Word-stress
has a constitutive function, as it moulds syllables into a word
forming its stress pattern.
Word-stress
has a distinctive function in English, because exists there different
words in English with analogous sound structure which are
differentiated in speech only by their stress pattern. E.g.
Noun
/ adjective verb
‘Insult in’sult
‘Subject sub’ject
Word-stress
has an identificatory factory function, because stress patterns of
words enable people to identify definite combinations of sounds as
meaningful linguistic units. A distortion of the stress pattern may
hamper understanding or produce a strange accent.
LECTURE 6
Intonation and Prosody
Phonemes,
syllables & words, as lower-level linguistic units, constitute a
higher phonetic unit –the utterance. Every concrete utterance,
alongside of its phonemic & syllabic structures, has a certain
intonation.
Most
CIS countries phoneticians define it as a complex unity of speech
melody, sentence stress, tempo, rhythm & voice tamber (timbre),
which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions &
attitudes towards the contents of the utterance & the hearer.
Speech
melody, sentence stress, tempo, rhythm and tamber are all components
of intonation. These are perceptible qualities of intonation.
Acoustically,
intonation is a complex unity of varying fundamental frequency,
intensity & duration. Speech melody is primarily related with
fundamental frequency, tempo- with duration.
On the
articulatory level intonation is a complex phenomenon. In the
production of speech melody the subglottal –подгортанный,
laryngeal –ларингальный
& supraglottal- надгортанный
respirotory
— дыхательный
muscles
regulate the subglottal air pressure, which makes the vocal cords
vibrate. An increase of subglottal pressure raises the pitch of the
voice, & its decreases lower the pitch.
There
is no single mechanism to which the production of stress can be
attributed. Physiological correlates of different degrees of
utterance stress haven’t as yet been established. Further
investigations are necessary to discover the articulatory mechanism
of the components of intonation.
The
definition of intonation given above is a broad definition. It
reflects the actual interconnection & interaction of melody,
sentence stress, tempo, rhythm & tamber in speech.
A
great number of phoneticians abroad, D. Jones,
L. Armstrong &
I. Ward,
K. Pike,
R. Kingdon, A. Gimson, J.O’Connor & G. Arnold
define intonation as the variation of the pitch of the voice, thus,
reducing it to just one component –speech melody. This is a narrow
definition of intonation. Thus D. Jones writes: “Intonation may be
defined as the variations which take place in the pitch of the voice
in connected speech.”
In
spite of the fact that many scholars do not include sentence stress,
rhythm & tempo in the definition of intonation they regard these
prosodic phenomena as closely connected with one another.
According
to R. Kingdon:
“When we talk about English intonation we mean the pitch patterns
of spoken English, the pitch tunes or melodies, the musical features
of English.”
Some
foreign phoneticians give broader definitions of intonation. Thus,
L Hultzen
includes the variations of pitch, loudness & duration, F. Danes
–the variations of pitch & intensity, E. Haugen
a combination of tone, stress & juncture.
Alongside
of the term “intonation” the term “prosody” is widely used.
“Prosody” & “Prosodic” denote non –segmental phenomena,
i.e. those which do not enter into the system of segmental phonemes.
The British phonetician D.
Cristal
defines prosodic features as “vocal effects constituted by
variations along the parameters of pitch, loudness, duration &
silence.”
From
the very definition of prosody and intonation we can clearly see that
both the notions include essentially the same phenomena, but the
terms-“intonation and prosody” are used differently by different
linguists. Some phoneticians apply the term “prosody” and
“prosodic” only to the features pertaining to the syllable and
phonetic word, or rhythmic unit which are regarded as meaningless
prosodic units & oppose prosody to intonation (which is a
meaningful phenomenon).
We
adhere to the point of view that prosodic features pertain not only
to syllables, words & rhythmic groups, but to the intonation
group & the utterance as well, since the latter are constituted
by these units.
The
notion of prosody, consequently, is broader than the notion of
intonation, as it can be applied to the utterance, the word, the
syllable, whereas prosody of the utterance and intonation are
equivalent notions.
Whatever the views of the
linguistic nature of prosodic phenomena, the phonic substance of
prosody is regarded by all phoneticians as the modifications of
fundamental frequency, intensity, and duration. The most complicated
and unsolved problems of prosody are the interaction between its
acoustic properties, their functioning in speech and their
systematization. R. Jakobson says that prosody is one the most
difficult and controversial problems of modern linguistic studies.
Concrete realizations of
speech prosody & its systematic nature can be described
adequately in terms of the syllabic, the rhythmic (or accent) group &
the utterance.
The
syllable is the smallest prosodic unit. It has no meaning of its own,
but it is significant for constituting higher prosodic units.
Prosodic features of the syllable (tone, stress, duration) depend on
its position and function in the rhythmic unit and in the utterance.
A rhythmic
group (or accentual unit, or group) is either one stressed syllable
or a stressed syllable with a number of unstressed ones grouped
around it the stressed syllable is the nucleus of the rhythmic group.
There are as many rhythmic units in an utterance as there are
stressed syllables in it. The unstressed syllables are clitics.
Those preceding the stressed syllables are called proclitics
& those following it – enclitics.
Depending
on the position of the stressed syllable and the number of proclitics
and enclitics in the rhythmic group there exist various
accentual-and-rhythmic patterns of it. E.g. /
/,
/ /, / /, etc. Besides a definite
accentual-and-rhythmic pattern, the rhythmic group is characterized
by a pitch pattern (or tonal contour) and duration pattern (temporal
structure). These prosodic characteristics make it possible to
perceive the rhythmic unit as an actual discrete unit of prosody. The
rhythmic unit may be singled out of an utterance also due to the
meanings expressed by its prosodic features.
According
to D. Bolinger these may be the meanings of assertiveness,
separateness, newness: But
nobody knew about it.; the meaning of connectedness &
incompleteness: The brighter they are the better.
The rhythmic unit should, therefore, be considered a meaningful unit,
though this viewpoint is not unanimously accepted.
The
intonation group is higher than the rhythmic unit. It has also been
termed “syntagm”, “sense-group”, “breath group”,
“intonation contour”, “and divisible accentual unit ”,“
tone group ”,“ tune ”,“ tone unit”.
The
term “syntagm”, has a drawback: it is often used with different
meanings which have nothing to do with the prosodic unit.
The
term “sense group” calls attention to the fact that it is a group
of words that make sense when put together. But it does not indicate
its intonational character.
The
term “breath group” emphasizes the physiological aspect of the
unit, which is uttered with a single breath. A breath group usually
coincides with a sense-group because “pauses for breath are
normally made at points where pauses are necessary or allowable from
the point of view of meaning”. But a pause for breath may be made
after two or more sense-groups are uttered, so a breath –group may
not coincide with a sense-group.
The
term “divisible unit” emphasizes the role of utterance stress in
constituting the unit. The divisible accentual unit may consist of
several indivisible units (rhythmic units).
The
terms “tone -group”, “tune”, “tone unit” also emphasize
the role of just one (pitch) component of prosody for the formation
of the unit. In our opinion, the term “intonation group” better
reflects the essence of this unit. It shows that the intonation group
is the result of the division in which not only stresses, but pitch &
duration play a role. Structurally the intonation group has some
obligatory formal characteristics. These are the nuclear stress &
the terminal tone. The boundaries between intonation groups are
marked by tonal junctures and pauses. All these features shape the
intonation group, delimit one intonation group from another and show
its relative semantic importance. Intonation group is a meaningful
unit. The most general meanings expressed by the intonation group
are: completeness, finality versus incompleteness, non finality.
It may be
coextensive with a sentence or part of a sentence. E.g.
Yesterday they passed the exam. They passed the exam yesterday.
The
structure of the intonation group varies depending on the number of
syllables and rhythmic units in it. Minimally, intonation group
consists of one (stressed) syllable – the nucleus. Maximally, it
contains the prehead, the head, the nucleus and the tail.
The
stressed & unstressed syllables of an intonation group perform
different functions. H.
Palmer
was the first to single out the consecutive structural elements of
the intonation group (“tone-group”) which differ in their
functions. These elements of intonation groups are “pre-head”,
“head”, “nucleus” and “tail”.
The number
of functional elements distinguished by different phoneticians is not
the same. Thus, J.
O’Connor
& G. Arnold
distinguish two elements in the pre-nuclear part of the
utterance –the pre-head & the head. The notion of “head”
in this sense coincides with the notion of “scale”, used by
Russian phoneticians, e.g. G.
Torsuyev,
A. Trakhterov, V. Vassilyev, A. Antipova &
others.
R.Kingdon
uses the term “head” to mean only the first stressed syllable,
which he considers to be an independent functional element. The
stressed & unstressed syllables following the head form another
functional element – the body.
The
“pre-head”, “head” & “tail” is non-obligatory
elements of an intonation group, whereas the nucleus is an obligatory
& the most important functional element.
A
higher prosodic unit is the utterance. The utterance is the main
communicative unit. It is characterized by semantic entity which is
expressed by all the language means: lexical, grammatical and
prosodic. The prosodic structure of an utterance is a meaningful unit
that contributes to the total meaning of the utterance. Each
utterance has a definite prosodic structure.
The
utterance may contain one intonation group, two or more. E.g.
‘Listening
is an im’portant ‘process in ‘learning a language. Be’sides the
auditory ·process | there are speaking | reading | and `writing
of the language.
Irrespective of its structural complexity, the prosodic structure of
the utterance is viewed as a single semantic entity.
The
utterance is not the ultimate unit of prosodic analysis. In speech
single utterances are not very frequent. On the contrary, they are
connected and grouped into still larger units – hyper utterances,
phonetic paragraphs and texts. The prosodic features of these higher
units indicate the relations between their constituents, the degree
of their connectedness and interdependence, thus forming the prosodic
structures of the hyperutterances, the phonetic paragraphs and texts.
The study of these units in modern linguistics is in the forefront of
scholars’ interest.
To
summarize, it is necessary to note, that the syllable, the rhythmical
unit, the intonation group, the utterance and the hyperutterance are
taxonomical prosodic units. Whereas the elements of the intonation
group, considered above, i.e. prehead, head, nucleus and tail, are
autonomous units, they are not related taxonomically.
The
prosody of the utterance performs 3 basic functions: constitutive,
distinctive & identificatory.
1.
The constitutive function of prosody
is to form utterances as communicative units. Prosody unifies words
into utterances. A succession of words arranged syntactically is not
a communicative unit until a certain prosodic pattern is attached to
it. It forms all communicative types of utterances (statements,
questions, imperatives, exclamations and modal types) e.g. categoric
statements, non categoric, perfunctory statements, quizzical
statements, certainty & uncertainty questions, insistent
questions, etc. Prosody at the same time performs the segmentative &
delimitative function. It segments connected discourse into
utterances and intonation groups and simultaneously delimits them one
from another, showing relations between them: Cf. “We can if we
want to and “we can if we want to”. It also signals the semantic
nucleus and other semantically important words of an utterance (or an
intonation group). Prosody also constitutes phonetic styles of
speech.
2.
The distinctive function of prosody
manifests itself in several particular functions, depending on the
meanings which are differentiated. These are communicative
-distinctive, modal –distinctive, culminative (“theme -rheme”)
distinctive, syntactical –distinctive & stylistic –distinctive
function.
The
communicative –distinctive function is to differentiate the
communicative types of utterances, i.e. statements, questions, etc.
and communicative subtypes: e.g. within statements, statements proper
(It was a ‘very hot •after`noon,
answers (It was a very hot •after`noon),
informing statements,
announcements, etc. within questions – first instance questions
(‘where did he `find
it?), repeated questions (»where did he «find
it?), echo questions (•where did he find it?); within imperatives –
commands (‘Don’t be late), requests (‘Don’t be late) an so on.
The
modal –distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in
differentiating modal meanings of utterances, i.e. the speaker’s
attitudes & emotions, e.g. antagonistic versus friendly attitude
and so on.
This
function is often defined as expressive or emotional, attitudinal.
Various
modal meanings can also be expressed and differentiated by lexical
and grammatical means, e.g. such modal words as “sure”,
“undoubtful”, “definitely”, “perhaps”, “may be”,
“probably” and modal verbs “may”, “might” and so on.
Usually, the speaker’s attitude corresponds to the contents of the
words he chooses. But utterance prosody may disagree with word
content and is, then, the crucial factor in determining the modal
meaning of the utterance. Cf. “He definitely promised” and “He
definitely promised”. In the first case the melodic contour agrees
with the word content and the grammatical structure, whereas in the
second case it does not. So the first utterance sounds definite and
categoric. The second utterance sounds indefinite and non-categoric.
In “`Thank
you” the high falling tone is in harmony with the word content and
expresses genuine gratitude. In “^Thank
you” the rising-falling tone adds an antagonistic note to the
utterance. That is why in actual speech the listener is more
interested in the speaker’s “tone” than in his words.
The
culminative-distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in
differentiating the location of the semantic nuclei /nju:kliai/
pl. of utterances & other semantically important words. This
function is often called logical (Artymov),
predicative (Vinigradov),
accentual (Gimson).
Some
scholars claim
that prosody indicates the “theme – rheme” organization of an
utterance, i.e. it shows the thing already known & the new thing
said about it e.g.
Theme
– rheme
The’
teacher has`
come.
Rheme – Theme
The`
teacher has come.
The
syntactical — distinctive function of prosody is to differentiate
syntactical types of sentences & syntactical relations in
sentences.
E.g. Her,
sister, said •Mary,
|
was a ‘ well –known`
actress (
a compound sentence.)
Her’
sister,
said |’
Mary was a ‘well
– known `actress
(a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause)
‘Smiling,
Tom |
‘entered
the`
hall.(“smiling”
is an attribute)
,
Smiling |’Tom
‘entered the`
hall.
(“Smiling”
is an adverbial modifier)
Stylistic
– distinctive function of prosody manifests itself in that prosody
differentiates pronunciation (phonetic) styles, determined by extra
linguistic factors.
3. The
identificatory function
of prosody is to provide a basis for the hearer’s identification of
the communicative & modal type of an utterance, its semantic &
syntactical structure in accordance with the situation of the
discourse.
All
the functions of prosody are fulfilled simultaneously & cannot be
separated one from another. They show that utterance prosody is
linguistically significant & meaningful.
Each
language has a certain limited number of such meaningful units,
capable of distinguishing utterances. They are defined as intonemes.
or
utterance prosodemes.
The
prosodic system is characteristic of each language. The prosodic
systems of one language are not the same in form as those of other
languages. Nor do they necessarily express the same meanings, though
there may be resemblances here & there.
Emphasizing
the role of intonation in speech, R.Kingdon says: “Intonation is
the soul of a language while the pronunciation of its sounds is its
body…
Thus,
the linguistic character of prosody can be summarized in the
following way:
-
Prosody of speech is
significant & meaningful. -
Prosody is systematic. It is
not invented in speaking but produced according to the system of
prosodic structures of a given language. -
Prosody is a characteristic
feature of each concrete language & cannot be used in speaking
another language.
LECTURE 7
Summary: Researchers, investigating the metrical properties of speech, may define stress as a linguistic system, which comprises different degrees of prominence to different syllables; continuous speech can be segmented into rhythmic feet. Researchers, investigating the intonational properties of speech, use the term “stress” differently: (word) stress, (pitch) accent and intonation.
There are three conventions of representing stress patterns in the modern dictionaries: with dashes, with “dashes and dots” patterns (introduced by Stromberg in 1993), with “stress-shift”.
The minimum classification has two stress level types: stressed and unstressed. The next one comprises three types: primary, secondary and tertiary.
The stress degrees are based on the instability of English word stress, caused by recessive, rhythmical and retentive tendencies. British phonetic school developed three degrees: the strongest, the secondary strongest and weak stress. American phonetic school recognized four degrees: loud, reduced loud, medial and weak stresses.
The sequence of syllables in the word is not pronounced identically. The syllable or syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are said to be stressed or accented. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress; stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress.
Stress is defined differently by different authors. B.A. Bogoroditsky defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory and articulatory activity. D. Jones defined stress as the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhalation and gives an impression of loudness. H. Sweet also stated that stress, is connected with the force of breath. According to A.C. Gimson, the effect of prominence is achieved by any or all of four factors: force, tone, length and vowel colour.
If we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words contract [‘kσntrækt], to contract [kən’trækt], we may note that in the stressed syllable:
(a) the force is greater, which is connected with more energetic articulation;
(b) the pitch of voice is higher, which is connected with stronger tenseness of the vocal cords and the walls of the resonance chamber;
(c) the quantity of the vowel [æ] in [kən’trækt] is greater, the vowel becomes longer;
(d) the quality of the vowel [æ] in the stressed syllable is different from the quality of this vowel in the unstressed position, in which it is more narrow than [‘æ].
According to the most important feature different types, of word stress are distinguished in different languages.
1) If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic, or force stress.
2) If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the change of pitch, or musical tone, such accent is called musical, or tonic. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean and other oriental languages.
3) If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones, such type of stress is called quantitative.
4) Qualitative type of stress is achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel under stress.
English word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but in fact, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the English language not only through the increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the voice.
Russian word stress is not only dynamic but mostly quantitative and qualitative. The length of Russian vowels always depends on the position in a word.
Now we should like to distinguish the notions of word stress and sentence stress. They are first of all different in their sphere of application as they are applied to different language units: word stress is naturally applied to a word, as a linguistic unit, sentence stress is applied to a phrase. Secondly, the distinction of the rhythmic structure of a word and a phrase is clearly observed in the cases when the word stress in notional words is omitted in a phrase, e.g. I ‘don’t think he is ‘right or when the rhythmic structure of the isolated word does not coincide with that of a phrase, e.g. ‘Fifteen. ‘Room Fifteen. ‘Fifteen ‘pages.
Functions of the English stress
Word stress in a language performs three functions.
1. Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the word stress Thus the word stress performs the constitutive function. Sound continuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into units organized by word stress into words.
2. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as identificatory (or recognitive). Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the process of communication easier, whereas the distorted accentual pattern of words, misplaced word stresses prevent normal understanding.
3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form oppositions, e.g. ‘import — im’port, ‘billow — below.
|
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Lecture 5 Word Stress
Plan 1. The Nature of English Word Stress 2. Linguistically Relevant Degrees of Word Stress 3. The Stress Pattern of English Words 4. The Functions of Word Stress
List of Terms the stress pattern of a word (the accentual structure of a word) n word-stress n utterance stress n dynamic/tonic (musical)/qualitative /quantitative accent n degrees of word stress n accentuation tendencies: recessive, rhythmic, retentive n
A word, as a meaningful language unit, has a definite phonetic structure: § sounds that a word is composed of § syllabic structure that these sounds form § a definite stress pattern The auditory impression of stress is the effect of prominence. If a word is polysyllabic, the relative prominence of its syllables differs. (e. g. [`plei], [, konsti`tju: ∫n])
The correlation of degrees of prominence of syllables in a word forms the stress pattern of the word, which is often called the accentual structure of a word. The stress patterns of different words may coincide (e. g. “`mother”, “`sister”‑ `__-__ ) or differ (e. g. “`prominent”, “`syllable” ‑ `__-__-__).
Word Stress (word accent) — is a constituent feature of the phonetic structure of a word as a vocabulary item, which exists as such when it is pronounced in isolation (here we deal with a phonological word) (e. g. ‘well-`known) The stress pattern of a word is conditioned by objective factors (pronunciation tendencies and the orthoepic norm).
Utterance Stress (sentence accent) — a constituent part of the phonetic structure of a spoken sentence and one of the components of intonation in the broad sense of the term, source of creating phonetic words (e. g. He is well-`known. He is a ‘well-known `writer) The placement of utterance stress is conditioned by: n the situational and linguistic context (semantically more important words are pronounced with greater stress; the semantic factor determines also the position of the socalled logical stress); n the subjective factors (by the speaker’s intention to bring out words which are considered by him to be semantically important in the situational context).
Types of Word Stress 1. According to the nature of word stress: §dynamic (force) The effect of prominence is achieved by greater force of articulation of a stressed syllable (e. g. European languages). §tonic (musical) The effect of prominence is achieved by uttering a stressed syllable on a different pitch level or with a different pitch direction than the other syllable or syllables of a word (e. g. Oriental languages, African languages).
§qualitative The effect of prominence is achieved by preserving the full quality of a vowel phoneme in the stressed syllable. §quantitative The effect of prominence is achieved by uttering a vowel of the stressed syllable longer than another vowel or other vowels. English word stress is of a complex nature. English word stress is created by an interaction of four acoustic parameters: intensity (responsible for loudness), fundamental frequency (pitch), duration (length) and formant structure (quality).
2. According to the stability of position: n. Free (The main accent may fall in different words on a syllable in any position in relation to the beginning or end of a word). (1) a constant accent is one which remains on the same morpheme in different grammatical forms of a word or in different derivatives from one and the same root (e. g. wonder, wonderfully) (2) a shifting accent is one which falls on different morphemes in different grammatical forms of a word or in different derivatives from one and the same root (e. g. active – activity; сад – садовод –садовый)
§fixed (the main accent invariably falls on a syllable which occupies in all the words of a language one and the same position in relation to the beginning or end of a word (e. g. French, Check).
One of the main questions for the linguists is to determine the number of contrastive degrees of word stress in a language. British phoneticians (D. Jones, R. Kingdon, etc. ) consider that there are three degrees of word stress in English: nprimary (or strong stress) nsecondary (or partial stress) nweak (the so-called «unstressed» syllables have weak stress) e. g. ‑ e¸xami`nation, `hair-, dresser All these degrees of stress are linguistically relevant as there are words in English the meanings of which depend upon the occurrence of either of the three degrees in their stress patterns (e. g. «`import — im`port»; , certifi`cation — cer, tifi`cation).
On this account American linguists (G. Trager, A. Hill, etc. ) distinguish four degrees of word stress: §primary stress / / §secondary stress /^/ §tertiary stress / / §weak stress / v / ( cupboard) ( dis^crimi nation) ( ana lyse ) ( cupbo vard)
American phoneticians consider that secondary stress generally occurs before the primary stress (e. g. e^xami nation), while tertiary stress occurs after the primary stress (e. g. hand book). Linguistically, tertiary word stress can be taken for a variant of secondary word stress, as there are no words in English the meanings of which depend on the position of the tertiary stress. That is why the stress pattern of English words may be defined as a correlation of 3 linguistically relevant degrees of stress: primary, secondary, weak.
Though English word-stress is free, there are certain tendencies in English which to a certain extent regulate the accentuation of words. §the recessive tendency the stress falls on the first syllable which is generally the root syllable (e. g. `mother, `ready) or on the second syllable if a word has a prefix of no special meaning (e. g. be`come, in`deed, for`give, be `hind) §the rhythmic tendency the stress falls on the third syllable from the end (e. g. `decorate, `justify, `recognize)
n the retentive tendency the stress of the parent word is often retrained in derivatives (e. g. `wonder – `wonderful) nin some polysyllabic words there is a tendency nowadays to avoid a succession of weak syllables, especially if these have [ǝ] or [i], as a result there a stress shift with a rhythmic alteration of stressed and unstressed syllables appears (e. g. hospitable – hos pitable, , articu latory – ar, ticu latory) nthere is a tendency to stress the most important elements in words: negative prefixies; prefexies ex-, vice-, sub-; suffix –teen
Functions of Word Stress Constitutive function (word stress moulds syllables into a word by forming its stress pattern) Distinctive function (in English different words exist with analogous sound structure which are differentiated in speech only by their stress patterns, e. g. `abstract – ab`stract) Identificatory function (the stress patterns of words enable people to identify definite combinations of sounds as meaningful linguistic units)
List of Literature 1. 2. 3. Борисова, Л. В. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учеб. пособ. для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. / Л. В. Борисова, А. А. Метлюк; под ред. Л. В. Борисовой. – Минск: Выш. шк. , 1980. – 144 с. Леонтьева, С. Ф. Теоретическая фонетика современного английского языка: учеб. для студентов педагогических вузов и университетов / С. Ф. Леонтьева. – М. : Издательство «Менеджер» , 2004. – 336 с. Соколова, М. А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: учеб. для студ. высш. учеб. заведений / М. А. Соколова, К. Г. Гинтовт, И. С. Тихонова, Р. М. Тихонова. – М. : Гуманитар. Изд. Центр ВЛАДОС, 2004. – 289 с.
Summing-up Choose among the alternatives 1. The correlation of degrees of prominence of the syllables in a word forms: A. the stress pattern of words B. utterance stress
2. A constituent feature of the phonetic structure of a word taken in isolation: A. utterance stress B. word stress 3. A constituent feature of the phonetic structure of a spoken sentence: A. utterance stress B. word stress 4. Factors that condition the position of word stress are: A. objective B. subjective
5. The placement of utterance stress is conditioned by: A. the orthoepic norm B. the situational and linguistic context 6. The effect of prominence is achieved by changes in pitch level in … languages. A. dynamic B. Tonic 7. English word stress is: A. fixed B. Free 8. English word stress is of … nature. A. complex B. dynamic
9. The accentuation tendency to stress he third syllable from the end is … A. rhythmic B. Recessive 10. What degree of word stress is not linguistically relevant and is not included into the British classification? A. secondary B. tertiary
Insert the necessary words. 1. The placement of … is conditioned by the rhythm, the situational and linguistic context. 2. Stress is produced by greater force of articulation in … languages. 3. …. degree of word stress is not included into British classification? 4. The subsystem of utterance stress in English comprises three basic functional types: nuclear stress, partial stress and … …. . 5. The stress of the parent word is often preserved in derivatives. This regularity is called ….
3. The following word combinations one’s own – one zone, we’ll own – we loan prove that syllable performs the … function. 4. The syllable is called … when there is no consonant before a vowel. 5. … consonant clusters are more complex in English than in Russian.
Fill in the text with the words from the list muscular tension theory, perceptible, closed syllables, a vowel, chest pulse, structure, the expiratory theory, open syllables, syllabic, sonority, numbers, arrangements, peaks, non-syllabic, covered syllables, syllable division, before, syllable, the relative sonority theory, consonants It has been proved experimentally that (1)… is the smallest articulatory and (2)… unit. As a phonological unit the syllable is defined with reference to its (3)…. It is a structural unit which consists of (4)… or of a vowel surrounded by (5)… in the (6)… and (7)… permitted by a given language. Vowels are (8)… while consonants are (9)….
muscular tension theory, perceptible, closed syllables, a vowel, chest pulse, structure, the expiratory theory, open syllables, syllabic, sonority, numbers, arrangements, peaks, non-syllabic, covered syllables, syllable division, before, syllable, the relative sonority theory, consonants The hot issue for phoneticians is the problem of (10)…. There are several theories and approaches to the question. The oldest theory is (11)…, that defines a syllable as a sound or a group of sounds pronounced with one (12)…. Otto Jespersen created (13)…, that is based on the idea that sounds tend to group themselves according to their (14)…. Shcherba proposed (15)… according to which there as many syllables in a word as there are (16)… of muscular tension.
muscular tension theory, perceptible, closed syllables, a vowel, chest pulse, structure, the expiratory theory, open syllables, syllabic, sonority, numbers, arrangements, peaks, non-syllabic, covered syllables, syllable division, before, syllable, the relative sonority theory, consonants There are 4 types of syllables: (17)…, when there is no consonant after the vowel, (18)…, when the vowel is followed by a consonant, (19)…when the vowel is preceded by a consonant and uncovered syllables when there is no consonant (20)… the vowel.