Set expressions fixed word groups

Изображение слайда

1. Phraseology. Free word-groups vs. set expressions.
2. Different approaches to the classification of phraseological units.
3. Ways of forming phraseological units.

Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary.

The component members in some word-groups (e.g. man of wisdom, to take lessons ) possess semantic and structural independence.
Word-groups of this type are defined as free phrases and are usually studied in syntax.

Some word-groups (e.g. by means of, to take place ) are functionally and semantically inseparable.
They are set-phrases or phraseological units that are non-motivated and cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made.

They are the subject-matter of phraseology.
Phraseology is a branch of lexicology that studies sequence of words that are semantically and often syntactically restricted and they function as single units similar to individual words.

Phraseological units (PU), or idioms represent the most picturesque, colorful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary.
Phraseology draws its resources mostly from the very depths of popular speech.

Most Ukrainian and Russian scholars use the term phraseological unit (фразеологічна одиниця).
It was first introduced by V.V. Vinogradov.

The term «idiom» widely used by western scholars has comparatively recently found its way into Ukrainian/Russian phraseology.

set-expressions
set-phrases
phrases
fixed word-groups
collocations

The terminology confusion reflects insufficiency of reliable criteria by which PUs can be distinguished from FWGs.

The «freedom» of free word-groups is relative and arbitrary.
FWGs are so called because they are each time built up anew in the speech process.

But idioms are used as
ready-made units
with fixed and constant structures.

The criteria for distinguishing between FWGs and set-phrases.

1. Criterion of stability of the lexical components and lack of motivation.
The constituents of FWG may vary according to communication needs.
Member-words of PU are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations.

E.g., the constituent red in the free word-group red flower may be substituted for by any other adj. denoting color, without essentially changing the denotational meaning of the word-group.

But in the PU red tape
(“bureaucratic methods”) no substitution like this is possible,
A change of the adj. would involve a complete change in the meaning of the whole group.

2. Criterion of function.
PUs function as word-equivalents
Their denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unity

and grammatical meaning i.e. the part-of-speech meaning is belonging to the word-group as a whole irrespective of the part-of-speech meaning of the component words.

E.g.:
the free word group a long day
and the phraseological unit
in the long run

3. Criterion of context.
FWG make up variable contexts
PU makes up a fixed context.

E. g. in FWG small town/ room the adj. small has the meaning “ not large”
but in PU small hours the
meaning of s mall has nothing to do with the size ( early hours from 1 to 4
a.m.)

4. Criterion of idiomaticity.
PU are ready-made phrases registered in dictionaries
FWG are made up spontaneously

The task of distinguishing between FWG and PU is further complicated by the existence of a great number of
marginal cases, the so-called semi-fixed or semi-free word-groups,

also called nonphraseological word-groups which share with PU their structural stability but lack their semantic unity and figurativeness
e. g. to go to school, to go
by bus, to commit suicide

O ther major criteria for distinguishing between PU and FWG :
semantic
structural

E.G. 1. A C a m b r i d g e don: I’m told they’re inviting more American professors to this university. Isn’t it rather carrying coals to Newcastle ?
«to take something to a place where it is already plentiful and not needed»
E.G.2 This cargo ship is carrying coal to Liverpool.

is carrying coal is used in the direct sense in the second context
The first context has nothing to do either with coal or with transporting it, and the meaning of the whole word-group is something entirely new and far removed from the current meanings of the constituents.

The meanings of the constituents merge to produce an entirely new meaning

e. g. to have a bee in one’s bonnet means
to have an obsession about something;
to be eccentric or even a littl e mad

The humorous metaphoric comparison with a person who is distracted by a
bee continually buzzing under his cap has become erased and half-forgotten, and the
speakers using the expression hardly think of bees or bonnets but accept it in its
transferred sense: «obsessed, eccentric».

That is what is meant when phraseological units are said to be characterized by semantic unity.

In the traditional approach, PUs have been defined as word-groups conveying a single concept.
whereas in FWG each meaningful component stands for a separate concept.

T his feature makes PU similar to words:
both words and PU possess semantic unity.

A. V. Koonin,
«A phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a
completely or partially transferred meaning.»

The term idiom is mostly applied to
phraseological units with completely transferred meanings,
that is, to the ones in which the meaning of the whole unit does not correspond to the current meanings of the components.

Structural invariability is an essential feature of PU,
though some of them possess it to a lesser degree than others.

Structural invariability of PU finds expression in a number of restrictions.

N o word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a PU without destroying its sense.

The second type of restriction is the restriction in introducing any additional components into the structure of a PU.
The third type of structural restrictions in PU is grammatical invariability.

to find fault with somebody
e. g. The teacher always found
f a u l t s with the boy ( is not
correct)

Proverbs are different from the PU.
The first distinctive feature is the obvious structural dissimilarity.

PU are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit into the structure of a sentence performing a certain syntactical function, more or less as words do.

e.g. George liked her for she never put on airs (predicate).
Big bugs like him care nothing about small fry like ourselves (subject, prepositional object).

Proverbs, in their structural aspect, are sentences,
and so cannot be used in the way in which phraseological units are used.

In the semantic aspect, proverbs sum up the collective experience of the community.
They moralize (Hell is paved with good intentions),
give advice (Don’t judge a tree by its bark),

give warning ( Y ou sing before breakfast, you will cry before night),
admonish (Liars should have good memories),
criticize (Everyone calls his own geese swans).

The function of proverbs in speech is communicative (i. e. they impart certain information).

PUs do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do
but for a single concept.
Their function in speech is purely nominative (i. e. they denote an object, an act etc.)

The question of whether or not proverbs should be regarded as
a subtype of PU and studied together with the phraseology of a language is a controversial one.

A. V. Koonin includes proverbs in his classification of PU as communicative phraseological units.

T here does not exist any rigid border-line between proverbs and PU
as PUs rather frequently originate from the proverbs

E.g. the PU the last straw
originated from the proverb The last straw breaks the camel’s back
birds of a feather < the proverb Birds of a feather flock together
to catch at a straw (straws) <
A drowning man catches at straws

S ome proverbs are easily transformed into PU
e.g. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket > to put all one’s eggs in one basket
D on’t cast pearls before swine > to cast pearls before swine

Etymological approach considers the source of PU
Semantic approach stresses the importance of idiomaticity
F unctional is focused on syntactic inseparability
C ontextual – stability of context combined with idiomaticity.

The traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units is based on their original content and might be called thematic or etymological.

I dioms are classified according to their sources of origin.
“ S ource» refers to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc.

Cultural beliefs, traditions and customs
E.g. to keep one’s fingers crossed
Historical events
E.g. to meet one’s Waterloo
Mythology, the Bible
E.g. Achiles’ hill

Names of organizations and posts
E.g. the White House,
the House of Lords
Barbarisms and translation loans
E.g. persona non grata,
alma mater

L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and
associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their occupations.

In Smith’s classification there are groups of idioms associated with
domestic and wild animals and birds,
agriculture and cooking.
from sports, arts

L.P. Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages,
but that is onl y a small part of his classification system.

Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary.

But m ost of them have developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors
E.g. to be all at sea — to be unable to understand, be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about s mth

to sink or swim — to fail or succeed
in deep water — in trouble or danger
in low water, on the rocks — in
strained financial circumstances

to be in the same boat with s mb — to be in a situation in which people share the same difficulties and dangers
to weather (to ride out) the storm — to overcome difficulties

The thematic /etymological principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit
but it does not take into account the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units.

Victor Vinogradov’s classification system was based on the semantic
principle.
H is classification was founded on the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a PU ( its motivation )

V.V. Vinogradov developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally.
This classification was further developed by Nikolai Shanskii.

Units with a partially transferred meaning show the weakest cohesion between their components.
The more distant the meaning of a PU from the current meaning of it s constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion.

phraseological combinations /collocations
( сполучення)
P unities (єдності)
P fusions (зрощення)

N.Shanskii added one more type :
P expressions.
They are motivated FWGs and their stability is explained by their frequent usage,
e. g. Pop music, the Department of State.

P combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning.
They are clearly motivated, that is, the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents.

e.g. to be at one’s wits’ end,
t o be good at something,
to have a bite,
to come to a sticky end

P unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning.
T he meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts.

They are partially motivated units.
T he meaning of the whole unit can be deduced through the metaphoric meanings of the constituent parts.
T he metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and transparent.

e.g. to stick to one’s guns — to be true to one’s views or convictions. The image is that of a gunner or gun
crew who do not desert their guns even if a battle seems lost
to sit on the fence — in
discussion, politics, etc. refrain from committing oneself to either side

catch/clutch at a straw/straws — when in extreme danger, avail oneself of even the slightest chance of rescue;
to lose one’s head — to be at a loss about what to do; to be out of one’s mind)
to lose one’s heart to smb. — to fall in love

P fusions are word-groups with a completely changed meaning but,
in contrast to the unities, they are demotivated.
T heir meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.

T he metaphor, on which the shift of meaning was based, has lost its clarity and is obscure.
E.g. to pull one’s leg
to kick the bucket
red tape

T he border-line separating unities from fusions is vague and even subjective. One and the same phraseological unit may appear motivated to one person (and therefore be labeled as a unity) and demotivated to another (and be regarded as a fusion).

e.g. to come a cropper – to come to disaster
a t sixes and sevens — in confusion or in disagreement
to set one’s cap at smb. — to try
and attract a man ( about girls and women ).

The structural principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words.
In the traditional structural approach, the following principal groups of phraseological units are distinguis hed.

Verbal ( the head word is a verb)
to run for one’s ( dear) life,
to get (win) the upper hand

Nominative (the head word is a N) :
dog’s life
cat-and-dog life
calf love
white lie
birds of a feather

Adjectival ( the head word is an Adj) :
high and mighty
brand new
safe and sound

In this group the so-called comparative word-groups are particularly expressive :
(as) cool as acucumber,
(as) nervous as a cat,
(as) weak as a kitten,
(as) good as gold

(as) pretty as a picture,
as large as life,
(as) slippery as an eel,
(as) drunk as an owl (sl.),
(as) mad as a hatter/a hare in March;

Adverbial (the head word is an Adv or Adv. element) :
by hook or by crook,
in cold blood,
in the dead of night,
between the devil and the deep sea

Interjectional (the head word is an interjection)
M y God!
B y George!
G oodness gracious!
Good h eavens!

A.I. Smirnitsky offered a classification system for English PU c ombin ing the structural and the semantic principles.

PU in this classification system are grouped according to
the number and
semantic significance of their constituent parts.

T wo large groups are established:
(1) one-summit units, which have one meaningful constituent
e. g. to give up, to make out,
to pull out, to be tired,
to be surprised

(2) two-summit and multi-summit units which have two or more meaningful constituents
E. g. black art, first night,
common sense,
to fish in troubled waters

Within each of these large groups the phraseological units are classified accordingto the category of parts of speech of the summit constituent.
So, one-summit units are subdivided into: a) verbal-adverbial units equivalent to verbs in which the semantic and the grammatical centers coincide in the first constituent (e. g. to give up);

b) units equivalent to verbs which have their semantic centre in the second constituent and their grammatical centre in the first
e. g. to be tired

c ) prepositional-substantive units equivalent either to adverbs or to copulas and having their semantic centre in the substantive constituent and no grammatical centre
e. g. by heart, by means of

Two-summit and multi-summit phraseological units are classified into:
a ) attributive-substantive two-summit units equivalent to nouns
( e. g. black art) ;

b) verbal-substantive two-summit units equivalent to verbs (e. g. to take the floor),
c) phraseological repetitions equivalent to adverbs (e. g. now or never);
d ) adverbial multi-summit units (e. g. every other day).

Smirnitsky also distinguishes proper phraseological units which are units with non-figurative meanings
idioms that are units with transferred meanings based on a metaphor.

A.V. Koonin, the leading Russian authority on English phraseology, pointed out certain inconsistencies in this classification system.
1. The subdivision into phraseological units (as non-idiomatic units) and idioms contradicts the leading criterion of a phraseological unit suggested by Smirnitsky:

It should be idiomatic.
Koonin also objects to the inclusion of such wordgroups as black art, best man, first night in phraseology (in Smirnitsky’s
classification system, the two-summit phraseological units) as all these word-groups are not characterized by a transferred meaning.

It is also pointed out that verbs with post-positions (e. g. give up) are included in the classification but their status as phraseological units is not supported by any convincing argument.

is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and
it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units

PU are subdivided into the four classes according to their function in communication determined by their structural-semantic characteristics.

1. Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including
the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type
wear and tear ( експлуатаційне зношення )
well and good ( used to indicate calm acceptance, as of a decision)

The first class also includes word-groups with a predicative structure,
as the crow flies (as directly as possible)
and predicative phrases of the type
see how the land lies ( подивимося, як
ідуть справи )
ships that pass in the night ( побіжні / випадкові зустрічі )

2. Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the type to break the ice – the ice is broken
that is, verbal word-groups which are
transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

3. Phraseological units which are neither nominative no r communicative.
They include interjectional word-
groups.

4. Communicative phraseological units :
proverbs
sayings

These four classes are divided into sub-groups according to the type of structure of the phraseological unit.
The sub-groups include further rubrics representing types of structural-semantic meanings according to the kind of relations between the constituents and to either full or partial transference of meaning.

A.V. Koonin classified PU according to the way they are formed :
primary
secondary ways

Primary ways of forming PU are those when a unit is formed
on the basis of a free word-group :

a) Most productive in Mod E is the formation of phraseological units
by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups
e.g. launching pad ( стартовий
майданчик, пускова платформа )
to link up ( anchor person)

b) A large group of PU was formed from free word-groups
by transforming their meaning
e.g. Tro j an horse

c) PU can be formed by means of alliteration
e.g. a sad sack (an inept person who makes mistakes despite good intentions)
culture vulture ( a person considered to be excessively, and often pretentiously, interested in the arts)

d) They can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections
e.g. My aunt! (an exclamation of surprise or amazement)
Hear, hear! ( an exclamation used to show approval of something said).

e) By means of distorting a word group
e.g. odds and ends

f) By using archaisms
e.g. in brown study (a mood of deep absorption or thoughtfulness; reverie)
g) By using a sentence in a different sphere of life
e.g. that cock won’t fight ( не буде діла )

h) By using some unreal image
e.g. to have butterflies in the stomach,
to have green fingers

i) By using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life
e.g. corridors of power,
American dream ( James Truslow
Adams in 1931 )

The » Wind of Change » speech was a historically important address made by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan to the Parliament of South Africa, on 3 February 1960 in Cape Town.

The speech signalled clearly that the British Government intended to grant independence to many of its territories,
the British possessions in Africa bec a m e independent nations in the 1960s.

Secondary ways of forming PU are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit.
They are:
a) conversion : to vote with one’s feet → vote with one’s feet ;

b) changing the grammar form : make hay while the sun shines → to make hay while the sun shines;
c) analogy : curiosity killed the cat → care killed the cat

d) contrast : acute surgery → cold surgery
e ) shortening of proverbs and sayings : you can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear → a sow’s ear

f) borrowing PU from other languages, either as translation loans,
living space (German),
to take the bull by the horns (Latin)

or by means of phonetic borrowings :
sotto voce ( in an undertone ) (Italian)

Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language

�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. 1. Word combination

�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. �The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). 2.

� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc): � Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations � Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another 3.

�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units has partially or fully shifted. The words have a transferred (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning. �cf: a wolf in sheep’s clothing – a man in cheap clothing 4.

STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is impossible to change the components of a phraseological unit; e. g. to have a bee in the bonnet (hat) � It is impossible to add new components; � It is impossible to change grammatical form of components, even if their form violates grammar rules: e. g. at (the) first sight, from head to foot (feet), to find faults with � However the degree of stability varies: a skeleton/skeletons in the cupboard, a (big) white elephant. � Other features ensuring stability are rhythm, alliteration, contrast, repetition, simile etc. � e. g. on and on, safe and sound, as busy as a bee � Free 5. word combinations allow any changes.

Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. ◦ E. g. Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Thus there may be singled out a group of “marine” phraseological units. � To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I’m afraid I’m all at sea in this problem � To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. ) � In deep water — in trouble or danger. � In low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances. 6.

Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning of words: � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are most idiomatic, the meaning of both words is fully transferred. � e. g. tit for tat, to skate on thin ice � Phraseological unities are motivated semantically, based on imagination. Usually one of the components has retained its meaning. � e. g. to fall ill, to fall in love, small talk � Phraseological combinations are less idiomatic, most motivated � e. g. as dead as mutton 7.

Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of words. Phraseological units can perform the same functions as words. So, set expressions are classified according to their function. � Verbal : to run for one’s life, to get the upper hand � Substantive: dog’s life, red tape � Adjectival: high and mighty, safe and sound � Adverbial: high and low � Equivalents of auxiliary parts of speech: by way of, as long as, Good God! � Stereotyped sentences: take your time! 8.

Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically marked. �e. g. it’s raining cats and dogs (bookish) �to do smb. brown (colloquial) 9.

Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» . �Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas metaphors compare two things directly. �e. g. as alike as two peas in a pod (identical or nearly so) �as blind as a bat (completely blind) 10.

�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty. �e. g. Love is blind. ◦ Put two and two together. 11.

�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. �If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism. 12.

�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e. g. �time flies �Times passes �the appointed time �Present time �Right time �Wrong time �Opening time �Closing time 13.

�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings of the individual words. 14.

Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word). However, translating attributive word groups is challenging, because one and the same attributive word may be translated differently depending on the meaning of the defined head word. � E. g. public opinion – общественное мнение, jamoatchilik fikri � Public debt – государственный долг, davlat qarzlari � Public scandal – публичный скандал, ommaviy janajal � Sometimes more complicated transformations are needed: � E. g. working expectancy – ожидаемая продолжительность трудовой деятельности, ishchini kutilayotgan ishlash muddati 15.

� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e. g. to take a chance – рисковать, imkoniyat berish � To take offence – обидеться, arazlamoq � To put an end to – положить конец, преодолеть, tugatish � To take into account – принимать во внимание, e’tiborga olish � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are translated by their equivalents or analogues or description. e. g. � whip-and-carrot policy – политика кнута и пряника, qamchi va sabzi siyosati (equivalent) � To beat about the bush – ходить вокруг да около, butani o’rab olish (analogue) � Carbon footprint — негативные экологические последствия какой-либо деятельности, faoliyatni salbiy ekologik natijalari (decription) 16.

Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin of the meanings of a word becomes archaic: to be in two minds � An expression may pass from professional use into common use: to hit below the belt (from boxing) � Part of a proverb may become isolated: the last straw (that was the last straw which broke the camel’s neck) � Literary sources: a Troyan horse; to be or not to be � Translation borrowings: to kill two birds with one stone (calque translation from French) � 17.

� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the components retain their main meaning, and can freely enter different combinations? What do we call word combinations in which the components typically have shifted meaning and are not freely chosen? What do we call a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» ? What do we call a trite or overused phrase or expression? What is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind? What do we call a familiar grouping of words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association? Which of the following underlined word combinations with the word “stand” is free and which one is fixed? a) The British government would not stand in the way of such a proposal. b) She was standing beside my bed staring down at me. 18. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where do you think you lost your purse? 2) Don’t lose your temper when you talk to her. 3) Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4) The reverse side of the medal is that we’ll have to do it ourselves. 5) Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6) Keep an eye on the child. 19. Case study

� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. lost you bag, found your purse etc. 2) lose your temper – it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the word ‘lose’ in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to become angry). 3) reverse side of the coat — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. reverse side of the dress 4) reverse side of the medal — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= other side of the matter) 5) Keep the butter — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. keep the cheese in the refrigerator etc. 6) Keep an eye — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to watch closely or carefully) 20. Key

ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on all _____ to the window = on her knees, feet and hands. He is at _____ and _____ = He is confused and doesn’t know what to do. 3) He puts _____ and _____ together. = He begins to draw conclusions about something 4) He looks out for number _____ = He only thinks about his interests. 5) «the _____ R’s. » = The basics of education 6) He has a _____ o’clock shadow. = A man hasn’t shaved for a day or two 7) Things that are very cheap and common are _____ a penny. This four bedroom home, located in Country Club Estates, is completed and ready to move in. This home has «the whole _____ yards» in convenience. ’ (=all of it) 21. Fill in the blanks with proper numerals to make an idiom with the specified meaning.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) fours sixes and sevens two and two one three five ten nine 22. Key