The distinctive function of the english word stress

Word-stress
has a constitutive function, as it moulds syllables into a word
forming its stress pattern.

Word-stress
has a distinctive function in English, because exists there different
words in English with analogous sound structure which are
differentiated in speech only by their stress pattern. E.g.

Noun
/ adjective verb

‘Insult in’sult

‘Subject sub’ject

Word-stress
has an identificatory factory function, because stress patterns of
words enable people to identify definite combinations of sounds as
meaningful linguistic units. A distortion of the stress pattern may
hamper understanding or produce a strange accent.

LECTURE 6

Intonation and Prosody

Phonemes,
syllables & words, as lower-level linguistic units, constitute a
higher phonetic unit –the utterance. Every concrete utterance,
alongside of its phonemic & syllabic structures, has a certain
intonation.

Most
CIS countries phoneticians define it as a complex unity of speech
melody, sentence stress, tempo, rhythm & voice tamber (timbre),
which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions &
attitudes towards the contents of the utterance & the hearer.
Speech
melody, sentence stress, tempo, rhythm and tamber are all components
of intonation. These are perceptible qualities of intonation.

Acoustically,
intonation is a complex unity of varying fundamental frequency,
intensity & duration. Speech melody is primarily related with
fundamental frequency, tempo- with duration.

On the
articulatory level intonation is a complex phenomenon. In the
production of speech melody the subglottal –подгортанный,
laryngeal –ларингальный
& supraglottal- надгортанный
respirotory
— дыхательный
muscles
regulate the subglottal air pressure, which makes the vocal cords
vibrate. An increase of subglottal pressure raises the pitch of the
voice, & its decreases lower the pitch.

There
is no single mechanism to which the production of stress can be
attributed. Physiological correlates of different degrees of
utterance stress haven’t as yet been established. Further
investigations are necessary to discover the articulatory mechanism
of the components of intonation.

The
definition of intonation given above is a broad definition. It
reflects the actual interconnection & interaction of melody,
sentence stress, tempo, rhythm & tamber in speech.

A
great number of phoneticians abroad, D. Jones,
L. Armstrong &
I. Ward,

K. Pike,
R. Kingdon, A. Gimson, J.O’Connor & G. Arnold
define intonation as the variation of the pitch of the voice, thus,
reducing it to just one component –speech melody. This is a narrow
definition of intonation. Thus D. Jones writes: “Intonation may be
defined as the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice
in connected speech.”

In
spite of the fact that many scholars do not include sentence stress,
rhythm & tempo in the definition of intonation they regard these
prosodic phenomena as closely connected with one another.

According
to R. Kingdon:
“When we talk about English intonation we mean the pitch patterns
of spoken English, the pitch tunes or melodies, the musical features
of English.”

Some
foreign phoneticians give broader definitions of intonation. Thus,
L Hultzen
includes the variations of pitch, loudness & duration, F. Danes
–the variations of pitch & intensity, E. Haugen
a combination of tone, stress & juncture.

Alongside
of the term “intonation” the term “prosody” is widely used.
“Prosody” & “Prosodic” denote non –segmental phenomena,
i.e. those which do not enter into the system of segmental phonemes.
The British phonetician D.
Cristal
defines prosodic features as “vocal effects constituted by
variations along the parameters of pitch, loudness, duration &
silence.”

From
the very definition of prosody and intonation we can clearly see that
both the notions include essentially the same phenomena, but the
terms-“intonation and prosody” are used differently by different
linguists. Some phoneticians apply the term “prosody” and
“prosodic” only to the features pertaining to the syllable and
phonetic word, or rhythmic unit which are regarded as meaningless
prosodic units & oppose prosody to intonation (which is a
meaningful phenomenon).

We
adhere to the point of view that prosodic features pertain not only
to syllables, words & rhythmic groups, but to the intonation
group & the utterance as well, since the latter are constituted
by these units.

The
notion of prosody, consequently, is broader than the notion of
intonation, as it can be applied to the utterance, the word, the
syllable, whereas prosody of the utterance and intonation are
equivalent notions.

Whatever the views of the
linguistic nature of prosodic phenomena, the phonic substance of
prosody is regarded by all phoneticians as the modifications of
fundamental frequency, intensity, and duration. The most complicated
and unsolved problems of prosody are the interaction between its
acoustic properties, their functioning in speech and their
systematization. R. Jakobson says that prosody is one the most
difficult and controversial problems of modern linguistic studies.

Concrete realizations of
speech prosody & its systematic nature can be described
adequately in terms of the syllabic, the rhythmic (or accent) group &
the utterance.

The
syllable is the smallest prosodic unit. It has no meaning of its own,
but it is significant for constituting higher prosodic units.
Prosodic features of the syllable (tone, stress, duration) depend on
its position and function in the rhythmic unit and in the utterance.

A rhythmic
group (or accentual unit, or group) is either one stressed syllable
or a stressed syllable with a number of unstressed ones grouped
around it the stressed syllable is the nucleus of the rhythmic group.
There are as many rhythmic units in an utterance as there are
stressed syllables in it. The unstressed syllables are clitics.
Those preceding the stressed syllables are called proclitics
& those following it – enclitics.

Depending
on the position of the stressed syllable and the number of proclitics
and enclitics in the rhythmic group there exist various
accentual-and-rhythmic patterns of it. E.g. /
/,
/ /, / /, etc. Besides a definite
accentual-and-rhythmic pattern, the rhythmic group is characterized
by a pitch pattern (or tonal contour) and duration pattern (temporal
structure). These prosodic characteristics make it possible to
perceive the rhythmic unit as an actual discrete unit of prosody. The
rhythmic unit may be singled out of an utterance also due to the
meanings expressed by its prosodic features.

According
to D. Bolinger these may be the meanings of assertiveness,
separateness, newness: But
nobody knew about it.; the meaning of connectedness &
incompleteness: The brighter they are the better.
The rhythmic unit should, therefore, be considered a meaningful unit,
though this viewpoint is not unanimously accepted.

The
intonation group is higher than the rhythmic unit. It has also been
termed “syntagm”, “sense-group”, “breath group”,
“intonation contour”, “and divisible accentual unit ”,“
tone group ”,“ tune ”,“ tone unit”.

The
term “syntagm”, has a drawback: it is often used with different
meanings which have nothing to do with the prosodic unit.

The
term “sense group” calls attention to the fact that it is a group
of words that make sense when put together. But it does not indicate
its intonational character.

The
term “breath group” emphasizes the physiological aspect of the
unit, which is uttered with a single breath. A breath group usually
coincides with a sense-group because “pauses for breath are
normally made at points where pauses are necessary or allowable from
the point of view of meaning”. But a pause for breath may be made
after two or more sense-groups are uttered, so a breath –group may
not coincide with a sense-group.

The
term “divisible unit” emphasizes the role of utterance stress in
constituting the unit. The divisible accentual unit may consist of
several indivisible units (rhythmic units).

The
terms “tone -group”, “tune”, “tone unit” also emphasize
the role of just one (pitch) component of prosody for the formation
of the unit. In our opinion, the term “intonation group” better
reflects the essence of this unit. It shows that the intonation group
is the result of the division in which not only stresses, but pitch &
duration play a role. Structurally the intonation group has some
obligatory formal characteristics. These are the nuclear stress &
the terminal tone. The boundaries between intonation groups are
marked by tonal junctures and pauses. All these features shape the
intonation group, delimit one intonation group from another and show
its relative semantic importance. Intonation group is a meaningful
unit. The most general meanings expressed by the intonation group
are: completeness, finality versus incompleteness, non finality.

It may be
coextensive with a sentence or part of a sentence. E.g.
Yesterday they passed the exam. They passed the exam yesterday.

The
structure of the intonation group varies depending on the number of
syllables and rhythmic units in it. Minimally, intonation group
consists of one (stressed) syllable – the nucleus. Maximally, it
contains the prehead, the head, the nucleus and the tail.

The
stressed & unstressed syllables of an intonation group perform
different functions. H.
Palmer
was the first to single out the consecutive structural elements of
the intonation group (“tone-group”) which differ in their
functions. These elements of intonation groups are “pre-head”,
“head”, “nucleus” and “tail”.

The number
of functional elements distinguished by different phoneticians is not
the same. Thus, J.
O’Connor
& G. Arnold
distinguish two elements in the pre-nuclear part of the
utterance –the pre-head & the head. The notion of “head”
in this sense coincides with the notion of “scale”, used by
Russian phoneticians, e.g. G.
Torsuyev,
A. Trakhterov, V. Vassilyev, A. Antipova &
others.

R.Kingdon
uses the term “head” to mean only the first stressed syllable,
which he considers to be an independent functional element. The
stressed & unstressed syllables following the head form another
functional element – the body.

The
“pre-head”, “head” & “tail” is non-obligatory
elements of an intonation group, whereas the nucleus is an obligatory
& the most important functional element.

A
higher prosodic unit is the utterance. The utterance is the main
communicative unit. It is characterized by semantic entity which is
expressed by all the language means: lexical, grammatical and
prosodic. The prosodic structure of an utterance is a meaningful unit
that contributes to the total meaning of the utterance. Each
utterance has a definite prosodic structure.

The
utterance may contain one intonation group, two or more. E.g.
‘Listening
is an im’portant ‘process in ‘learning a language. Be’sides the
auditory ·process | there are speaking | reading | and `writing
of the language.
Irrespective of its structural complexity, the prosodic structure of
the utterance is viewed as a single semantic entity.

The
utterance is not the ultimate unit of prosodic analysis. In speech
single utterances are not very frequent. On the contrary, they are
connected and grouped into still larger units – hyper utterances,
phonetic paragraphs and texts. The prosodic features of these higher
units indicate the relations between their constituents, the degree
of their connectedness and interdependence, thus forming the prosodic
structures of the hyperutterances, the phonetic paragraphs and texts.
The study of these units in modern linguistics is in the forefront of
scholars’ interest.

To
summarize, it is necessary to note, that the syllable, the rhythmical
unit, the intonation group, the utterance and the hyperutterance are
taxonomical prosodic units. Whereas the elements of the intonation
group, considered above, i.e. prehead, head, nucleus and tail, are
autonomous units, they are not related taxonomically.

The
prosody of the utterance performs 3 basic functions: constitutive,
distinctive & identificatory.

1.
The constitutive function of prosody
is to form utterances as communicative units. Prosody unifies words
into utterances. A succession of words arranged syntactically is not
a communicative unit until a certain prosodic pattern is attached to
it. It forms all communicative types of utterances (statements,
questions, imperatives, exclamations and modal types) e.g. categoric
statements, non categoric, perfunctory statements, quizzical
statements, certainty & uncertainty questions, insistent
questions, etc. Prosody at the same time performs the segmentative &
delimitative function. It segments connected discourse into
utterances and intonation groups and simultaneously delimits them one
from another, showing relations between them: Cf. “We can if we
want to and “we can if we want to”. It also signals the semantic
nucleus and other semantically important words of an utterance (or an
intonation group). Prosody also constitutes phonetic styles of
speech.

2.
The distinctive function of prosody
manifests itself in several particular functions, depending on the
meanings which are differentiated. These are communicative
-distinctive, modal –distinctive, culminative (“theme -rheme”)
distinctive, syntactical –distinctive & stylistic –distinctive
function.

The
communicative –distinctive function is to differentiate the
communicative types of utterances, i.e. statements, questions, etc.
and communicative subtypes: e.g. within statements, statements proper
(It was a ‘very hot •after`noon,
answers (It was a very hot •after`noon),
informing statements,
announcements, etc. within questions – first instance questions
(‘where did he `find
it?), repeated questions (»where did he «find
it?), echo questions (•where did he find it?); within imperatives –
commands (‘Don’t be late), requests (‘Don’t be late) an so on.

The
modal –distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in
differentiating modal meanings of utterances, i.e. the speaker’s
attitudes & emotions, e.g. antagonistic versus friendly attitude
and so on.

This
function is often defined as expressive or emotional, attitudinal.

Various
modal meanings can also be expressed and differentiated by lexical
and grammatical means, e.g. such modal words as “sure”,
“undoubtful”, “definitely”, “perhaps”, “may be”,
“probably” and modal verbs “may”, “might” and so on.
Usually, the speaker’s attitude corresponds to the contents of the
words he chooses. But utterance prosody may disagree with word
content and is, then, the crucial factor in determining the modal
meaning of the utterance. Cf. “He definitely promised” and “He
definitely promised”. In the first case the melodic contour agrees
with the word content and the grammatical structure, whereas in the
second case it does not. So the first utterance sounds definite and
categoric. The second utterance sounds indefinite and non-categoric.
In “`Thank
you” the high falling tone is in harmony with the word content and
expresses genuine gratitude. In “^Thank
you” the rising-falling tone adds an antagonistic note to the
utterance. That is why in actual speech the listener is more
interested in the speaker’s “tone” than in his words.

The
culminative-distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in
differentiating the location of the semantic nuclei /nju:kliai/
pl. of utterances & other semantically important words. This
function is often called logical (Artymov),
predicative (Vinigradov),
accentual (Gimson).

Some
scholars claim
that prosody indicates the “theme – rheme” organization of an
utterance, i.e. it shows the thing already known & the new thing
said about it e.g.

Theme
– rheme

The’
teacher has`
come.

Rheme – Theme

The`
teacher has come.

The
syntactical — distinctive function of prosody is to differentiate
syntactical types of sentences & syntactical relations in
sentences.

E.g. Her,
sister, said •Mary,
|
was a ‘ well –known`
actress (
a compound sentence.)

Her’
sister,
said |’
Mary was a ‘well
– known `actress
(a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause)

‘Smiling,
Tom |
‘entered
the`
hall.(“smiling”
is an attribute)

,
Smiling |’Tom
‘entered the`
hall.
(“Smiling”
is an adverbial modifier)

Stylistic
– distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in that prosody
differentiates pronunciation (phonetic) styles, determined by extra
linguistic factors.

3. The
identificatory function
of prosody is to provide a basis for the hearer’s identification of
the communicative & modal type of an utterance, its semantic &
syntactical structure in accordance with the situation of the
discourse.

All
the functions of prosody are fulfilled simultaneously & cannot be
separated one from another. They show that utterance prosody is
linguistically significant & meaningful.

Each
language has a certain limited number of such meaningful units,
capable of distinguishing utterances. They are defined as intonemes.
or
utterance prosodemes.

The
prosodic system is characteristic of each language. The prosodic
systems of one language are not the same in form as those of other
languages. Nor do they necessarily express the same meanings, though
there may be resemblances here & there.

Emphasizing
the role of intonation in speech, R.Kingdon says: “Intonation is
the soul of a language while the pronunciation of its sounds is its
body…

Thus,
the linguistic character of prosody can be summarized in the
following way:

1. Prosody of speech is
   significant & meaningful.

2. Prosody is systematic. It is
   not invented in speaking but produced according to the system of
   prosodic structures of a given language.

3. Prosody is a characteristic
   feature of each concrete language & cannot be used in speaking
   another language.

LECTURE 7

Word Stress in English

CONTENTS

1. The nature of Word Stress in
English

.1 Origins of the Word Stress
and the notion of Accent

.2 Types of English Word
Stress2. Place of Word Stress in English

.1 Functions of Word Stress

.2 English accentuation
tendencies

word stress accent vowel

INTRODUCTION

«major part of second language
learners seem to reach adequate proficiency in the spheres of morphology and
syntax, still they have difficulty reaching the same proficiency level in the
fields of phonology and phonetics. Native speakers who are competent users of
the language absolutely know in what way to say a word, know how to pronounce
it. The difficulty attaining the same level as native speakers is found within
the results of interference of the mother tongue with English. The interference
of native Russian as the mother tongue is obscure in learners of English, but
not just in grammar aspect, also in pronunciation and it can be shown in the
comparative display of the word stress that this paper is partly about.this
course paper our attention will be focused on the accentual patterns of English
words. The sequence of syllables in the word is pronounced not even close or
identically. One syllable or syllables that are uttered with some prominence
than the other syllables in the very word, are meant to be stressed or in other
words accented. The correlation of prominences of different syllables in a word
is totally understood as the accentual (stress) structure of the word or its
(accentual) stress pattern.English and Russian linguists worked over the
question of word stress in English as the unique phenomenon. According to D.
Crystal the terms «… heaviness, sound pressure, force, power, strength,
intensity, amplitude, prominence, emphasis, accent, stress» tend to be used
synonymously by most writers. According to G.P. Torsuev the notions
«stressed» and «prominent» should not be used as the
synonyms. The effect of prominence, states the linguist, is made by some
phonetic features of sounds, which have nothing to do with the actual word or
sentence stress.

The actuality
of the investigation may be argued by the fact that nowadays the great
attention is paid to the research of accentual structure of English words.
Because stress or accent fulfill enormous functions of formation words and
compound words. The main aim of the course paper is to clarify types of
stress, places and degrees of word stress, factors and functions of word
stress.

CHAPTER 1. The nature of Word stress
in English

1.1 Origins of the
Word Stress and the notion of Accent

spoken language has a unique
division into segments like vowels and consonants. As we utter them, we make
use of wide range of tones of voice. The speech features that are higher than
the sound segments are length, stress, pitch, intonation, rhythm and juncture.
Here we are describing the nature of word stress.sequence of syllables in the
word is not pronounced identically. The syllable or syllables which are uttered
with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are said to be
stressed or accented. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress; stress
in connected speech is termed sentence stress.first we have to find out the
meaning of the notions: word stress, intonation, accent. «Different
authors define stress differently. B.A. Bogoroditsky, for instance, defined stress
as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory and
articulatory activity. D. Jones defined word stress as the degree
of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhalation and gives an
impression of loudness. H. Sweet also stated that stress, is connected
with the force of breath. According to A.C. Gimson, any or all of four factors
achieve the effect of prominence: force, tone, length and vowel color.native
English listeners, the most important syllable in a word is the stressed
syllable, the primary cue for identifying the word. This makes stress the most
important pronunciation topic. In addition, the characteristics of stressed and
unstressed syllables in single words are mirrored in rhythm. Word stress
is described as a communicatively important pronunciation topic, bridging the
continuum between segmentals (consonants and vowels) and suprasegmentals
(rhythm and intonation)» [20; 17].A.M. suggested another description. He
states that «the word stress can be defined as the singling out of
one or more syllables in а word, which is accompanied by the change of the
force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of the vowel sound» [4].the most full and correct
definition can be found in the Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. «A
term used in phonetics to refer to the degree of force used in producing a
syllable. The usual distinction is between stressed and unstressed syllables,
the former being more prominent than the latter (and marked in transcription
with a raised vertical line, [c]. The prominence is usually due to an increase
in loudness of the stressed syllable, but increases in length and often pitch
may contribute to the overall impression of prominence. In popular usage,
‘stress’ is usually equated with an undifferentiated notion of ‘emphasis’ or
‘strength’» [13; 454].notion of stress is supposed to close enough to the
meaning of intonation. Still there exists a huge difference. The difference
between stress and intonation is that » …stress is the relative loudness
of parts of speech where intonation is the variation in the pitch of different
parts of speech. Linguists generally believe that there are about 3 to 4 levels
of stress in the English language. In most cases, stress does not really change
the meaning of words and is more or less associated with the dialect or accent
being used» [8; 138]. There are some cases where this assumption is not
valid — see the table 1.1.

1.1. Examples in
English, where the stress changes the meaning of the word

Loudness has an inherent pitch
component, stress, as the relative loudness, sometimes has an added pitch
variation. This extra pitch variation is called a pitch accent. An
example of a language, which contains a pronounced level of pitch accent is
Turkish. Pitch variations are used to change the stress level of a word mostly
due to rhythmic constraints imposed by the language.long as we are discussing
the notion of accent, it is reasonable to define its meaning. Accent was
originally a loan translation from Greek into Latin (a loan translation is when
each constituent of a compound in one language is translated into its
equivalent in another, and then reassembled into a new compound). » … Greek
prosōidíā (whence English
prosody) was formed from pros ‘to’ and
ōidé ‘song’ (whence English ode);
these elements were translated into Latin ad ‘to’ and cantus ‘song’ (whence
English chant, cant, cantata, canticle), giving accentus. The notion
underlying this combination of ‘to’ and ‘song’ was of a song added to speech —
that is, the intonation of spoken language. The sense of a particular mode of
pronunciation did not arise in English until the 16th century» [6; 4].the
Britannica Encyclopedia exists the following meaning of the accent notion.
» … in phonetics, that property of a syllable which makes it stand out in
an utterance relative to its neighboring syllables. The emphasis on the
accented syllable, relative to the unaccented syllables may be realized through
greater length, higher or lower pitch, a changing pitch contour, greater
loudness or a combination of these characteristics» [10;54].

«The emphasis which makes a
particular word or syllable stand out in a stream of speech — one talks
especially of an accented sound/word/syllable, or the accent(ual) pattern of a
phrase/sentence. The term is usually found in a discussion of metre (metrics),
where it refers to the ‘beats’ in a line of poetry — the accented syllables, as
opposed to the unaccented ones. But any style of spoken language could be
described with reference to the relative weight (accentuation) of its
syllables: one might talk of the ‘strongly accented’ speech of a politician,
for instance., accent is not solely a matter of loudness, but also of pitch and
duration, especially pitch: comparing the verb record (as in I’m
going to record the tune) and the noun (I’ve got a record),
the contrast in word accent between re`cord and `record is made by the
syllables differing in loudness, length and pitch movement. The notion of pitch
accent as also been used in the phonological analysis of these languages,
referring to cases where there is a restricted distribution of tone within
words (as in Japanese). A similar use of these variables is found in the notion
of sentence accent (also called ‘contrastive accent’). This is an
important aspect of linguistic analysis, especially of intonation, because it
can affect the acceptability, the meaning, or the presuppositions of a
sentence, e.g. He was wearing a red hat could be heard as a response to
Was he wearing a red coat?; whereas He was wearing a red hat would
respond to Was he wearing a green hat? The term stress, however,
is often used for contrasts of this kind (as in the phrases ‘word stress’
and ‘contrastive stress’). An analysis in terms of pitch accent is also
possible.total system of accents in a language is sometimes called the
accentual system, and would be part of the study of phonology. The coinage
accentology for the study of accents is sometimes found in European
linguistics. (3) In graphology, an accent is a mark placed above a letter,
showing how that letter is to be pronounced. French accents, for example,
include a distinction between é,
è and ê.
Accents are a type of diacritic» [13; 4].linguists believe that syllabic
and lexical accents do not change the meaning of words in English. However, we
know that syllabic and lexical accents are also components of linguistic
stress along with other concepts such as syllabic and lexical sonority
variations and metrical variations. In those regards, since syllabic stress
does change the meaning of words in English, then so do accent.

1.2 Types of
English Word Stress

has various domains: the word, the
phrase, the sentence. Word accent (also called word stress or lexical stress)
is a part of the characteristic way in which a language is pronounced. Given to
a particular language system, word accent may be:

.        Fixed (like in Welsh);

.        Predictable (e.g. in
French, where it occurs regularly at the end of words, or in Czech, where it
occurs initially);

.        Movable, as in English,
which then leaves accent free to function to distinguish one word from another
that is identical segmentally (e.g. the noun permit versus the verb to
permit).types of word stress are distinguished not only according to its
physical (acoustic) nature and degree, but also according to its position in
different words of the language. «From this point of view two types of
word stress are distinguished: fixed and free.)        In languages with fixed
word stress the position of stress is the same in all the words. For
instance, in Czech and Lettish the main stress falls on the first syllable of
each word and grammatical form of а word; in French, stress is tied to the last
syllable of each word; in Polish, it falls on the prefinal syllable of all
words and their grammatical forms.)        In languages with free word
stress the primary stress may fall in different words on any syllable. For
example in Russian: к`омната,
раб`ота,
матем`атика,
преподав`атель,
машиностро`ение,
окн`о; in English: `mother, ig`nore, соn`sideÐration,
ciga`rette.

Within frее word stress two subtypes
are distinguished on morphological grounds: constant and shifting.

a.      А constant stress
is one which remains on the same morpheme in different grammatical forms of а
word or in different derivatives from one and the same root. For example:
«wonder — `wondering — `wonderful — `wonderfully.

b.      А shifting stress
is one which falls on different morphemes in different grammatical forms of а
word or in different derivatives from one and the same root,is also shifted
under the influence of rhythm. For instance, Ber`lin — `Berlin `streets,
Chi`nese — a `Chinese `lantern; un`known — an `unknown writer — The `writer is
`quite un`known., accent can be used at the phrasal level to distinguish
sequences identical at the segmental level (e.g. ‘light housekeeping’ versus
‘lighthouse keeping’ or ‘blackboard’ versus ‘black board’). Finally, accent can
be used at the sentence level to draw attention to one part of the sentence
rather then another (e.g. ‘What did you sign?’ ‘I signed a contract
to do some light housekeeping.’ versus ‘Who signed a contract?’ ‘I
signed a contract to do some light housekeeping.’)» [10; 54].the auditory
level a stressed syllable is the part of the word which has a special
prominence. It is produced by a greater loudness and length, modifications in
the pitch and quality. The physical correlates are: inten sity, duration,
frequency and the formant structure. All these features can be analyzed on the
acoustic level. «Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or
more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of
utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of
the sound, which is usually a vowel. In different languages one of the factors
constituting word stress is usually more significant than the others. According
to the most important feature different types, of word stress are distinguished
in different languages.

) If special prominence in a
stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of
articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic, or force stress.

) If special prominence in a
stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the change of pitch, or musical
tone, such accent is called musical, or tonic. It is characteristic of the
Japanese, Korean and other oriental languages.

) If special prominence in a
stressed syllable is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the
vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones,
such type of stress is called quantitative.

) Qualitative type of stress is
achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel under stress» [4;
51].word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but in fact, the special
prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the English language not
only through the increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the
vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the voice.the
viewpoint of phonology, the main function of stress is to provide a
means of distinguishing degrees of emphasis
or contrast in sentences (sentence stress),
as in The big man looks angry; the term contrastive stress is often used
for this function. Many pairs of words and word
sequences can also be distinguished using stress variation (lexical stress or
word stress), as in the contrast between
An increase in pay is needed and I’m going to increase his pay or
the distinction between `black `bird and `black-bird.analytical question here,
which attracted a great deal of attention in the middle decades of the
twentieth century, is how many degrees of stress need to be recognized in order
to account for all such contrasts, and to show the interrelationships between
words derived from a common root, such as `telegraph, tele`graphic and
te`legraphy.а purely phonetic point of view polysyllabic word has as many
degrees of prominence as there are syllables in it. А. С. Gimson gives the
following distribution of the degrees of stress in the word
«ехаmination»:most prominent syllable is marked by figure 1, the
second degree of prominence — by figure 2, then goes 3, and so on. However, not
all these degrees of prominence are linguistically relevant.majority of British
phoneticians distinguish three degrees of word stress in English:

.        primary (the strongest
stress),

.        secondary (the second
strongest) and

.        weak stress (аll the other
degrees of stress).syllables bearing either primary or secondary stress are
termed stressed, while syllables with weak stress are саlled, somewhat
inaccurately, unstressed.the American structuralist tradition, four such
degrees are usually distinguished, and analyzed as stress phonemes,
namely (from strongest to weakest):

(1) ‘primary’,

(2) ‘secondary’,

(3) ‘tertiary’ and

(4) ‘weak’.contrasts are, however,
demonstrable only on words in isolation, as in the compound elevator operator —
one of several such phrases originally cited to justify analyses of this kind.views
recognized different kinds and degrees of stress, the simplest
postulating a straight stressed v. unstressed contrast, referring to other
factors (such as intonation and vowel quality) to explain such sequences as
elevator operator. «In distinctive feature theories of phonology, the
various degrees of stress are assigned to the syllables of words by means of
the repeated application of rules (such as ‘lexical’, ‘compound’ and ‘nuclear’ stress
rules). Some analysts maintain there is a distinction to be made between
linguistic contrasts involving loudness (which they refer to as ‘stress’) and
those additionally involving pitch (which they refer to as «accent»).
All the examples given above, they would argue, are matters of accent, not stress,
because contrasts in pitch variation are normally involved. Similar problems
arise in the analysis of tone languages.the context of rhythm studies, the
notion of a stress-timed language is often cited, i.e. one where the stresses
fall at roughly regular intervals within an utterance. In analyzing such a
language in this way, the notion of silent stress is sometimes invoked. The
reason is to handle cases where the omission of a stressed syllable in
colloquial speech can none the less be ‘felt’; a regularly cited case in the
abbreviated version of thank you, which is said to be the unstressed
residue of an unspoken stressed + unstressed combination. A sequence of
syllables constituting a rhythmical unit, containing one primary stress, is
known as a stress group. In metrical phonology a stress-foot is a
string containing as its first element a
stressed syllable, followed by zero or more unstressed syllables symbolized by
Σ. The most prominent element in the stress foot is called the head. It
should be noted that ‘foot’, in this context, refers to an underlying
unit, whose phonetic interpretation varies according to the theoretical
approach., in this approach, is a rule, which eliminates stresses produced by
foot construction. When two stressed syllables are immediately adjacent, the
situation is described as stress clash. Speakers have a tendency to avoid
stress clash; for example, the word thirteen is normally stressed on the
second syllable, but in the phrase thirteen men, the stress shifts to
the first syllable» [13; 456].languages, stressed and unstressed syllables
differences can be distinguished by differences in length, pitch, loudness, or
vowel quality. As the chart below shows, English makes use of all these
distinctions. See table 1.2.

1.2.
Characteristics of levels of stress in words

CHAPTER 2. Place of word Stress in
English

.1 Functions of Word Stress

any phonological unit, word stress
performs three functions: constitutive, distinctive and identificatory.

.        «Word stress has а
constitutive function as it arranges syllables into а word by forming its
stress pattern. Without а definite stress pattern а word stops being а word and
becomes just а sequence of syllables.

.        Word stress has а
distinctive function because it helps to differentiate the meaning of words of
the same morphological structure. The opposition of the primary stress and weak
stress can differentiate the parts of speech, like:n — subject vn — object vn —
import vn — insult vn — export vn — progress vn — combine vn — conduct vn —
frequent vn — present voppositions may differentiate the actual meaning of the
some words:

`billow (naval term) — be`low
(down);

`artist — ar`tist.opposition of the
second primary stress to weak stress is also distinctive:

`re`cover (put a new cover on) —
re`cover (get well again);

`restrain (strain again) — re`strain
(keep in check).primary stress opposed to the secondary stress
can sometimes differentiate the meaning as well:

`recre`ation (creating anew) —
recre`ation (amusement).

А compound noun is differentiated
from а free word combination by the opposition of tertiary stress to primary
stress:

`black-board — `black `board;

`stong-box — `strong `box;

`goldfish — `gold `fish;

`blackbird — `black `bird., however,
the second component of such compound nouns is considered to have weak stress,
the distinctive function in such minimal pairs will be realized through the
opposition of weak stress (in the `compound) and рrimary stress.

2.2 English
accentuation tendencies

stress in English is free, but the
«freedom» of its position is regulated by four accentuation
tendencies as а result of its historical development. The first and the oldest
of them is the recessive tendency, according to which, stress falls on
the first syllable of а word which is generally the root syllable (`father,
`sister, `husband, `water, `window,` ready, `clever), or on the second syllable
in words which have а prefix of nо special meaning (bе`fore, bе`come, а`mong,
for`get, mis`take).recessive tendency is characteristic of words of
Germanic origin. It has also influenced many disyllabic and trisyllabic words
borrowed from French, (`colour, `marriage, `excellent, `garage, `ballet,
ab`stain, de`pend, ob`tain, sur`prise, re`main, pro`duce, com`pose). But:
ma`сhinе, tech`nique, ро`lice.second tendency is the result of the mutual
influence of Germanic and French accentual patterns. It is known as the rhythmic
tendency, which manifests itself in stressing the third syllable from the
end, (`family, `unity, in`tensity, ро`litical, а`bility, а`cademy, de`mocracy,
in`finitive, com`parison, i`dentify).stress is especially common for verbs with
the suffixes -аtе, -fy,

ize, (`situate, ar`ticulate,
`qualify, `organize).accentuation of words ending in the suffix —ion
with its variants —sion, -tion, -ation, is also rhythmical in its
origin. Nowadays stress falls on the prefinal syllable, but it used to be on
the third syllable from the end as the spelling still shows, (`nation,
ос`casion, о`pinion).in three and four syllable words is called historically,
or diachronically, rhythmical (`radical, ос`casion, i`dentity).words with more
than four syllables we often find the secondary stress, which falls on the
first or second syllable. It mау be called synchronically rhythmical stress
(ad`mini`stration, re`sposi`bility, `popu`larity, `physic`ology, `indi`visible,
etc).long polysyllabic words like `indi`visi`bility, `inter`conti`nental, `unfa`mili`arity,
`inter`com`muni`cation, the stress on the 3^rd (2^nd)
syllable from the end is diachronically rhythmical while the other two stresses
are synchronically rhythmical. There has been а constant struggle between the
recessive and the rhythmic tendencies, the outcome being threefold:

·        an accentual
compromise in words like enemy, cinema, recognize, diction(a)ry;

·        аdefinite victory,
in the great majority of words, for the rhythmic tendency, articulate, аcademy,
аbility, еÐхаmination,
visibility, Ðесоnomical;

·        аdefinite victory
for the recessive tendency in аsmall number of four- and five- syllable words,
(advocacy, candidature, cannibalism, rationalism, characterize).third, retentive,
tendency consists in the retention of the primary stress of the parent word
in the derivatives, person — personal. More commonly, it is retained in the
derivative as а secondary stress, possible — possibility, арpreciate —
ар`рrесiation, nation — `nationality.is one more tendency in English that
determines the place and the degree of word stress — the semantic tendency.
It consists in stressing the most important elements of compound words.
Compounds are words composed of two separable roots, which may be spelled as
one word, with а hyphen, or two separate words. Compound nouns usually have а
single stress on the first element, `birthday, `blacksmith, `apple tree,
`suitcase, `booking оffiсе, `Newcastle, `music-hall, gui`tar player (but not
`banjo player), `make up, etc.

In English there are words with two
primary stresses, because both of their elements are semantically
important. Неrе belong:

.        words with separable
(«strong») prefixes, (`re-`write, `vice-`president, `anti-`fascist,
`ex-`minister, `sub-`editor, `under`estimate, `over`burden); negative prefixes
(`disap`pear, `un`known, `irres`ponsible, `il`literate, `inar`tistic,
`non-`smoker, `misunder`stand. But: mis`take, im`possible, dis`courage;

.        numerals from
«`thir`teen» to «`nine`teen»;

.        compound numerals
(`twenty-`one, `ffty-`three, etc);

.        compound verbs, (to `give
`in, `get `uр, `take `оff, etc);

.        compound adjectives
(`well-`known, `blue-`eyed, `red-`hot; `first-`class, `good-`looking, etc).
But: `childlike;

.        а small number оf compound
nouns (`gas-`stove, `ice-`cream, `absent-`mindedness); But: `note-book, man`kind,
etc.nouns of three elements have а single primary stress on the second element
due to the rhythmic tendency (`hot`water`bottle, `waste`рареr`basket,
`lost`property`оffiсе, etc)., all the above-mentioned double-stressed words
lose one of the primary stresses in word соmbinations and sentences under the
influence of Еnglish rhythm:

(an `аbsent-minded `man — `sо absent
-ˎminded;`went up ˎstairs — I met her ˎupstairs;

CONCLUSION

·        Stress refers to
the relative perceived prominence of a unit of spoken language;

·        stress has
distinctive function in English (`produce — pro`duce);

·        the production of a
stressed syllable usually involves several aspects:

.        an increase of articulatory
force, increased rate of airflow, greater muscular tension in the articulators;

.        greater intensity, higher
pitch, and longer duration are typically involved;

·        we recognize
several degrees of stress — primary stress, secondary stress, and unstress;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.       Арнольд И.В. Лексикология
современного английского языка, — М., Высшая школа., — 1986.

.        Борискина
О.О.
Theoretical phonetics: study guide for second year students, — Воронеж,
— 2007.

3.       Леонтьева С. Ф.
Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студентов вечер. и заоч.
отд. педвузов.2-е изд. испр. и доп. — М.:Высш. школа, 1988 — 271 c.

.        Стрельников А.М.
Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учебно-методическое пособие, — Нижний
Тагил., 2008.

5.       Теоретическая фонетика
английского языка: Учебник для студ. ин-тов ииностр. яз./М. А. Соколова, К. П.
Гiнтовт, И. С. Тихонова, Р. М. Тихонова. — Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 1996. —
247-256 c.

6.       Ayto, John Word
origins. The hidden histories of English words from A to Z, — London, — 2005.

7.       Aitchison, Jean
Language change: progress or decay?, — Edinburg: Cambridge university press. —
2004.

8.       Beigi, Homayoon
Fundamentals of speaker recognition New York, 2011.

.        Brinton,
Laurel J. The linguistic structure of modern
English / Laurel J. Brinton, Donna M. Brinton. — Philadelphia, 2010.

10.     Britannica Encyclopedia
volume 1, — London, 1773.

11.     Brown G. Principles of
Language Learning and Teaching / G. Brown. — San Francisco: S. Fr. State
University, 1987.

12.     Burlak T. F.
Stylistics: lexical, syntactical and text levels / T. F. Burlak, A. P. Devkin,
L. S. Krokhakeva. — Minsk, 1996.

13.     Crystal, David A
dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6^th edition, — London,
2008.

14.     Crystal, David The
Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language, — London: BCA, — 1996.

15.     Dean, Geoff Improving
learning in secondary English / G. Dean. — London, 2004.

16.     Dale, Paulette English
pronunciation made simple, NY: Longman, — 2005.

17.     Esposito, Anna
Cross-modal analysis of speech, gestures, gaze and facial expressions, — NY:
Springer, — 2008.

18.     Hymes Dell H. Essays in
the History of linguistique anthropology / H. Dell Hymes. — Amsterdam:
Philadelphia Benjamin’s, 1983.

19.     Galperin I. R. Stylistics
/ I. R. Galperin. — Moscow, 1981.

20.     Lane, Linda
Pronunciation. A practical approach. Tips for teaching, — London: Pearson,
2009.

21.     Simpson
James The
Rutledge
handbook
of applied
stylistics / J.
Simpson. — London, 2011.

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• 

  1 слайд

  Lecture 5. Word Stress
  The Nature of Word Stress.
  The Place of Word Stress in English. The Degrees of Stress.
  The Functions and Tendencies of the English Stress.
  The Typology of Accentual Structures.

• 

  2 слайд

  The syllable or syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are said to be stressed or accented.

  Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress; stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress.

• 

  3 слайд

  Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.
  In different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more significant than the others.

• 

  4 слайд

  If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic, or force stress.

• 

  5 слайд

  If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the change of pitch, or musical tone, such accent is called musical, or tonic. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean and other oriental languages.

• 

  6 слайд

  If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones, such type of stress is called quantitative.

  Qualitative type of stress is achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel under stress.

• 

  7 слайд

  The traditional classification of languages concerning place of stress in a word is into those with a fixed stress and those with a free stress.
  In languages with a fixed stress the occurrence of the word stress is limited to a particular syllable in a polysyllabic word.
  In languages with a free stress its place is not confined to a specific position in the word.
  E.g. ‘appetite — be’ginning — ba’lloon

• 

  8 слайд

  The word stress in English is not only free but it may also be shifting, performing the semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech, grammatical forms.
  E.g. ‘contrast — con’trast; ‘music — mu’sician.

• 

  9 слайд

  There are actually as many degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables.
  examination
  ɪɡ.ˌzæm.ɪ.ˈneɪʃ. Ən
  3 2 4 1 5

  Degrees of Word Stress

• 

  10 слайд

  The primary stress is the strongest, it is marked by number 1, the secondary stress is the second strongest marked by 2. All the other degrees are termed weak stress. Unstressed syllables are supposed to have weak stress.

• 

  11 слайд

  American linguists distinguish four degrees of word stress and term them: primary stress, secondary stress, tertiary stress and weak stress. The difference between the secondary and tertiary stresses is very subtle and seems subjective.

• 

  12 слайд

  The second pretonic syllables of such words as libe’ration, recog’nition are marked by secondary stress in BrE, in AmE they are said to have tertiary stress.

  In AmE tertiary stress also affects the suffixes -ory, -ary, -ony of nouns and the suffixes –ate, -ize, -y of verbs, which are considered unstressed in BrE, e.g. ‘territory, ‘ceremony, ‘dictionary; ‘demonstrate, ‘organize, ‘simplify.

• 

  13 слайд

  Word stress in a language performs three functions.
  Functions of Word Stress

• 

  14 слайд

  Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the word stress.
  Constitutive function

• 

  15 слайд

  Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word.
  Identificatory / recognitive function

• 

  16 слайд

  Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms.
  The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form oppositions:
  E.g. ‘import — im’port, ‘billow — be’low.
  Distinctive / contrastive function

• 

  17 слайд

  According to Prof. V.O. Vasyliev (V.A.Vassilyev), the distinctive function makes word accent a suprasegmental phonological unit which performs a sense-differentiating function. He calls it accenteme.

• 

  18 слайд

  According to Prof. V.O. Vasyliev (V.A. Vassilyev), they are:

  The recessive tendency

  The rhythmic tendency

  The retentive tendency

  The semantic factor

  Word Stress Tendencies

• 

  19 слайд

  In Germanic languages the word stress originally fell on the initial syllable or the second syllable, the root syllable in the English words with prefixes.
  Unrestricted recessive tendency is observed in the native English words having no prefix, e.g. mother, daughter, brother, swallow, in assimilated French borrowings, e.g. reason, colour, restaurant.
  Restricted recessive tendency marks English words with prefixes which have no referential meaning now, e.g. foresee, begin, withdraw, apart.

  The recessive tendency

• 

  20 слайд

  The rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables gave birth to this tendency in the present-day English which caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multisyllabic French borrowings, e.g. ˌrevo’lution, ˌorgani’sation, aˌssimi’lation, etc.
  It also explains the placement of primary stress on the third syllable from the end in three- and four-syllable words, e.g. ‘cinema, ‘situate, ar’ticulate.

  The rhythmic tendency

• 

  21 слайд

  A third tendency was traced in the instability of the accentual structure of English word stress: a derivative often retains the stress of the original or parent word,
  E.g. ‘person — ‘personal — ˌperso’nality,
  ‘similar — as’similate,
  recom’mend — recommen ‘dation.

  The retentive tendency

• 

  22 слайд

  It determines the stress in compound words and words with so-called separable prefixes.
  The majority of such words have two equally strong stresses, both stressed parts are considered to be of equal semantic importance, with semantic factor thus canceling the rhythmic tendency in word stressing, e.g.
  Compound adjectives: hard-working, blue-eyed;
  Verbs with postpositions: sit down, take off;
  Numerals from 13 to 19: fourteen, sixteen.

  The semantic factor

• 

  23 слайд

  G.P. Torsuyev classifies the accentual types according to the number of stressed syllables, their degree or character (the main and the secondary stress).
  The most widely spread accentual types are:
  1. [‘___]. This accentual type marks both simple and compound words. The accentual structures of this type may include two and more syllables, e.g. ‘father, ‘possibly, ‘mother-in-law, ‘gas-pipe.

  The Typology of Accentual Structure

• 

  24 слайд

  2. [ ‘_ ‘_ ]. The accentual type is commonly realized in compound words, most of them are with separable prefixes, e.g. ‘radio-‘active, ‘re’write, ‘diso’bey.

  3. [‘_ ˌ___]. The type is realized both in simple and compound words, very common among compound words, e.g. ‘hair-,dresser, ‘substructure.

• 

  25 слайд

  4. [ˌ _’___]. The accentual type marks a great number of simple words and some compound words as well. In simple words the stresses fall onto:
  the prefix and the root: ˌmaga’zine;
  the root and the suffix: ˌhospi’tality;
  the prefix and the suffix.

• 

  26 слайд

  The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of words may be altered under the influence of rhythm, e.g. An ‘unpolished ‘stone but: The ‘stone was un’polished.

  The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The ‘whole organi’zation of the ‘meeting was ‘faulty.

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