The english word law means various forms of behavior текст

Другие языки

ПОМОГИТЕ ПЕРЕВЕСТИ ТЕКСТ!

ОЧЕНЬ СРОЧНО НАДО!

Almost everything we do is governed by some set of rules.

There are rules for games, for social clubs, for sports and for adults in the workplace.

There are also rules imposed by morality and custom that play an important role in telling us what we should and should not do.

However, some rules — — those made by the state or the courts — — are called «laws».

Laws resemble morality because they are designed to control or alter our behavior.

But unlike rules of morality, laws are enforced by the courts ; if you break a law — — whether you like that law or not — — you may be forced to pay a fine, pay damages, or go to prison.

Why are some rules so special that they are made into laws?

Why do we need rules that everyone must obey?

In short, what is the purpose of law?

If we did not live in a structured society with other people, laws would not be necessary.

We would simply do as we please, with little regard for others.

But ever since individuals began to associate with other people — — to live in society — — laws have been the glue that has kept society together.

For example, the law in our country states that we must drive our cars on the right — hand side of a two — way street.

If people were allowed to choose at random which side of the street to drive on, driving would be dangerous and chaotic.

Laws regulating our business affairs help to ensure that people keep their promises.

Laws against criminal conduct help to safeguard our personal property and our lives.

Even in a well — ordered society, people have disagreements and conflicts arise.

The law must provide a way to resolve these disputes peacefully.

If two people claim to own the same piece of property, we do not want the matter settled by a duel : we turn to the law and to institutions like the courts to decide who is the real owner and to make sure that the real owner’s rights are respected.

We need law, then, to ensure a safe and peaceful society in which individuals’ rights are respected.

But we expect even more from our law.

Some totalitarian governments have cruel and arbitrary laws, enforced by police forces free to arrest and punish people without trial.

Strong — arm tactics may provide a great deal of order, but we reject this form of control.

The legal system should respect individual rights while, at the same time, ensuring that society operates in an orderly manner.

And society should believe in the Rule of Law, which means that the law applies to every person, including members of the police and other public officials, who must carry out their public duties in accordance with the law.

In our society, laws are not only designed to govern our conduct : they are also intended to give effect to social policies.

For example, some laws provide for benefits when workers are injured on the job, for health care, as well as for loans to students who otherwise might not be able to go to university.

Another goal of the law is fairness.

This means that the law should recognize and protect certain basic individual rights and freedoms, such as liberty and equality.

The law also serves to ensure that strong groups and individuals do not use their powerful positions in society to take unfair advantage of weaker individuals.

However, despite the best intentions, laws are sometimes created that people later recognize as being unjust or unfair.

In a democratic society, laws are not carved in stone, but must reflect the changing needs of society.

In a democracy, anyone who feels that a particular law is flawed has the right to speak out publicly and to seek to change the law by lawful means.

*
Montesquieu — Монтескье
(1689-1755), французский
философ,
просветитель.

64

Unit
One

Ex.
1. Приведите
однокоренные русские эквиваленты.

limit,
form, phenomenon, penalty, referee, incident, detail, gravity,
economics,
religion, compensation, concentration, corruption, instruction,
natural, social, civil, general, ignore, criticize, legal.

Ex.
2. Переведите,
обращая
внимание
на
суффиксы,
и
скажите,
от
какой
части
речи
образованы
эти
слова,
actually,
continually, penalty, instruction, government, driver, descriptive,
prescriptive, educational, social, legal, national, cultural,
punishment.

Ex.
3. Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

law
—
закон, право

to
enforce
laws
—
проводить законы в жизнь

descriptive
law
—
описательный закон

prescriptive
law
—
предписывающий закон

to
make
laws
—
создавать законы to
punish
—
наказывать

punishment
—
наказание to
commit
a
crime
—
совершить преступление to
presecute
—
преследовать в судебном порядке

presecution
—
судебное преследование violence
—
насилие offence
—
проступок justice
—
правосудие to
escape
justice
—
избежать правосудия a
rule
—
правило

to
break a rule —
нарушить
правило
a
penalty —
наказание

to
suffer a penalty —
понести
наказание
a
fine —
штраф

to
fine —
штрафовать
a
civil action —
гражданский
иск
to
accept —
принимать
to
belong —
принадлежать
to
consider —
считать,
рассматривать
to
demand —
требовать
to
deal with —
иметь
дело
с

to
do
with
smb/smth
—
иметь отношение к кому-л. или чему-л. a
custom
—
обычай

65

Ex.
4. Прочитайте
и переведите текст. WHAT
IS
LAW?

Descriptive and prescriptive

The
English word «law» means various forms of behavior. Some
laws are
descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural
phenom­ena,
usually behave. An example is the law of gravity; another is laws of
economics.
Other laws are prescriptive — they prescribe how people ought to
behave. For example, the speed limits are laws that prescribe how
fast we should
drive.

In
all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive
laws.
Some of them are customs — that is informal rules of social and
moral behavier.
Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social and
cultural groups. And some are laws made by nations and enforced
against all
citizens.

Customs
need not be made by governments, and they need not be written down.
We learn how we are to behave in society through the instruction of
family
and teachers, the advice of friends, etc. Sometimes, we can break
these
rules without any penalty. But if we continually break the rules,
other members
of society may criticize us, or refuse to have anything to do with
us. The ways in which people talk, eat and drink, work, and relax
together are
usually guided by many such informal rales.

The
rules of social instructions are more formal than customs, carrying
penalties
for those who break them. Sports clubs, for example, often have
detailed
rales for their members. But if a member breaks a rule and refuses to
accept any punishment, the club may ask him or her to leave the club.

However,
when governments make laws for their citizens, they use a sys­tem
of courts and the police to enforce these laws. Of course, there may
be instances where the law is not enforced against someone — such
as when young
children commit crimes, or when certain people are able to escape
justice
by using their money or influence.

Ex.
5. Найдите
в тексте эквиваленты следующих слов и
выражений.

установленные
ограничения скорости, отказываются
иметь с нами что-л. общее, отказываются
принять наказание, некото­рые
могут избежать правосудия, имеется
система судов и по­лиция,
которые требуют исполнения законов
(проводят зако­ны
в жизнь), поведение.

66

Ex.
б. Найдите
неправильное утверждение.

1. In
   all societies relations between people are regulated by customs
   and
   traditions.

2. The
   speed limits imposed on a driver is an example of a
   prescriptive
   law.

1. In
   general it is very easy to escape justice.

2. Both customs and rales are
   enforced by governments.

Ex.
7.
Просмотрите текст и выделите в каждом
абзаце предложение, несущее
основную смысловую нагрузку.

Ex.
8. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
причастие II.

1. laws
   made by the governments.

2. customs used by people.

3. relations
   regulated by …
   .

4. laws accepted by the society.

5. laws enforced by the police
   and courts.

6. crimes ignored by the police.

Ex.
9. Соедините
части в предложения, используя необходимый
мо­дальный
глагол.

a. obey the laws

1. Citizens
   ^{must b}‘
   P^rotect
   P^eoP^le

2. Children
   should с
   go to school every day
   Ъ.
   The
   police ^hav?^to
   d. behave properly

ought to e. be attentive

f. know the customs of the
country

Ex.
10.
Ответьте
на вопросы:

1. What
   is a descriptive/prescriptive law? Can you give your own
   example?

2. What is the difference
   between a custom and a law?

3. In
what way is the law system described in the text similar to that
of
your country?

67

Unit
Two

Ex.
1. Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

to
enforce
a
law
—
проводить закон в жизнь

an
enforcement
—
проведение закона в жизнь to
obey
the
law
—
подчиняться закону a
law—abiding
citizen
—
законопослушный гражданин to
break
a
law
— нарушить закон an
offence
— нарушение

to
commit an offence —
совершить
нарушение

offender
—
нарушитель
to
pass a sentence —
выносить
приговор
a
statute —
законодательный
акт
a
case judgement —
постановление
records
—
документы
to
deter —
устрашать
to
prohibit —
запрещать

prohibition
—
запрещение
to
impose (a fine) —
наложить
штраф
ignorance
— зд.
незнание
to
investigate —
расследовать
assault
—
нападение

to
have (wide) powers —
иметь
(широкие)
полномочия
a
crime —
преступление

a
criminal —
преступник
to
warn —
предупреждать

warning —
предупреждение
a
theft —
кража
as
well as —
также
как
common
law —
общее
право
judicial
—
судебный
(судейский)

Ex.
2. Прочитайте
и переведите текст. ENFORCING
THE LAW

Governments
have many ways to be sure that citizens obey the law. They explain to
the public what the law is and try to provide social support for law
and
order. They use police forces to investigate crimes and catch
criminals. They use courts to complete the investigation of criminal
and civil offences d
to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others. And they try
to .^-educate and reform people who have broken the law. Which of
these is most
effective in enforcing the law?

68

69

The
laws of all countries are in written records — the legal codes of
countries,
the statutes and case judgments of common law countries, etc. Many
people do not know where to find these records. But ignorance of the
law
is almost never a defence for breaking it. Governments usually
expect citizens
to know the laws.

However,
there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and
dangerous driving, which simply reflect social and moral attitudes
to everyday
behavior. In such cases a person knows he is breaking the law,
ever-if
he doesn’t know exactly which law it is.

Role of Police Force

The
police have many functions in the legal process. Though they deal
with
criminal law, they may also be used to enforce judgments made in
civil courts.
As well as gathering information for offences to be prosecuting in
the
courts, the police have wide powers to arrest, search and questions
people suspected of crime and to control the actions of members of
the public during public
demonstrations. In some countries, the police have judicial
functions; for
example, they may make a decision as to guilt in a driving offence
and impose
a fine, without a court. In Britain, when someone is found in
possession
of marijuana, the police may confiscate it and issue a formal
warning
and not to take the matter to a court.

The
mere presence of the police is a factor in deterring people from
committing
offences.

Ex.
3. а)
Вспомните следующие глаголы: to
threaten
— угрожать to
warn
— предупреждать to
admit
— признавать to
accuse
— обвинять

b) Прочитйте
и переведите предложения (в прямой
речи)

1. Don’t drive very fast, if
   you don’t want to be in accident.

2. It
   was not me, they attacked me first.

1. If
   you don’t pay a fine, you will be taken to the police station
   ana,
   perhaps,
   to the court.

1. It is me who is guilty.

5.1
shall pay for the damage.

c) Закончите
предложения в косвенной речи, используя
пред­
лагаемое,
начало в соответствии с пунктом: «Ь»

1. Не
   threatened

2. She
   offered

He

з.

warned

1. She accused.,

2. He admitted.

Ex.
4. Соедините,
обращая внимание на причастия I
и И.

А

a
sentence commrnittedby a
court

a
law imposed
by (a)
citizen(s)

a
person enforced
upon (by) a
crime

a
fine suspected
of the
police

an
offence passed
by a
government

В

police dealing
with crimes

citizens having
wide powers

obeying the law

breaking the law

imposing a fine

committing a crime

enforcing the law

catching criminals

Me.
5.
Соотнесите
соответствующие выражения в обеих
колонках.

to
pass a sentences to
authorize

to
have powers to
act wrongly

to
enforce a laws to
declare a punishment

to
commit an offence to
make people obey them

Ex.
6. А.
Вставьте слова, данные в рамке.

powers;
enforcement; investigations; consists; unarmed;
court; prosecution; crime

Police
officers are usually… and there are strict (строгий)
limits
to police… of
arrest and detention (задержание).The
police service is taking part in international
cooperation against….

The
police service in England… of 52 independent forces usually
working together
with the local authorities (местные
власти)
and
each responsible for law… in its own territory.

Most…
are initiated by the police but in Scotland the police make the
preliminary
(предварительный)…
As
soon as anyone is arrested he or she must
be brought before a… with
a
minimum
delay.

В.
На основе этого текста и последнего
обзаца основного текста
суммируйте по-английски функции полиции.

70

Unit
Three

Ex.
1. Приведите
однокоренные русские слова.

public,
civil, private, standard, procedure, personal, modern,
criminal,
individual, code, reputation, dispute, contract

Ex.
2. Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

civil
law
—
гражданское право

public
law
—
общественное (публичное) право

tort
—
гражданское правонарушение, деликт

trust
—
распоряжение имуществом по доверенности

probate
—
распоряжение собственностью по завещанию

property
—
собственность, имущество

a
wrong
—
противоправное деяние, нарушение

well—being
—
благополучие

distinction
—
различие

inheritance
—
наследство

a
defendent
—
ответчик, подсудимый

a
plaintiff
—
истец

evidence
— доказательство

to
prove
—
доказывать

a
proof
— доказательство

proven
—
доказанный

standard
of
proof
—
норма доказательства a
guilt
—
вина to
doubt
— сомневаться
reasonable
doubt
—
разумное сомнение party
— сторона to
lose
a
case
—
проиграть дело to
win
a
case
— выиграть дело to
bring
a
(criminal)
action
—
возбуждать дело
to
suspect
— подозревать

the
suspect
—
подозреваемый to
damage
—
нанести ущерб, повреждение

a
damage —
ущерб

Ex.
3. Прочитайте
и
переведите
текст
CIVIL
AND PUBLIC LAW

One
important distinction is between private — or civil — law and public
law.
Civil law concerns disputes among citizens within a country, and
public

law
concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between
one state and
another. The main categories of English civil laws are:

Contracts: binding agreements
between people (or companies):

Torts: wrongs
committed by one individual against another individual’s

person,
property or reputation;
Trusts: arrangements
whereby a person administers property for another

person’s benefit rather than
his own Land Law;

Probate: arrangements
for dealing with property after the owner’s death;

Family Law.

The main categories of public
law are:

Crimes: wrongs
which, even when committed against an individual, can harm

the well-being of society in
general;

Constitutional
regulation of how the law itself operates and of the relation
between
Law: private
citizen and government;

International regulation
of relations between governments and also between private

Law: citizens
of one country and those of another

In
codified systems there are codes that correspond to these categories.
Roman
codes covered contracts, property, inheritance, torts, etc but said
nothing
about criminal law. So most criminal codes are quite modern
inventions.

Most
countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal
procedures.
For example, an English criminal court may force a defendant to
pay a fine as punishment for his crime and he may sometimes have to
pay the
costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pursues his
claims for
compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action.

The
standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil
one
since the loser risks not only financial penalties but also can be
sent to
prison. In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a
criminal «beyond reasonable doubt». Thus, in a civil case a
crime cannot be proven if
the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and
have a
reason (not just a feeling or intuition) for this doubt. But in a
civil case,
the court will consider all the evidence and decide what is most
probable.

Criminal
and civil procedure are different. Criminal actions are nearly always
started by the state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually
started by
individuals.

In
Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in
most
cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a
civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other
party is known as the defendant.

72

Ex.
4. Исправьте
неправильные утверждения, используя
приводимые ниже
выражения.

а)

it is wrong

it
is false _{это
негГО}а_Вильно

it
is not right it
is not true

b)

on
the contrary наоборот

с)

it
contradicts
reality
это противоречит действительности

d)

in
my opinion

to
my mind по
моему
мнению

my understanding is that

1. Both damages and fines are
   sums of money.

2. Both damages and fines may
   benefit the victim of the accident.

3. Damages are part of the civil
   law.

4. Public
   law includes Contract Law, Constitutional law and
   Family
   law.

5. In
   a civil case a crime is proven even if people’s judgment is based
   on
   intuition or feeling.

Ex.
5. Составьте
возможные сочетания и переведите их на
русский язык.

to
commit an
action

to
bring a
crime

to
lose a
case

to
doubt a
guilt

to
prove an
evidence

to
win a
criminal

to
require a
prosecution

Ex.
6. Закончите
предложения.

1. Constitutional
   law regulates…

2. International law
   regulates…

3. Torts deal with,..

4. Probate deals with…

F3

Jfe
7. Переведите на русский язык, обращая
внимание на слово «since»

1. Не
   was arrested since
   he
   was found guilty of murdering a man.

2. This
   case should be a civil action since
   it
   is a wrong committed
   against
   property.

3. The
   punishment was clear since
   the
   trial began.

4. He
   has been afraid of the police since
   childhood.

5. Since
   he
   refused to pay money for the damages, the case was
   brought
   to court.

Ex.
8. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
слова-за­менители.

1. I’ve
   got only one
   important
   question to solve.

2. One
   should
   always remember the difference between civil and
   criminal
   law.

3. The
   standards of proof are lower in a civil action than in a
   criminal
   one.

4. Since
   the political regime of the country has changed, the law
   codes
   are to be changed to a new one.

5. The
   climate of the Crimea is better than
   that of
   the Caucasus.

6. International
   law also regulates relations between private citizens
   of
   one
   country
   and those of another.

Ex.
9. Переведите
письменно со словарем. Civil
Justice

The
civil law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland covers business
related
to the family, property, contracts and torts (non-contractual
wrongful acts
suffered by one person at the hands of another). It also includes
constitutional,
administrative, industrial and others laws.

Civil
proceedings, as a private matter, can usually be abandoned or ended
by
settlement between the parties at any time. Actions brought to court
are usually
tried without a jury. Higher courts deal with more complicated civil
cases.
Most judgments are for sums of money, and the costs of an action are
generally
paid by the party losing it.

Ex.
10. Прочитайте
текст без словаря и скажите по-английски

1. какие нарушения
   совершила Аннет,

2. виды этих нарушений,

3. возможные наказания
   за них.

74

Annette
Forbes is head of the marketing division (отдел)
of the computer company.
She went to the University, has a good job and a good family She
has always been a law-abiding citizen.

One
day she arrived a little late for work, and had to park her car in a
non-parking
zone. Later she took a client out for a business lunch and drank jin
and tonic and half a bottle of wine to celebrate (отметить)
an important new contract. When driving back to work she was stopped
by a policeman who
tested her for alcohol. He told her she would be disqualified from
driving for
a year. Annette who needed a car for her work asked him to forget
(забыть)
about it in return (взамен)
for a newest home computer.

Ex.
11. Заполните
предлагаемую схему и, пользуясь ею,
перескажите

текст.

between citizens and the
state

deals
with

UnitFour

Ex.
1. Приведите
однокоренные русские слова.

regulate,
regulation, detail, standard, category, categorize, legal,
principle, criminal, interpretation

Ш.
2. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
отрица­тельные
префикы.

interesting — uninteresting

important
— unimportant

lawful
— unlawful

regular
— irregular

experienced
— inexperienced

legal
— illegal

literate
— illiterate

advantage
— disadvantage

to
like — to dislike

to
understand — to misunderstand

honest
— dishonest

JEt.
3.
Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

to
commit
a
crime
—
совершить преступление criminal
—
преступник, преступный Criminal
law
—
Уголовное право to
suspect
—
подозревать

the
suspect —
подозреваемый
the
guilty —
виновный

to
find guilty —
признать
виновным
innocence
—
невиновность
the
innocent —
невиновный
to
sentence (to)
— приговорить
к
case
law —
прецедентное
право
common
law —
общее
право
statute
[‘staetju:t]
— законодательный
акт
Actus
Reus —
виновное
действие
Mens
Rea —
состояние
воли
при
совершении
преступления

Ex.
4. Прочитайте
и переведите текст. WHAT
IS A CRIME?

Crime
is a part of public law — the law regulating the relations between
citizens
and the state. Crime are acts which the state considers to be wrong
and
which can be punished by the state. There are some acts which are

_т

crimes
in one country but not in another. For example, it is a crime to
drink alcohol
in Saudi Arabia, but not in Egypt. It is a crime to smoke marijuana
in England,
but not (in prescribed places) in the Netherlands. It is a crime to
have
more than one wife at the same time in France, but not in Indonesia.
In general, however, there is quite a lot of agreement among states
as to which acts
are criminal. A visitor to a foreign country can be sure that
stealing, physically
attacking someone or damaging their property will be unlawful. But
the way of dealing with people suspected of crime may be different
from his own country.

Elements of Proof

In
many legal systems it is an important principle that a person cannot
be considered
guilty of a crime until the state proves he committed it. The
suspect himself
need not prove anything, although he will of course help himself if
he
can show evidence of his innocence. The state must prove his guilt
according
to high standards and there are elements that must be proved. In
codified systems, these elements are usually recorded in statutes.
In common law
systems, the elements of some crimes are detailed in statutes;
others, known as
«common law crimes», are still described mostly in case
law.

There
are usually two importasnt elements to a crime: (1) the criminal act
itself; and (2) the criminal state of mind of the person when he
committed the
act. In Anglo-American law these are known by the Latin terms of (1)
Actus
Reus and
(2) Mens
Rea.

Ex.
5. Найдите
соответствующие английский эквиваленты:

1. прецедентное
   право a.
   to commit a crime

2. иметь
   дело с b.
   damages

3. общее
   право с.
   evidence

4. доказательства d.
   legal

5. отношения е.
   robbery

6. совершить
   преступление f.
   to suspect

7. ущерб g.
   to deal with

8. законный h.
   common law

9. ограбление i.
   relations
   10.
   подозревать j.
   case law

Ex.
6. Закончите
предложения в соответствии с содержанием
текста.

1. A
person may be guilty of murder if he killed someone…

a. intentionally

b. having
intended to injure him slightly

с
without caring about the danger of his action

2. The
court must prove a person’s guilt according to…

a. common
sense

b. proof
of crime elements recorded in statutes or codes
с
the suspect’s proof of his innocence

J&.
7.
Прочитайте
предлагаемые слова и назовите слова
или выраже­ния,
ассоциирующиеся с ними:

Модель:
sleep
— bed, dream, nightmare, early getting up, etc. crime-accident,
statute, evidence.

Ex.
8. Закончите
предложения, используя слова, данные
в рамке.

a
statute; the suspect; a murderer; the innocent; a
code; a robber; a thief

1. Someone
   who steals a lot is

2. Someone
   who killed a person is

3. Someone
   who is suspected of a crime is

4. Someone
   who is found not guilty is …..

5. A document which regulates
   legal behaviour is….

6. A document which details
   elements of a crime is.

Ex.
9. Составьте
предложения, сделав необходимые
изменения и вы­берите
один из предлогов, который используется
с тем или иным
глаголом.

for; of; from; on/upon;
against; to; into

1. Her
   employer / accuse / her / steal / money.

2. His
   mother / punish / him / be rude / to their neighbour.

3. The
   lock / prevent / burglar / break / house.

4. The
   jury / convict / him / murder / his wife.

5. His
   son / be / arrest / sell drugs teenagers.

6. The
   judge / congratulate / police / catch / a murderer

7. She
   / warn / children / play / outside after dark

Ex.
10. Прочитайте
текст без словаря и объясните по-английски:

1. какого рода
   совершеное преступление;

2. в каком суде оно
   должно быть рассмотрено;

3. возможное наказание
   за содеянное.

Jack
Thatcher. Like his father, he is a jailbird {закоренелый
преступник)
— at
the age of 40 he has spent most his life in prison for different
wrongs of vio­lence
and theft. He comes from a poor family, has no real education and
has never had a job. The only way he knows how to make money is by
stealing (воровать)
it.

When
he came out of prison last week he decided to rob a village post
office.
During the robbery, the postmaster (начальник
почты)
tried
to ring the
alarm (сигнал
тревоги)
so
Jack hit (ударить)
him
on the head with his

If

gun.
At that moment a customer (посетитель)
came
into the post office. She screamed
(кричать).
In
panic Jack wanted her to keep quiet. When she continued
to scream, Jack took a box of matches (спички)
and
set fire (поджог)
to
the building, then escaped (сбежать)
with
the money.

Ex.
11.
Ответьте
на вопросы:

1. What
   is crime?

2. Is
   it possible to consider an act of crime in one country as an act
   of
   crime in another (illustrate)

Ex.
12. Изучите
схему, прочитайте комментарий и объясните
по-ан­глийски
понятие Actus
Reus
и Mens
Rea.

It
can be seen therefore that there are two fundamental elements to a
crime
— a physical
element known
as the actus
reus and
a mental
element known
as mens
rea. This
can clearly be seen in a diagrammatic form:

OFFENCE

, |

I « « }

ACTUS
REUS MENS
REA

I I I i i

Conduct
Circumstance Mental
elements Negligence

< i i

Intention
Recklessness Special

| | knowledge mental
states

Positive Negative

Comission
Omission

Elements
forming part of the actus reus Elements
forming part of the mens rea

Before
a person can be convicted of a crime it is necessary for the
prosecution
to prove both elements, i.e.:

(a) that
a certain event or state of affairs which is forbidden by the
criminal
law
has been caused by D’s (Defendant)
conduct
(поведение);
and

(b) that
D’s conduct was accompanied by the necessary mens
rea to
establish
the offence.

It
is quite clear that the burden
of proving (бремя
доказательства)
these
essential
elements of any offence rests upon the prosecution who must prove the
existence of both elements beyond reasonable
doubt (разумное
сомнение).

79

Unit
Five

Ex.
1. Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

legal
affairs/matters —
судебные/правовые
дела

an
attorney
—
адвокат; ам.
прокурор

a
barrister
—
адвокат (выступающий в суде)

senior/junior
barrister —
старший/младший
адвокат
a
solicitor —
поверенный
a
judge -судья

to
argue a case —
представлять
дело
в
суде
the
right of audience —
право
выступать
в
суде
litigation
—
судебный
спор,
разбирательство
court
— суд

lower
court
—
нижестоящий суд

higher
court
—
вышестоящий суд

Court
of
Appeal
—
Апелляционный суд to
settle
a
dispute
—
разрешить спор to
eliminate
—
уничтожать to
employ
—
нанимать a
jury
—
жюри, суд присяжных to
accuse
—
обвинять

the
accused —
обвиняемый(ая)

Ex.
2. Прочитайте
и переведите текст со словарем.
PROFESSIONAL
TITLES

Although
many kinds of people working in or studying legal affairs are called
lawyers,
the word really describes a person who has the right to act in
certain legal
matters. Most countries have different groups of lawyers who each
take a particular
kind of examination in order to qualify to do particular jobs.

In
Japan, a lawyer must decide whether he wants to take the examination
to
become an attorney,
a public prosecutoe or
a judge.

In
England , the decision is between becoming a barrister
or
a solicitor.
Barristers
specialize in arguing cases in front of a judge and have the right to
he
heard, the right
of audience, even
in the highest courts. They are not paid directly
by clients, but are employed by solicitors. Judges are usually chosen
from
the most senior barristers, when they are appointed they cannot
continue
to practice as barristers. Sollicitors do much of the preparation for
cases
which they then hand to barristers, as well as doing legal work which
does
not come before a court, such as drawing up wills, and dealing with
litigation
which is settled out of court. Solicitors also have a right of
audience

80

in
lower courts, but in higher courts, such as the Court of Appeal, they
must have
a barrister argue their client’s case.

In
general, it can be said that a barrister spends most of his time
either in a
courtroom or preparing his arguments for the court and a solicitor
spends most of his time in an office giving advice to clients, making
investigations and
preparing documents. Many people believe the distinction between
barristers and solicitors should be eliminated in England, as has
already happened
in Australia.

Ex.
3. Найдите
в тексте эквиваленты следующих
словосочетаний.

судебные
дела, держать экзамен на профессию,
получить опыт работы, специализация по
определенным правовым вопросам, право
выступать в суде, уничтожить, иметь дело
с, сохранить, разрешить проблему.

Ex.
4. Объедините
однокоренные слова и переведите на
русский язык.

employed,
distinct, elimination, division, argue, lawyer, settlement,
eliminate,
divide, distinction, law, argument, eliminated, settle, employ,
argumentation, settled.

Ex.
5. Запомните
следующие сочетания.

contrary
to
— в противоположность чего-л.

in
order
to
— для того, чтобы

according
to
— в соответствии с

because
of — из-за

inspite
of, despite — несмотря
на

by
means
of—
при помощи

due
to
— из-за, благодаря

thanks
to — благодаря

in
addition to — в
дополнение
к

in
comparison with — по
сравнению

in
front of— перед

as
well as — также
как

Ex.
6. Употребите
причастие II
и переведите.

Модель:
to
accuse a person — an accused person

1. to
   prepare documents —

2. to
   employ a person —

3. to
   argue a case in the court —

4. to
   make investigations —

5. to
   eliminate a division —

II
Ex.
7. Переведите,
обращая внимание на страдательный
залог.

1. People
   at law are called lawyers.

2. Barristers are heard in
   courts.

3. They are not paid by clients.

4. They are employed by
   solicitors.

5. They are chosen from
   barristers.

6. A case which is settled out
   of court.

7. The distinction should be
   eliminated.

Ex.
8. Исправьте
неправильные утверждения, используя
известные вам
выражения.

1. Both barristers and
   solicitors have the right of audience.

2. Both barristers and
   solicitors can become judges.

1. Both
   barristers and solicitors have the right to argue a case in
   high
   court.

1. Barristers
   are employed by solicitors to argue a case.

Ex.
9. Выделите
слово, не принадлежащее к данной группе
слов. Объясните,
почему. Предложение начинайте следующим
образом:

This
word does not belong because…

1. an
   attorney • a judge • a client • a solicitor

2. a
   court • a trial • an investigation • a criminal

Ex.
10. Подставьте
слово, подходящее данным определениям.

1.
… is a lawyer who gives advice to his clients and prepares

documents.

2….
is a lawyer who is chosen out of barristers. 3.
… is a lawyer who specializes in presenting cases in front of a

judge
and has the right of audience. 4.,,,
is a lawyer who employes barristers to argue a case. 5….
is a lawyer who is not directly paid by a client.

Ex.
11. Соедините
подходящие части и закончите предложения
по-английски.

1.
Litigant
is

1. уголовное дело;

2. сторона в гражданском
   процессе;

3. суд высшей инстанции

82

2.
Legal work which usually is not taken to the court
is done by…

1. адвокат;

2. поверенный;

3. судья.

Ex.
12.
Переведите
письменно со словарем.

Even
lawyers with the same qualifications and professional title may be
doing
very different kinds of work. Most towns in the United States, for
example,
have small firms of attorneys who are in daily contact with ordinary
people
giving advice and acting on matters such as consumer affairs,
traffic accident disputes and contracts for the sale of land. Some
may also prepare defences
for clients accused of crimes. However, in both the United States
and
other industrialized countries, lawyers are becoming more and more
specialized.

Ex.
13.
Просмотрите
текст и найдите ответ на вопросы.

1. Какие дела
   рассматриваются с судом присяжных?

2. Каковы обязанности
   судьи?

In
British criminal trials the accused is presumed innocent until
proven guilty. Trials are in open court and the accused is
represented by a lawyer. Most
cases are tried before lay
justice (мировой
судья)
sitting
without a jury. The
more serious cases are tried in the higher courts before a jury of
12 (15
in Scotland), which decides on guilt or innocence. The judge decides
questions
of law, sums up the evidence for the jury, and discharges
(omnycicamb)the
accused
or passes sentence. A jury is independent of the judiciary
(судебная
власть).
Cases
involving children are held in youth courts or,
in Scotland, at informal children/s hearings.

Ex.
14.
Заполните
таблицу, используя имеющуюся информацию
и ответьте
на вопросы:

Job	Place of work	Duties
ajudge
a barrister
a solicitor

1. What are the duties of an
   attorney, a solicitor, a barrister, a judge?

2. Who
   of the lawyers has the right of audience?

3. What is the difference
   between a lower and higher court?

4. Name three difference
   between a barrister and a solicitor.

Unit
Six

Ex.
1.
Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

to
restrict —
ограничивать

restriction
—
ограничение
to
convict —
осуждать
retribution
—
кара
to
prevent —
предотвращать

prevention
—
предупреждение

preventive
measures —
превентивные
меры
relevant
(to) —
относящийся
к
to
deprive —
лишать

deprivation
—
лишение
exile
—
ссылка

Ex.
2.
Пользуясь
словами, приведенными выше, прочитайте
и пере­ведите
текст. CRIMINAL
PUNISHMENT

Criminal
punishment of persons who have committed crimes is one or the
forms of state fight against crime. Any criminal punishment is
always a restriction
of the rights of convicted persons. This restriction is a sort of
retribution
for the crime a person committed. If a person is convicted, the
court
decides on the most appropriate sentence. The facts of the offence,
the circumstances
of the offender, his/her previous convictions are taken into
account.
The more serious an offence is, the stricter a penalty should be.

But
in any case, the responsibility of the court is to impose an exact
and just
punishment relevant to the gravity of a crime. The more just the
punishment
is, the greater is the possibility of a person’s reformation. The
defence
lawyer may make a speech in mitigation on behalf of the offender.

There
are the following basic penalties: deprivation of liberty —
imprisonment
for a certain period of time or life imprisonment -, exile, fines
or public censure. Capital punishment is usually used only as an
exceptional
measure when an especially grave crime was committed. The list
of such crimes is not long and it is strictly determined by law.
There are quite
a lot of countries where death penalty is prohibited.

Ex.
3.
Составьте
вопросы так, чтобы приведенные ниже
предложе­ния
были бы к ним ответом.

1.
No, a criminal punishment is not only a retribution for the offence
committed
but also a form of prevention of crimes.

1. No,
   capital punishment is not yet prohibited in Russia.

1. A
   form of criminal punishment depends (зависит)
   on
   the gravity
   of
   the crime committed and the personality of a criminal.

Ex.
4. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
страдатель­ный
залог.

1. A penalty must be imposed by
   the court.

2. The
   rights of the convicted persons are restricted.

3. There
   are some supplementary penalties that may be imposed on
   the
   convicted persons.

4. Capital punishment is
   permitted only in exceptional cases.

5. The
   list of crimes which can be punished by a sentence of death
   is
   defined
   by law.

Ex.
5. Переведите
на русский язык, обрашяя внимание на
сравни­тельную
конструкцию.

1. The longer the night, the
   shorter the day.

2. The more serious a crime is,
   the more strict a punishment will be.

3. The sooner you start, the
   quicker you’ll finish.

4. The
   more people you know,, the less time you have to see them.

Ex:.
6.
а)
Выучите названия правонарушений.

burglary
— проникновение в жилище с целью
совершить

преступление

kidnapping
— похищение людей arson
— поджог

shoplifting
— кража в магазинах blackmail
— шантаж smuggling
— контрабанда forgery
— подлог fraud
— мошенничество terrorism
— терроризм

drug
pushing
— распространение наркотиков vandalism
— вандализм robbery
— ограбление manslaughter
— неумышленное убийство murdrer
— предумышленное убийство

1. What
   do you call the criminals who commit these crimes?

2. What are the crimes described
   in the following situations?

1.
He threatened to send the love letters to her husband unless she gave
him J 500.

1. The
   telephone box had been smashed and there was graffiti all avet
   the
   walls.

2. Department
   stores lose millions of pounds each year through goods
   being
   stolen off the shelves.

1. Thieves broke into the house
   while the family was away on holiday.

1. He
   watched with satisfaction as the fire he lit burnt down the
   factory.
   That’ll make them wish they’d never given me the sack,
   he
   thought.

2. It
   was a perfect copy. It was so good, in fact, that it could even
   fool
   an expert.

1. The bank believed her to be
   trustworthy. They had no reason to suspect

that she had transferred
thousands of pounds to false accounts.

1. ‘If
   you want to see your child again, put $50,000 in an old suitcase
   and
   wait for further instructions’.

1. George
   gave the manj 50 in return for a small packet of heroin.

10. It
was a beautiful day. The sun was shining and people were
sitting
outside
the cafe enjoying the sunshine. Then the bomb went off.

11. ‘If
only I hadn’t brought these watches through customs’ she
thought
as she sat crying in the police station.

Ш.
7, Скажите,
какого рода наказание полагается за
следующией пре­ступления
и обоснуйте свою точку зрения:

blackmail, forgery, murder, terrorism,
shoplifting

Ex.
8. Представьте,
что вы член комиссии по помилованию
(parole
board),
тюрьма переполнена, и вам нужно освободить
двух зак­люченных.
Обоснуйте свой выбор:

Alan
Jones: Guilty
of murdering his wife by slowly poisoning her. Described
by neighbours as a kind and gentle person. His children love
him. His wife had lots of affairs and pushed him to the limit Janet
Green: Found
guilty of shoplifting for the tenth time. She is a homeless
tramp who likes to spend the winter in prison. It is early December
and the weather is very cold.

Miranda
Morgan: A
drug addict guilty of selling heroin to teenagers. Has
already tried two unsuccessful drug treatment programmes. Has a two
year old child who will have to go into care if she goes to jail.
Mick
Brown: Guilty
of vandalism and football hooliganism. 19 years old
and below average intelligence. Agressive and gets violent when
drunk.
One previous offence for drunken driving. Cynthia
Carter: English
teacher guilty of smuggling her two cats into
England. This is against quarantine regulations. The customs officers
would like an example to be made of her.

86

Ex.
9. Переведите
диалоги (работа с переводчиком).

A:
How are persons under 18 punished in your country? В:
Если суд сочтет возможным не применять
наказания к че­ловеку, не достигшему
16 лет, то он может выбрать воспита­тельные
меры.

A:
What do you mean by educational measures? Is it a warning on a person
or a reprimand?

В:
Да, и то, и другое. Кроме того, это может
быть извинение пострадавшей
стороне и передача под наблюдение
(surveillance)
родителей.

A:
What about a person’s future life? Does the court create a criminal
record
and how will it affect his/her future life? В:
Нет, уголовное дело в таких случаях не
заводится, и если человек
более не нарушит закон, то и не будет
отрицательных последствий
(consequences).

Ex.
10. Прочитайте
текст без словаря и назовите слова,
являющиеся юридическими
терминами. Расскажите
по-английски,
как
ра­ботает
суд
присяжных.

In
England a person accused of crime must always be presumed innocent
until
he has been proven guilty. If a criminal case is serious it is always
investigated
with a jury. What is a jury and how does it function?

There
are 12 members of the jury both men and women. There are quite a
lot of people in England who think that 12 ordinary men and women are
not
capable of understanding properly all the evidence given at criminal
trials. But there is no doubt about it because judges are great
experts in summing up the evidence. The judge calls the jury’s
attention to all most important
points in the evidence. He favoures neither prosecution nor defence.
The members of the jury decide only the questions of fact. Questions
of
law are for the judge. The jury retires to a private room to consider
the verdict.
If the jury cannot agree, they must be discharged (распущен)
and a new jury is formed.

A
verdict has to be unanimous (единогласный).
English law requires that
the guilt of an accused man must be proved ‘beyond reasonable doubt’.
When
the jury returns to the courtroom, they have to give only one answer
«Guilty»
or «Not guilty».

Ex.
11. Переведите
письменно со словарем. Criminal
Justice

The
criminal justice system aims to prevent and reduce crime, and to deal
without delay with those suspected or accused of crimes. It also aims
to

help
victims of crime, to convict the guilty and acquit the innocent, and
to punish
suitably those found guilty.

The
proceeds from serious crime such as drag trafficking, robbery may be
confiscated
by the courts. The Government has certain exceptional powers for
dealing with and preventing terrorist activities. These take account
of the
need to achieve a balance between the safety of the public and the
rights of
the individual.

Law
enforcement is carried out by 52 locally based police forces, with a
combined
strength of about 160,000. Police officers are normally unarmed and
there are strict limits to police powers of arrest and detention.

Ex.
12.
Discussion.

1. Do
   you share the opinion that criminals need help more than
   punishment?
   Give your arguments for and Lgainst this statement.

2. What is your opinion
   concerning death penalty? Give your pros
   and cons.

Unit
SEVE^

Ex.
1. Прочитайте
статью,
пользуясь
словами
и
выражениями,
приве­денными
ниже.
to
find oneself in… —
оказаться
luck
was beginning to run out —
удача
изменила
in
financial difficulties —
в
финансовых
затруднениях
hammer
—
молоток
gambling
—
игра

to
pay off one’s debts —
заплатить
долги
custody
of the children —
опека
над
детьми
a
nanny —
нянька

a
cross-Channel ferry —
паром,
курсирующий
через
Ла-Манш
concrete
—
бетон

WHATEVER
HAPPENED TO LORD LUCAN?

For
some reason, Lord Lucan was known to his friends as ‘Lucky»
Lucan. In
the early 1970s, however, his luck was beginning to run out, and in
1974, at
the age of 39, he found himself in serious financial difficulties. He
had lost
more than J 250,000 at gambling tables around the world, and had been
forced
to sell the family silver to pay off some of his debts. He was also
separated
from his wife, and was fighting her in the courts for the custody of
their
three children.

But
on 7 November 1974, Lady Lucan ran into a pub near her home in
Belgravia,
London. She was covered in blood and was screaming ‘He’s murdered
my nanny!’

Lucan
had gone to the house armed with a hammer, intending to murder his
wife. He had been hiding in the kitchen when the children’s nanny had
walked
in, and he had killed her by mistake. He had then panicked and run
out of the house, attacking his wife on the way. A police search
began.

But
Lucan has never been found. On the day of the murder, he sent a note
to an old schoolfriend saying that he was going to disappear for a
time, and
a car he had borrowed was found at the port of Newhaven, where police
believed
he had boarded a ferry for France.

Since
then Scotland Yard has been looking for him in different parts of the
world but — no resultes.

As
recently as 1995, a woman said that she had been babysitting at the
house
of one of Lucan’s friends on the day after the car was found (she was
16
at that time), and that Lucan had appeared up at the door.

So
what happened? Did he kill himself, perhaps by jumping off a
cross-Channel
ferry? His wife thinks so: he was a noble man, she says, and would

behave
in a noble way. Others say that you need 150 kilos concrete to keep a
body at the bottom of the sea — so if Lucan jumped into the sea,
why has his body
never been found?

Or
did he leave the car at Newhaven and return to London (as the
babysitter’s
evidence suggests)?

Ex.
2.
Ответьте
на вопросы.

1. How did Lord Lucan get into
   debt?

2. How did he try to find the
   way out of his financial difficulties?

3. Was he living with his wife?

4. What did he do to nanny?

5. What did he want to do to his
   wife?

6. What did he do to his wife?

7. What
   did police think about Lord Lucan?

Ex.
3. а)
Прочитайте следующие предложения и
скажите, какие со­бытия
произошли раньше, чем леди Лукан появилась
в пабе. Lady
Lucan ran into a pub screaming. Lord Lucan went to the house.

He
was hiding in the kitchen when the nanny came in. He killed the
nanny. He attacked his wife. The
police started to look for him. A
car was found in Newhaven. Perhaps
he boarded a ferry for France.

1. Исправьте эти
   предложения, используя нужную
   временную
   форму. Проверьте себя по
   тексту.

2. Найдите
   в тексте другие предложения, где
   временная фор­
   ма сказуемого
   показывает связь с настоящим. Переведите
   их
   на
   русский язык.

Ex.
4. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
временную форму.

1. When
   I got home, I was very tired — I’d been walking for five
   hours.

1. His
   face was very red — he’d been lying in the sun for a long times.

2. She had been babysitting at
   the house of Lucan’s friends.

Ex.
5. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
выделен­ные
местоимения. 1.
Whenever
you
are in Moscow, come and see me.

1. Wherever
   you
   go, I’ll go with you.

2. Whoever
   it
   is, I
   don’t
   want to see him.

3. Whatever
   you
   say to her, she never listens.

4. However
   rich
   people are, they always want more.

Ex.
6. Расположите
предложения согласно последовательности
со­бытий,
обращая внимание на временные формы
сказуемого.

1. Lucan had gone to the house
   with a hammer.

2. Lucan was a lucky man.

3. He was going to murder his
   wife.

4. In
   1970s Lucan’s luck was beginning to run out.

5. Lady
   Lucan ran out into the pub on 7 November, 1974.

6. He
   had lost a lot of money in gambling.

7. She was shouting: «He
   has murdered my nanny»!

8. Police believed he had
   boarded a ferry.

9. Lucan had killed his
   children’s nanny by mistake.

Ex.
7. Дайте
свою версию исчезновения лорда Лукана.

Ex.
8.

A. Вы
случайно видели лорда Лукана. Расскажите,
где, когда,
что
вы делали в тот момент, что делал Лукан,
что случилось
потом.

B. Ваш
слушатель — полицейский из Скотланд-Ярда.
У него к
вам есть вопросы, которые он
и задает (группу можно раз­
делить
пополам или работать в парах)

^щ

Unit
Eight

Ex.
1. Выучите
следующие слова и выражения. to
defend
—
защищать

defences
—
защита в суде; возражения ответчика. to
avoid
—
избегать to
recognize
—
признавать to
threaten
—
угрожать

a
threat —
угроза
to
convince —
убеждать
to
alter —
изменять
to
deceive —
обманывать

to
force smb to do smth —
принудить
силой
сделать
что-л.
to
charge smb of smth —
обвинять
кого-л.
в
чем-л.

a
charge —
обвинение
to
require —
требовать

requirement
—
требование
duress
[dju(3)’ras]
— физическое
принуждение
insanity
—
невменяемость
mental
illness —
психическое
заболевание
self-defense
—
самозащита
mitigation
—
смягчение
наказания
to
lessen —
уменьшать
to
confuse —
путать
to
pass a law —
принять
закон
to
cause —
вызывать,
явиться
причиной
a
cause —
причина

Ex.
2. Прочитайте
и переведите текст со словарем. DEFENSES

A
defendant may avoid guilt if he can show he has adefence — a reason
the court
should excuse his act. Different systems of law recognize different
and usually
limited sets of defenses. For example, English law sometimes allow
the defense
of duress — being forced to commit a crime because of threats. Duress
may be used as a defense for a secondary party (helping the
murderer).

Another
defense is that of insanity. In most country a person cannot be found
guilty of a crime if in a doctor’s opinion he cannot have been
responsible for
his actions because of mental illness. But this defense requires
careful proof. If
it is proven the defendant will not be sent to a prison, but instead
to a mental hospital.

It
might be argued that a person is not responsible for his actions if
he is intoxicated
— drunk or under the influence of drugs. In fact, an intoxicated

92

person
may not even know what he is doing. However, In Britain and many
other
countries, there is a general principle that people who purposely get
themselves intoxicated must be responsible for their acts.
Consequently, intoxication is not a defense.

Nearly
every system of law recognizes the defense of self — defense. In
England
law, a defendant can avoid guilt for injuring someone if he can
convince the court that the force he used was to protect himself.

The
concept of defense should not he confused with that of mitigation —
reasons
your punishment should not be harsh. If a person has a defense, the
court
finds him not guilty. It is only after being found guilty that a
defendant may try to mitigate his crimes by explaining the specific
circumstances at the time of the crime.

Ex.
3. Найдите
в тексте эквиваленты следующих
словосочетаний.

оправдать
действия; виды защиты; соучастник, быть
ответ­ственным
за что-л.; под влиянием; убеждать суд в
чём-л.; осо­бые обстоятельства.

Ex.
4. Переведите
на русский язык.

self-control,
self-defense, self-protection, self-respect, self-service,
self-educated.

Ex.
5. Используя
отрицательные
префиксы
-ab-, -un-, -ir-, -in-, обра­зуйте
слова
с
отрицательным
значением
и
переведите,
reasonable, armed, altered, limited, responsible, sanity, normal.

Ex.
6. Переведите
на английский язык, используя причастия
I
и П.

A. 1.
закон, регулирующий отношения между
гражданами и

государством

1. человек, совершающий
   преступление

2. преступник,
   угрожающий кому-л.

B. 1.
действия, регулируемые законом

1. преступление,
   совершенное под влиянием эмоций

2. защита, признаваемая
   судом

Ex.
7.
а) Прочитайте и переведите со словарем
факты. FACTS

The
accused killed his wife outside the hostel in which she had been
staying
and was charged with murder. At the trial he pleaded guilty to
manslaughter,
but not guilty to murder.

Medical
evidence was called by both sides, the defence-calling the prison
medical
officer, the prosecution — a consultant psychiatrist. Both doctors
agreed that the accused was suffering from chronic depression, which
the accused argued to be a mental illness which influenced him at the
time of killing. Both doctors agreed that a reactive depressive
illness could be an abnormality
of mind, but not in this case.

The
judge directed the jury that the test be applied to determine whether
Seer’s
responsibility was diminished, whether he could be described
partially insane.
Both doctors had been asked whether this description could be applied
to the accused, and both agreed that it could not.

Вывод:
А.С.:
Diminished
responsibility
distinguished
from
insanity
— «Частичная
потеря ответственности за свои действия,
но
не по причине невменяемости в момент
убийства».

Ь)
Выразите свое (не)согласие (полное или
частичное) с этим вы­водом.
Обоснуйте
свое
мнение.

Ex.
8. Discussion.

What
is the difference between defense and mitigation?

94

Unit
Nine

Ex.
1. Прочитайте
заголовок газетной статьи. Предположите,
о чем она.
Was
Justice
Done?

Ex.
2. Прочитайте
текст (Ex.
6.) и проверьте, правильна ли ваша догадка.

Ex.
3. Выявите
слова, не принадлежащие к данной группе
слов. Объясните,
почему. Предложения начинайте следующим
обра­зом:
It
doesn‘t
belong
because...

1. a shotgun a machine gun a
   revolver a crime

2. to shoot to stab to hit
   to protect

3. a burglar a robber a
   thief a barrister

Ex.
4. Переведите
на русский язык, обращая внимание на
сослага­тельное
наклонение.

1. You did not tell me. You
   should have told me.

2. They
   were playing on the road. They shouldn’t have been playing
   on
   the road.

3. He should not have fired. He
   might have been terrified.

4. If
   a burglar had not been injured, the man would not have
   been
   arrested.

Ex.
5. Найдите
толкование слов и выражений колонки А
в колонке В.
Дайте русские эквиваленты.

А В

1. self-defence a.
   a small hut for keeping things

2. allotment b.
   act that shocks public opinion

3. ashed с
   a small piece of land which can be rented

4. to do somebody for
   growing vegetables

5. in
   advance d.
   to collect money for some purpose

6. public
   outcry e.
   to kill somebody

7. to
   raise money f.
   a protest in public

8. to
   be terrified g.
   beforehand

9. to
   earn money h.
   to be frightened, scared

10.
outrage i.
defence of one’s own body or property
j.
to make money in profession

Ex.
6. Прочитайте
текст снова и ответьте на вопросы.

An
82-year-old man who shot a burglar who was trying to break into his
allotment shed was ordered to pay J 4000 damages yesterday. Ted
Newbery had been sleeping in the shed to try to stop vandals
destroying his allotment.

He
fired through a hole in the door when he heard voices outside. Mark
Revill,
28, was hit in the chest and arm as he and another man tried to get
into
the shed. They had gone there to steal, knowing that the pensioner
had a television set and a washing machine.

Mr
Newbery had slept in the shed every night for four years because of
vandalism,
the court was told by the defence. That night, he heard a voice
saying
«If the old man’s in there, we’ll do him»? He was
absolutely terrified, and
fired the gun in self-defence. As a result of the incident, Mr Revill
lost two fingers, and has partially lost the use of one arm.

Mr
Justice Rougier ruled (постановил)
that
Mr Newbery had acted out of
all proportion to the threat. He had not acted in panic, but had
planned his
response in advance. Mr Justice Rougier wanted Mr Newbery to pay J
4000 to Mr Revill for his injures and loss of earning.

The
judgment {судебноерешение)
caused
an immediate public outcry. Tim Molloney,
the Mayor of Erewash, began to raise money to pay Mr Newbery’s bill,
and started the fund with a contribution of J 100. Since then, money
has been
coming from all over the country. Husseyin Ozer, 42, said he would
sell his Rolex
watch to pay the award. «I am outraged. The old saying that an
Englishman’s
home is his castle does not seam to be true any more» he said.

1. What did Ted Newbery do in
   his shed?

2. Why did he have a shotgun?

3. What did he do with it?

1. Why did the judge say that Mr
   Newbery had planned everything
   in advance?

1. What did the public think
   about it?

2. What did they do?

Ex.
7.
Выразите свое (не)согласие, используя
следующие выражения.

Не
was right/wrong to…

Не
had no right to…

It was his own fault that…

1. Mr
   Newbery was right to try to defend himself but he should have
   fired
   a warning shot or shouted a warning first.

2. Mr
   Newbery had no right to shoot Mr Revill even in self — defence.
   He
   should have been sent to prison.

3. It
   was Mr Revill’s fault if he was injured — he shouldn’t have
   been
   trying
   to break in.

4. The Mayor was right to start
   a fund to help Mr Newbery.

5. The
   whole thing is crasy. Mr Revill should have paid Mr Newbery
   J
   4000.

Mx.
8. Discussion.

Was justice done?

96

Unit
Ten

Ex.
1. Выучите
следующие слова и выражения.

human
rights —
права
человека

to
violate human rights —
нарушать
права
человека

to
entitle —
давать
право

to
be entitled to —
иметь
право
на

to
meet the standards —
удовлетворять
нормы

to
escape
—
зд.
бежать
из, спасаться

to
depend (on) —
зависеть

to
adopt (a law, a declaration) —
принимать
(закон,
декларацию)

to
torture
—
пытать

Ex.
2. Прочтите
и переведите текст со словарем. HUMAN
RIGHTS

Everybody
knows that many of the rights of citizens are considered human
rights. For example, a constitutional right is one which a state
guarantees
to its own citizens and sometimes even to foreigners who are within
its jurisdiction. Still a question comes: What are human rights? Not
everyone
agrees that being born a human being entitled someone to certain
freedoms-and
certain treatment. And those who agree have different opinions as
to what these rights are. A human right is one to which people all
over the world
are entitled, whatever their nationality and wherever they live.

Most
of the law in the world is made by governments for their own people.
But
human rights are independent of any political divisions. They are
basic minimum
standards of freedom and security for all people. When governments
do not meet these standards, they are criticized by their own
citizens
and even by foreign governments. Sometimes some countries impose
economic
sanction against those countries where human rights are violated. For
example, many countries have limited trade to South Africa because of
the
policy of apartheid (апартеид).

As
a rule, human rights are violated when governments violate their own
constitutions,
and very often their policies make citizens to escape to another
countries.
But legally, most countries of the world have signed international
agreements
concerning the treatment of individuals. The most important agreement
is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted by
UN General Assembly in 1948. Article 1 of UDHR declares that all
human
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and Article 2
states
that it does not depend upon race, color, sex, language, religion or
any
other difference among people.

^m

He.
3.
Сверяясь
с текстом, выберите нужное значение
следующих слов.

1. to
   entitle
   — озаглавливать, называть, давать право
   на

2. treatment
   —
   лечение, обращение, обработка

3. trade
   —
   профессия, производство, торговля

4. security
   —
   залог, гарантия, охрана, безопасность

5. to
   adopt —
   заимствовать, принимать, усыновлять

Ex.
4. Вставьте
слова, приведенные в скобках.

1.
This… with… to racial equality but he strongly protest… sexial

equality
(against, politician, the right, agrees) 2….
suffer economic and social… when they… paid… for… the same

work as men. (inequality,
doing, are, women, less).

Mx.
5.
Выберите
нужную форму.

1. In
   1978 Saida Elmi (arresred, was arrested) by the Somali
   government
   and (was held, hold) in prison for 6 years and
   (tortured,
   was tortured).

2. Torture
   (is used, used) to get information from prisoners or just
   (to
   frighten, to be frightened) them.

3. A
   group of women in Saudi Arabia (broke, was broken) the law
   by
   driving cars in a country where only men (permit, are
   permitted)
   to drive. They (arrest, were arrested) and (were
   released,
   released) when their husbands (were taken, took) them
   home
   and (promised, were promised) to keep them out of trouble.

Ex.
6. Переведите
письменно со словарем.

The
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) was first adopted in
1950 and has now been signed by every country of Western Europe.
Individual
citizens of these countries have the rights to bring a complaint
before
the European Commission if they think their government has broken the
Convention. If the Commission agrees, it may try to persuade the
country in
question to rectify the breach, or it may refer the matter to the
European Court
of Human Rights, which has the right to order a change of law in that
country. Covering countries with similar cultures and economic
conditions, the
ECHR is more practical than many international human rights
agreements.

Ex.
7. Просмотрите
текст за 3 минуты и расскажите по-русски,
что

представляет
из себя Европейский Суд по правам
человека. The
European Court of Human Rights was established by the European
Convention
for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental

Freedoms
and was set up in Strasbourg in 1959. The Convention was inspired by
the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and protects
many
essential (важный)
rights
such as the right to life, freedom from torture and
slavery (рабство)
of
thought, conscience (совесть)
and
religion, the right
to marry and found a family, freedom of peaceable assembly and
association
and the right to a fair (справедливый)
trial.
Only states which are
parties to the Convention and the EC of Human Rights have the right
to bring
a case before the Court.

Ex.
8.
Ответьте
на вопросы:

1. Did
   you have any idea about human right problem before reading
   this
   article?

2. Are there any facts in the
   article that are quite new to you? What
   are they?

3. Are
   there any facts you find the most surprising? What are they?

4. What is your opinion of the
   things described?

5. Have
   you any observations about violation of human rights either
   in
   your country or in any other?

Supplement

Дополнительные
тексты для чтения, обсуждения и письменного
перевода

Прочитайте текст
со словарем и расскажите по-английски,
чем отлича­ются уголовное и гражданское
право.

Text
1

CLASSIFICATION OF LAW

There are many ways in which
the law can be classified. Here we shall limit our discussion to the
difference between criminal and civil law.

A
simple distinction between the criminal law and the civil law is that
the latter regulates the relationships between individuals or bodies
and the former
(первое
и
последнее
по
упоминанию)
regulates
the legal relationships between
the state and individual people and bodies.

The
first practical difference is seen in the parties to the legal
action. A
civil case will involve two (or more) individual people or bodies
whilst the parties
to a criminal case will be the state and an individual person or
body.

Let us look at the examples of
both criminal and civil law.

First,
the civil law. Examples of this include the law of contract, tort
(literally
meaning ‘wrong’) and property. Consider the following situation.

You
decide to buy a radio from a local shop. You pay the correct price
and
take the radio away. You have entered into a contract with the owner
of the shop. After two days the radio fails to work.

This
is a common situation and usually the shopkeeper will replace the
radio
or return your money. If not, you may wish to take legal action to
recover
your less. As the law of contract is part of the civil law the
parties to the
action will be you (an individual) and the owner of the shop (an
individual person
or body).

How
let us look at some examples of the criminal law. This is the law by
which the state regulates the conduct of its citizens. Criminal
offences range from the small to the very serious (e.g. murder,
rape). Look at the following situation.

You
are driving your car at 70 m.p.h. in an area which has a speed limit
of
40 m.p.h. You are stopped by a police officer and subsequently a case
is brought against you for dangerous driving.

This
is a criminal offence. The parties to the action will therefore be
the state
(in the form of the prosecuting authority) and you (an individual).

Although
the division between civil and criminal law is very clear, there are
many actions which will constitute a criminal offence and a civil
wrong. Let
us look again at the situation where you are driving your car too
fast. Suppose that while you were doing this you knocked over and
injured an elderly
lady. You will have committed a criminal offence (dangerous driving)
and
a civil wrong (negligence).

Прочитайте текст со словарем и
расскажите по-русски, по каким ТРЕМ
принципам классифицируются суды в
Великобритании.

Text
2

The
structure of the courts sometimes reflects the difference between
civil
and criminal law. One should also know the difference between courts
of
the first instance and appelate courts. The court in which a case is
first heard
is called the court of first instance (юрисдикция
суда
первой
инстан­ции).
In
almost all cases it is possible to appeal to a higher court for
reconsideration
of the decision of the original court. These courts are called
appelate
courts.

There
are, within the English legal system, a large number of courts. There
are
various ways of classifying courts… thus it is possible to classify
courts according
to their functions. The obvious classification would be into courts
of civil
and courts of criminal jurisdiction. This classification is not,
however, very precise
since, although certain courts exercise a purely civil or criminal
jurisdiction,
most English courts hear both civil and criminal cases. Thus the
House
of Lords, Court of Appeal, High Court, Crown Court (Верховный)
and
magistrates’
courts exercise jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. A
second classification woul be into courts of original and courts of
appellate (апелляционная
юрисдикция)
jurisdiction.
Nor is this division of general application.
Although certain courts, such as the Court of Appeal and the House
of Lords, exercise a purely appelate jurisdiction, while other
courts, such
as magistrates’ courts, have no appellate jurisdiction. Many courts,
notably the High Court and the Crown Court, exercise both original
and appelate
jurisdiction.

Прочитайте
текст со словарем и нарисуйте схему
иерархии британс­кого суда.

Text3

In
the English legal system some courts have more authority than others.
Judges
in the lower courts are bound to follow the decisions of judges in
the higher
courts.

The
House of Lords is the highest appeal court in the English legal
system. Its
decisions are binding on all other courts.

The
Court of Appeal is below the House of Lords in the hierarchy. It is
bound by the decisions of the House of Lords and its decisions are
binding on
all lower courts. It is also bound to follow its own previous
decisions except
when a) a previous decision of the Court of Appeal conflicts with a
decision
of the House of Lords, b) there are two conflicting Court of Appeal
decisions
when it must choose which one to follow, and c) a previously decision
was given per incuriam
(through
lack of care — generally when some relevant
law was not taken into consideration).

The
court below the Court of Appeal is the High Court of Justice. It is
bound
to follow the decisions of the House of Lords and the Court of
Appeal. Judges
of the High Court will normally follow the decisions of follow High
Court
judges but they are not absolutely bound to do so.

The
court of first instance for criminal cases, the Crown Court, is bound
by
the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal; the lowest courts in the
hierarchy,
the county court and the magistrates’ courts are bound by the High
Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. No court is bound
by
the decisions of these lower courts.

Since
1972 when Britain joined the European Community, the position of
the European Court of Justice must also be considered.

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текст без словаря и расскажите по-русски,
какие типы наказаний
в нем описываются.

Text
4

CIVIL AND CRIMINAL PENALTIES

There
are several kinds of punishment available {имеются
в
распоря­жении)
to
the courts. In civil cases, the most common punishment is a fine. For
criminal offences fines are also often used when the offence is not a
very serious
one and when the offender has not been in trouble before. Another
kind of punishment available in some countries is community service
(об­щественно—полезный
труд).
This
requires the offender to do a certain amount
of unpaid work, usually for a social institution such as a hospital.
For
more serious crimes the usually punishment is imprisonment. Some
prison sentences are suspended (отложить):
the
offender is not sent to prison
if he keeps out of trouble for a fixed period of time, but if he does
offend
again both the suspended sentence and any new one will be imposed.
The length of sentences varies from a few days to a lifetime.
However, a life sentence
may allow the prisoner to be released after a suitably long period if
a
review (parole) board agrees his detention no longer serves a
purpose. In some
countries, such as the Netherlands, living conditions in prison are
fairly
good because it is felt that deprivation of liberty is punishment in
itself

and
should not be so harsh (суровый)
that
it reduces the possibility of the criminal
reeducating and reforming himself. In
other
countries,
conditions
^re
very
bad.

Прочитайте
текст со словарем и выразите свое
согласие/несогласие с приговором
за совершенное преступление.

Text
5

DRIVER
ON PHONE CAUSED DEATH

A
woman was arranging a dinner date with her boy-friend on her mobile
phone
when her car crashed into another, killing its driver. Deborah
Haynes, an
employment agent, was holding the phone with one hand and steering
with
the other as she pulled out at 70 mph to overtake on a bend. In the
seconds
before the three-car crash her passenger, Susan Penny, a colleague,
saw what about to happen and tried in vain to grab the wheel, said
Maureen Baker,
prosecuting.

Haynes
wept at Lincoln Crown Court as she was jailed for 12 months and
banned from driving for two and a half years after admitting causing
death
by dangerous driving.

The
driver of the oncoming car, Arthur Smith, 79, of Sibsey, Lines, died
at
the scene of the accident.

Mrs
Penny sustained multiple injures whish required treatment lasting
five
weeks at a specialist spinal unit.

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статью со словарем и изложите свою
версию того, что мог­ло
случиться с Джорджем.

Text
6

ВОГБ
BODY FOUND IN CANAL

The
body of a teenage rugby player has been recovered from a canal less
than
a mile from his home. .

Police
divers had been searching the canal on the outskirts of Exeter,
Devon.
They found the body close to the Paddington-Penzance railway line.

Detectives
believe that the victim, George Mortimer, was murdered. He had
told a schoolfriend that he had arranged to meet two men. George, 16,
had
left home with an overnight bag and his parents were not surprised
when he
did not return home that night.

Two
men, who were arrested more than 200 miles away, near Manchester,
were
being questioned.

George,
who captained Exeter rugby club youth team, wanted to pursue a
sporting career.

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прокомментируйте их.

Text
7

A
teenage couple’s dream of eloping ended just four miles from their
home when a bus they had stolen for the journey weered off the road
and into
a field, writes Sean O’Neill. Andrew Hodges, 18, and his 16-year-old
girlfriend
were arrested.

But
romance did not die. After an appearance in court Hodges said: «I
really love her and I’m going to marry her one day, whatever my mum
says.»

Hodges
had never driven before. The crash caused an estimated J 3,000
damage.

Hodges,
unemployed, admitted taking the bus without consent and driving
without a licence or insurance. He was placed on probation for two
years
and ordered to do 50 hours’ community service.

Text
8

CASH FOR DEAD GIRES FAMILY

A
police force has made a secret J 10,000 payment to the family of a
teenage
girl whose killer was only convicted because her mother and
grandmother
pursued the case for 20 years.

Derbyshire
police admitted they had made the «special payment» to the
family of 16-year-old Lynn Siddons, who was stabbed to death in 1978.

Lynn’s
grandmother Florence Siddons, 83, who raised her, and her mother
Gail Halford, 53, led a 20-year campaign to ensure that her killer,
Michael
Brookes, now 54, was convicted.

Text
9

CHURCH THEFT BY EX-BANKER

A
former City banker who moved back to his home village stole J 25,000
from
church funds, a court was told.

Thomas
Avery, 38, became a churchwarden near Winchester, and was then
appointed treasurer of church council. But over 17 months he stole
from the church’s bank account and from fund-raising takings.

Every,
who will be sentenced next month, admitted 11 charges of theft, two
of forgery and two of deception.

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текст
без словаря
и
выполните
задания к
нему.

Text
10

HAVE YOU SEEN THIS MAN?

Police
issued an Identikit photograph (фоторобот)
of
a man they wish to interview
in connection with the theft (кража)
of
the diamond (бриллиант)

104

105

from
a valuable collection which was shown at the Grand Hotel in
Manchester, last
Saturday evening.

This
diamond was the center of attention at the exhibitition. One of the
officials
{официальные
лица)
said:
«We can’t believe that the diamond has been
stolen. We have a very sophisticated (сложный)
security
system. Since the
diamond is so well known it will be difficult for the thief to sell
it.»

It
happened when the London dealer Mr Gruyt was giving a speech and
everybody
was listening. Then the guests heard a gun shot and saw a tall,
greyhaired
man run from the room.

Guests
described him as a tall man, about 50 years old, with blue eyes, a
small beard and moustache. The name he gave at the reception (прием)
was
Captain
Rogers. The police thinks that it was not his real name. They also
think
that his appearance may be a disguize (камуфляж).
One
woman who spoke
to him said: «He was a charming man, intelligent and very well
informed
about diamonds. I thought he was an expert. He was a bit shy and
nervous
because he was pursing (покусывать)
his
lips and he smoke a lot.»

The
police also know that the man spoke in an educated language and
showed
an interest in chess. The police also have given the warning
(пре­дупреждение):
«We
would advise anyone who thinks he or she can identify this
man not to come up to him but to contact the police. He is
dangerous.»

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                       What is law?
1. The English word «law» means various forms of behavior. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is the law of gravity; another is laws of economics. Other laws are prescriptive − they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits are laws that prescribe how fast we should drive.
2. In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs — that is informal rules of social and moral behavior. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social and cultural groups. And some are laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens.
3. Customs need not be made by governments, and they need not be written down. We learn how we are to behave in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, etc. Sometimes, we can break these rules without any penalty. But if we continually break the rules, other members of society may criticize us, or refuse to have anything to do with us. The rules of social instructions are more formal than customs, carrying penalties for those who break them. Sports clubs, for example, often have detailed rules for their members. But if a member breaks a rule and refuses to accept any punishment, the club may ask him or her to leave the club.
4. However, when governments make laws for their citizens, they use a system of courts and the police to enforce these laws. Of course, there may be instances where the law is not enforced against someone — such as when young children commit crimes, or when certain people are able to escape justice by using their money or influence.
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Размещено 28.10.2016 08:05:44

Английский слово «закон» прописывает ограничения на различные формы поведения. Некоторые законы являются описательными: они просто описывают, как люди или даже природные явления, обычно ведут себя. Во всех обществах отношения между людьми регулируются предписывающими законами. Некоторые из них — являются обычаями — то есть, неофициальные правила социального и морального поведения. Некоторые -это те правила, которые мы принимаем, если принадлежим  к конкретным социальным институтам, таким как религиозные, образовательные и культурные группы. И некоторые — юридические законы, принятые в стране и предписывающие правила поведения всех граждан в обществе.Какие причины побуждают правительство создавать законы и приводить их в исполнение? Общественный порядок — несомненно, одна из причин. Общественное право устанавливает власть самого правительства, и гражданские законы служат основой для взаимодействия среди граждан. Без законов, несомненно, существовала бы анархия в обществе (хотя сами анархисты утверждают, что люди  в состоянии взаимодействовать и жить в мире без законов, если бы не было никаких правительств, которые вмешиваются в жизнь людей).Другая причина — это реализация справедливости. Справедливость — понятие, которые многие люди считают важным, но немногие способны верно его определять. Иногда справедливое решение — просто решение, которое  большинство людей считают правильным. Но способны ли мы создать справедливое общество, просто опираясь на  общественное мнение? Если мы будем всегда справедливы большинству, то мы часто будем несправедливы к меньшинствам. Если мы делаем то, что кажется правильным в данный момент, мы можем создать условия, которые в будущем окажутся неверными. Многие философы предложили принципы справедливости, которые являются  более теоретическими, чем повседневное понятие справедливости, и временами правительства попадают под влияние философов. Но в целом, правительства опираются на более практические соображения, такие как возрастающий уровень преступности или групп давления (лобби) .Иногда законы — просто попытка реализации общественного порядка. Для большинства людей очевидно, что опасное поведение должно быть подвергнуто наказанию; что отцы должны оказывать финансовую помощь своим детям в случае ухода из семьи; то, что человек должен получить  компенсацию за ущерб, когда кто-то  расторгает соглашение с ним или нею. Но чтобы  осуществляться на деле , правильное поведение  должно быть прописано в законе, и когда  пишутся законы, становится ясно, что правильное поведение не такой простой вопрос. Все вместе это — сложный процесс, основанный на долгом наблюдении за многими различными людьми в различных ситуациях. Законы, которые обоснованы общественным порядком, не вполне определяют общественный порядок, пока они не прописаны в праве.На практике  правительства являются единственным  социальным институтом, заинтересованным исключительно  в создании сдерживающей власти, ясно мыслящей и осуществляющей контроль за справедливостью и общественным порядком. Они объединяют много целей и наследуют много традиций. Законы, которые они создают и реализуют  в жизнь, призваны избежать  беспорядка.

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Английское слово «закон» относится к ограничениям различных форм поведения. Некоторые законы описывающие(описательные): они просто описывают как люди или даже природные явления обычно себя ведут. Примером такого закона служит закон тяготения, другие законы, менее последовательные-это законы экономики.
 Другие законы-предписывающие-они предписывают как людям следует себя вести. Например, ограничение скорости, применяемое для водителей, предписывает как быстро мы должны ездить. Они редко описывают как быстро мы на самом деле ездим, конечно. 
В любом обществе отношения между людьми регулируются предписывающими законами. Некоторые из них являются обычаями – это неофициальные правила общественного и морального поведения. Некоторые – это правила, которые мы принимаем, если входим в определенные общественные институты, такие, как религиозные, образовательные и культурные группы. И некоторые – точные законы, созданные государствами и направленные на всех подвластных граждан.
Обычаи не надо создавать правительству, и их не надо записывать. Мы учимся вести себя в обществе так, как от нас ожидают, по инструкциям семьи и учителей, по совету друзей и по своему опыту общения с посторонними людьми. Иногда мы можем нарушать эти правила без какого-либо наказания. Но если мы постоянно нарушаем правила или нарушаем одно очень важное, другие члены общества могут высмеять нас, агрессивно поступать по отношению к нам или отказаться иметь какие-либо дела с нами. То, как люди разговаривают, едят и пьют, работают и расслабляются вместе, обычно называются обычаями.
Слово «Порядок» многозначно. Начнем с «закона и порядка». Смысл «порядка» в этом сочетании означает установление норм закона для сохранности жизни и защиты собственности. В 17 веке философ Томас Гоббс (1588-1679) писал, что сохранение жизни – самая важная функция закона. Он описал жизнь без закона как жизнь в «естественном состоянии». Без правил, норм человек будет жить как хищник, воруя и убивая ради собственной выгоды.
Члены каждого общества создают законы для себя в целях самозащиты. Если бы не было закона, вы не могли бы выйти на улицу без страха быть похищенным, ограбленным или убитым. В мире хороших людей намного больше, чем плохих, но плохих все же достаточно, чтобы сделать закон необходимостью в интересах каждого. Даже если бы мы все были хорошими, такими, как должны быть, законы все равно были бы необходимы. Как один хороший человек на мотоцикле пропустит другого хорошего человека тоже на мотоцикле, который движется навстречу, если нет правил дорожного дыижения?
Представьте, что вы пошли в овощной магазин, купили немного помидоров и, вернувшись домой, обнаружили, что они старые или даже, что некоторые из них камни вместо помидоров; что бы вы делали, если бы не было законов по этому поводу? В отсутствии закона вы можете полагаться только на закон джунглей.
Поэтому каждая страна старается создать законы, которые помогут ее людям жить в безопасности и удобстве. Это непросто сделать. Ни одна страна не преуспела в создании законов, которые были бы полностью  удовлетворительны. Но несовершенные законы лучше, чем их отсутствие.

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