are morphemes that modify the
meaning of the root.
• An affix added before the root is called a
prefix; an affix added after the root is called a
suffix.

8.

9.

A word may have one or more affixes of
either kind, or several of both kinds:
Prefix
Root
Suffix (es) Example
un-
work
-able
unworkable
fright
-en; -ing
frightening
re-
play
replay

10.

• A root constitutes the core of the word and
carries the major component of its meaning.
• To find the root, you have to remove any affix
there may be: the root -morph- (form)
remains after we remove the affixes a- and ous from amorphous.
• Roots have more specific and definite
meaning than prefixes or suffixes:
• -aqua- (water) in aquarium,
• -cent- (hundred) in centennial,
• -neo- (new) in neologism, etc.

11.

12.

Roots belong to a lexical category, such as
noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), or
preposition (P).
• Nouns typically refer to concrete and abstract
things (door, intelligence);
• verbs tend to denote actions (stop, read);
• adjectives usually name properties (kind,
blue);
• prepositions encode spatial relations (in,
near).
Unlike roots, affixes do not belong to a lexical
category and are always bound morphemes:
• -er (a bound morpheme) combines with teach
(a verb), → a noun with the meaning «one
who teaches“.

13. A base (stem) is the form to which an affix is added

• In many cases, the base is also the
root: books.
• In other cases, however, the base can
be larger than a root: blackened. Black
is not only the root for the entire word
but also the base for -en. The unit
blacken, on the other hand, is simply
the base for -ed.

14. One should distinguish between suffixes and inflections.

One should distinguish between
suffixes and inflections.
Suffixes can form a new part of speech:
beauty — beautiful.
They can also change the meaning of
the root: black — blackish.
Inflections are morphemes used to
change grammar forms of the word:
work – works – worked – working.
English is not a highly inflected
language‫٭‬.

15.

16. Four structural types of words in English:

• simple (root) words consist of one root morpheme (&
an inflexion): boy, warm, law, tables, tenth;
• derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or
several affixes (& an inflexion): unmanageable,
lawful;
• compound words consist of two or more root
morphemes (& an inflexion): boyfriend, outlaws;
• compound-derived words consist of two or more
root morphemes, one or more affixes (& an inflexion):
left-handed, warm-hearted, blue-eyed.

17.

In conformity with structural types of
words we distinguish two main
types of word-formation:
• word-derivation (encouragement,
irresistible, worker) and
• word-composition (class board,
day-dream, weekend).

18. WORD FORMATION

W Derivation
Affixation
W Composition
Conversion
Derivational Composition

19. Immediate Constituents Analysis

• The theory of Immediate Constituents
(I.C.) was originally set forth by L.
Bloomfield as an attempt to
determine the ways in which lexical
units are related to one another.
• This kind of analysis is used in
lexicology mainly to discover the
derivational structure of lexical
units.

20.

21.

• Immediate constituents are any of the two
meaningful parts of a word.
• The main constituents are an affix and a stem.
• ungentlemanly – consists of a negative prefix
un- + an adjective stem.
• First we separate a free and a bound forms: un+ gentlemanly and gentleman + -ly.
• Then we break gentleman: gentle + man.
• At any level we obtain only two ICs, one of
which is a stem.
• The formula is: un + (gentle + man) + ly.

22.

• eatable consists of two ICs: eat + able
and may be described as a suffixal
derivative
• uneatable possesses a different
structure: the two ICs are un + eatable
which shows that this adjective is a
prefixal derivative.
• snow-covered = snow + covered
(a compound)
• blue-eyed = (blue + eye) + ed
(a suffixal derivative)

23.

• KEY TERMS:
• morpheme – the smallest bit of language that
has its own meaning, either a word or a part
of a word;
• free – (not in a fixed position or) not joined to
anything;
• bound – tied with;
• root (of a word) – is its most basic form, to
which other parts, such as affixes, can be
added;
• affix – a letter or group of letters which are
added to the beginning or end of a word to
make a new word.

24.

25. Key terms:

+ immediate constituents analysis

Morphological Structure of English Words

The word as an autonomous unit of the language system should be distinguished from another fundamental language unit – the morpheme.

A morpheme Ø Is an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern, which makes it similar to a word. Ø Unlike a word, a morpheme is not autonomous, morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words. Ø Cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units, so it is defined as the minimum meaningful unit of the language system.

According to their form Morphemes Free Bound Semi-bound (semi-free)

Free morphemes Are capable of forming words without adding other morphemes, which means that they coincide with the stems or independent forms of words: Ø House- (morpheme) = house (word) Ø Shoe- (morpheme) = shoe (word) Ø Bread- (morpheme) = bread (word)

Bound morphemes Ø May not stand alone without a loss or change of their meaning, they are always bound to something else. It means that they do not coincide with stems or independent forms of words: Ø Horr- (morpheme) – horr-or (word) Ø Agit- (morpheme) – agit-ate (word) Ø Nat- (morpheme) – nat-ion (word) Ø -Ible (morpheme) – elig-ible (word) Ø Pre- (morpheme) – pre-war (word)

Free and Bound morphemes Ø Prefixes and suffixes (jointly called derivational affixes) are always bound Ø Root morphemes may be both free and bound Ø Bound root morphemes are mainly found among loan words: arrogance, char-ity, cour-age, dis-tort, involve, toler-able, etc.

Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes Ø Can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme: Ø E. g. , the morphemes «well» and «half» can occur as free morphemes (cf. sleep well, half an hour) or as bound morphemes (cf. well-known, half-done)

According to their role in constructing words Morphemes Roots Affixes

According to their position in a word Affixes Suffixes Prefixes Infixes (unproductive in English)

According to their function and meaning Affixes Derivational Functional (Endings, inflexions)

A stem When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is a stem (a stem base) Ø If a stem consists of a single morpheme, it is simple (heart, fact, month, red, etc. ) Ø If a stem consists of a root and an affix, it is derived (hearty, factual, monthly, reddish, etc. ) Ø If a stem consists of two root morphemes (and an affix / affixes), it is compound (teaspoon, motherin-law, dog-owner, looking-glass, etc. ) Ø

A root Ø Is the main morphemic vehicle of a given idea in a given language at a given stage of its development Ø Is the ultimate constituent element which remains after the removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis Ø Is the common element of words within a word-cluster (cf. heart, hearten, dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweetheart, heart-broken, etc. )

A root Ø The etymological treatment of root morphemes encourages a search for cognates (elements descended from a common ancestor): Ø Heart (English) – cor (Latin) – kardia (Greek) – corazon (Spanish) – Herz (German) – сердце (Russian), etc.

A suffix Ø Is a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class: luck – luck-y – luck-i-ly

A prefix Ø Is a derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying the meaning of the original word: happy – unhappy, president – ex-president, argument – counter-argument, etc.

A prefix Ø Prefixes do not generally change the part- of-speech meaning of the resultant word Ø An exception to the rule is the formation of some verbs and statives: friend, n – befriend, v; earth, n – unearth (выкапывать, вырывать из земли, доставать из-под земли), v; sleep, n – asleep (stative), etc.

An infix ØIs an affix placed within the word: -n- in «stand» (this type is not productive).

Combining forms Ø Affixes should not be confused with combining forms Ø A combining form is a bound form that is distinguished from an affix historically by the fact that it is always borrowed from another language in which it existed as a free or combining form.

Combining forms Most combining forms were borrowed from Latin and Greek (however, not exclusively) and have thus become international: Ø Cyclo- (from Greek «kuklos» — circle): cyclometer, cyclopedia, cyclic, bicycle, etc. Ø Mal- (from French «mal» — bad): malfunction, malnutrition, etc. Ø Compound and derivative words which these combining forms are part of never existed in their original language but were coined only in modern times. Ø

Morphemic and Structural Analysis of English Words

Morphemic analysis Ø Implies stating the number and type of morphemes that make up the word: Ø Girl (one root morpheme) – a root word Ø Girlish (one root morpheme plus one affix) – a derived word Ø Girl-friend (two stems) – a compound word Ø Last-minuter (two stems and a common affix) – a compound derivative

Structural word-formation analysis Ø Studies the structural correlation with other words as well as the structural patterns or rules on which words are built

Structural word-formation analysis Ø A correlation is a set of binary oppositions, in which each second element is derived from the first by a general rule valid for all members of the relation: Ø Child – childish Ø Woman – womanish Ø Monkey – monkeyish Ø Spinster – spinsterish, etc.

Structural word-formation analysis Ø This correlation demonstrates that in English there is a type of derived adjectives consisting of a noun stem and a suffix –ish; l the stems are mostly those of animate nouns; l any one word built according to this pattern contains a semantic component common to the whole group, namely «typical of, or having the bad qualities of» . l

Morphological Analysis of English Words

A synchronic morphological analysis (introduced by L. Bloomfield) Ø Is accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into immediate constituents Ø The main opposition here is the opposition of stem and affix which reveals the motivation of the word

A synchronic morphological analysis Ungentlemanly Un- ly gentleman gentle gent man le

A synchronic morphological analysis Un- is split after the pattern: un- + adjective stem (uncertain, unconscious, uneasy, unearthly, untimely, unwomanly, etc. ); Ø -Ly is split following the pattern: noun stem + -ly (womanly, masterly, scholarly, etc. ); Ø Gentleman is split into gentle- + -man after a similar pattern observed in «nobleman» (adjective stem + the semi-affix -man) Ø Gentle is split into gent- + -le following the pattern: noun stem + -le (brittle, fertile, juvenile, noble, subtle, little, etc. ) Ø

A synchronic morphological analysis Ø The constituents that allow further splitting into morphemes are called immediate (gentlemanly, gentleman, gentle), Ø Those that don’t allow this are termed ultimate (un-, -ly, gent-, le-, -man).

A synchronic morphological analysis Ø The procedure of the analysis into immediate constituents is reduced to the recognition and classification of the same and different morphemes as well as same and different patterns: thus it permits the tracing and understanding of the vocabulary system.

Thank you for your attention!

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

1


Etymology of the English Word- stock Etymology (Gr. etymon truth + Gr. logos learning) is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of words tracing them to their earliest determinable source.

2


The Origins of English Words English words NativeBorrowed

3


Definitions A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A borrowed word (a borrowing, or a loan word) is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

4


Words of Native Origin Words of the Indo-European origin (IE) Words of common Germanic origin English words proper

5


Words of the Indo-European origin Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter Parts of the human body: foot, nose, lip, heart, tooth Animals and plants: cow, swine, goose, tree, birch, corn The most important objects and phenomena of nature: sun, moon, star, wind, water, wood, hill, stone Adjectives: hard, quick, slow, red, white, new Numerals from 1 to 100: one, two, twenty, eighty Pronouns – personal, except they (Sc.): I, you, he; demonstrative : that; interrogative: who Some of the most frequent verbs: bear, do, be, sit, stand

6


Words of common Germanic origin Nouns denoting parts of the human body: head, arm, finger Periods of time: summer, winter, time, week Natural phenomena: storm, rain, flood, ice, ground, sea, earth Artefacts and materials: bridge, house, shop, room, coal, iron, lead, cloth Animals, plants and birds: sheep, horse, fox, crow, oak, grass Adjectives denoting colours, size and other properties: broad, dead, deaf, deep, grey, blue Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, make, give

7


Historical causes of borrowing The Roman invasion (1 st c. B.C.), The introduction of Christianity (7 th c. A.D.), The Danish conquests (11 th – 13 th c. A.D.), The Norman conquest (1066 A.D.), The Renaissance period (14 th – 16 th c. A.D.), Direct linguistic contacts and political, economical and cultural relationship with other nations.

8


The Etymology of Borrowed Words Celtic: 5 th – 6 th A. D. Latin: 1 st layer: 1 st c. B. C. 2 nd layer: 7 th c. A. D. (the introduction of Christianity) 3 rd layer: 14 th – 16 th c. (the Renaissance period) Scandinavian: 8 th – 11 th c. A. D. French: Norman borrowings: 11 th – 13 th A. D. Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period Greek: the Renaissance period Italian: the Renaissance period and later Spanish: the Renaissance period and later Russian: the Renaissance period and later German, Indian and other languages

9


Celtic borrowings Place names: Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux (Celtic river, water); London (Llyn river+ dun a fortified hill) — a fortress on the hill over the river cradle, cross, iron, flannel, tweed, lake (C. loch)

10


The earliest Latin borrowings (1 st c. A.D.) words denoting things connected with war, trade, building and domestic life: pound, inch, cup, kitchen, pepper, butter, cheese, milk, wine, cherry

11


Latin words borrowed into English through the Christianization of England (7 th c. A.D.) persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals: priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle, temple, angel words connected with learning: grammar, school, scholar, decline, master, magister

12


Latin borrowings of the Renaissance period (14 th – 16 th c. A.D.) abstract words: major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create.

13


Scandinavian borrowings (8 th — 11 th c. A.D.) Verbs: call, take, cast, die, want Nouns: law, egg, husband (Sc. hūs + bōndi inhabitant of the house), window (Sc. vindauga the eye of the wind) Adjectives: ill, loose, low, weak Pronouns and pronominal forms: they, their, them, same, both, though.

14


Scandinavian borrowings (place names) Derby, Tremsby (-by: Sc. village, town); Zinthorp, Altharp (-thorp: Sc. village); Eastoft, Nortoft (-toft: Sc. a plot of land covered with grass); Troutbeck (-beck: Sc. brook); Inverness (-ness: Sc. cape); Applethwait, Crossthwait (-thwait: Sc. forest glade)

15


Norman borrowings (11 th – 13 th c. A.D.) Government and administration: state, country, government, parliament, prince, baron Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison, jury Religious terms: saint, sermon (проповедь), prayer, parish (приход), chapel Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil Artistic and literary terms: image, character, figure, volume, design Terms of everyday life: chair, table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, breakfast

16


Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period and later regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinée, scene, technique, bourgeois, etc.

17


The Renaissance period borrowings (14 th – 16 th c. A.D.) Italian: piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel Spanish: potato, tomato, cargo, banana, cocoa. Greek: direct (e.g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete), or through Latin (datum, status, phenomenon, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music).

18


Other borrowings Japanese: karate, judo, hara-kiri, kimono, tycoon; Arabic: algebra, algorithm, fakir, giraffe, sultan Turkish: yogurt, kiosk, tulip Persian: caravan, shawl, bazaar, sherbet Eskimo: kayak, igloo, anorak Amerindian languages: toboggan, wigwam, opossum Russian: bistro, tsar, balalaika, tundra, sputnik

19


Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed Borrowings proper Translation borrowings (translation loans) Semantic borrowings

20


Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed Translation borrowings (translation loans) are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation. E. g. masterpiece < Germ. Meisterstück; Wonder child < Germ. Wunderkind; wall newspaper < Rus. стенная газета; collective farm < Rus. колхоз.

21


Classification of borrowings according to the aspect which is borrowed Semantic borrowing is understood as the development in an English word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language. E. g. Eng. pioneer explorer, one who is among the first in new fields of activity:: Rus. пионер a member of the Young Pioneers Organization. reaction, deviation, bureau

22


International words Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source (I. A. Arnold, p. 260).

23


International words Words denoting science and technological advances: sputnik, television, antenna, bionics, gene, cybernetics Political terms: politics, democracy, communism, revolution Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries: coffee, chocolate, grapefruit Names of sciences: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry Terms of art: music, theatre, drama, tragedy The sports terms: football, baseball, cricket, golf.