Set expressions and word

There
is a pressing need for criteria distinguishing set expressions not
only from free phrases but from compound words as well. One of these
criteria is the formal integrity of words which had been repeatedly
mentioned and may be best illustrated by an example with the word
breakfast
borrowed
from W.L. Graff. His approach combines contextual analysis and
diachronic observations. He is interested in gradation from free
construction through the formula to compound and then simple word. In
showing the borderline between a word and a formular expression, W.L.
Graff speaks about the word breakfast
derived
from the set expression to
break fast, where
break
was
a verb with a specific meaning inherent to it only in combination
with fast
which
means ‘keeping from food’. Hence it was possible to say: And
knight and squire had broke their fast (W.Scott).
The fact that it was a phrase and not a word is clearly indicated by
the conjugation treatment of the verb and syntactical treatment of
the noun. With an analytical language like English this conjugation
test is, unfortunately, not always applicable.

It
would also be misleading to be guided in distinguishing between set
expressions and compound words by semantic considerations, there
being no rigorous criteria for differentiating between one complex
notion and a combination of two or more notions. The references of
component words are lost within the whole of a set expression, no
less than within a compound word. What is, for instance, the
difference in this respect between the set expression point
of view and
the compound viewpoint?
And
if there is any, what are the formal criteria which can help to
estimate it?

174

Alongside
with semantic unity many authors mention the unity of syntactic
function. This unity of syntactic function is obvious in the
predicate of the main clause in the following quotation from J. Wain,
which is a simple predicate, though rendered by a set expression:
…the
government we had in those days, when we (Great Britain) were the
world’s
richest country, didn’t give a damn whether the kids grew up with
rickets or not …

This syntactic unity, however,
is not specific for all set expressions.

Two
types of substitution tests can be useful in showing us the points of
similarity and difference between the words and set expressions. In
the first procedure a whole set expression is replaced within context
by a synonymous word in such a way that the meaning of the utterance
remains unchanged, e. g. he
was in a brown study → he mas gloomy. In
the second type of substitution test only an element of the set
expression is replaced, e. g. (as)
white as chalk → (as) white as milk → (as) white as snow; or
it
gives me the blues → it gives him the blues → it gives one the
blues. In
this second type it is the set expression that is retained, although
its composition or referential meaning may change.

When
applying the first type of procedure one obtains a criterion for the
degree of equivalence between a set expression and a word. One more
example will help to make the point clear. The set expression dead
beat can
be substituted by a single word exhausted.
E.
g.: Dispatches,
sir. Delivered by a corporal of the 33rd. Dead beat with hard riding,
sir (Shaw).
The last sentence may be changed into Exhausted
with hard riding, sir. The
lines will keep their meaning and remain grammatically correct. The
possibility of this substitution permits us to regard this set
expression as a word equivalent.

On
the other hand, there are cases when substitution is not possible.
The set expression red
tape
has
a one word equivalent in Russian бюрократизм,
but
in English it can be substituted only by a free phrase. Thus, in the
enumeration of political evils in the example below red
tape, although
syntactically equivalent to derivative nouns used as homogeneous
members, can be substituted only by some free phrase, such as rigid
formality of official routine. Cf.
the following example:

BURGOYNE:
And
will you wipe out our enemies in London, too? SWINDON:
In
London! What enemies?

BURGOYNE
(forcible): Jobbery
and snobbery, incompetence and Red Tape …
(Shaw).

The unity of syntactic
function is present in this case also, but the criterion of
equivalence to a single word cannot be applied, because substitution
by a single word is impossible. Such equivalence is therefore only
relative, it is not universally applicable and cannot be accepted as
a general criterion for defining these units. The equivalence of
words and set expressions should not be taken too literally but
treated as a useful abstraction, only in the sense we have stated.

The main point of difference
between a word and a set expression is the divisibility of the latter
into separately structured elements which is contrasted to the
structural integrity of words. Although equivalent to words in being
introduced into speech ready-made, a set expression is different from
them, because it can be resolved into words, whereas words are
resolved

175

into morphemes. In compound
words the process of integration is more advanced. The methods and
criteria serving to identify compounds and distinguish them from
phrases or groups of words, no matter how often used together, have
been pointed out in the chapter on compounds.

Morphological divisibility is
evident when one of the elements (but not the last one as in a
compound word) is subjected to morphological change. This problem has
been investigated by N.N. Amosova, A.V. Koonin and others.] N.N.
Amosova gives the following examples:

He
played second fiddle to her in his father’s heart (Galsworthy).
…
She
disliked playing second fiddle (Christie).
To
play second fiddle ‘to
occupy
a secondary, subordinate position’.

It
must be rather fun having a skeleton in the cupboard (Milne).
I hate
skeletons in the cupboard (Ibid.)
A
skeleton in the cupboard ‘a
family secret’.

A.V.
Koonin shows the possibility of morphological changes in adjectives
forming part of phraseological units: He’s
deader than a doornail; It made the night blacker than pitch; The
Cantervilles have blue blood, for instance, the bluest in England.

It goes without saying that
the possibility of a morphological change cannot regularly serve as a
distinctive feature, because it may take place only in a limited
number of set expressions (verbal or nominal).

The
question of syntactic ties within a set expression is even more
controversial. All the authors agree that set expressions (for the
most part) represent one member of the sentence, but opinions differ
as to whether this means that there are no syntactical ties within
set expressions themselves. Actually the number of words in a
sentence is not necessarily equal to the number of its members.

The
existence of syntactical relations within a set expression can be
proved by the possibility of syntactical transformations (however
limited) or inversion of elements and the substitution of the
variable member, all this without destroying the set expression as
such. By a variable
element
we mean the element of the set expression which is structurally
necessary but free to vary lexically. It is usually indicated in
dictionaries by indefinite pronouns, often inserted in round
brackets: make
(somebody’s) hair stand on end ‘to
give the greatest astonishment or fright to another person’; sow
(one’s) wild oats ‘to
indulge in dissipation while young’. The word in brackets can be
freely substituted: make
(my, your, her, the reader’s) hair stand on end.

The
sequence of constant elements may be broken and some additional words
inserted, which, splitting the set expression, do not destroy it, but
establish syntactical ties with its regular elements. The examples
are chiefly limited to verbal expressions, e.g.
The
chairman broke
the ice → Ice was broken by the chairman; Has burnt his boats and
…
→ Having burnt his boats he …
Pronominal
substitution is illustrated by the following example: “Hold
your tongue, Lady L.” “Hold yours, my good fool.” (N.
Marsh, quoted by N.N. Amosova)

All
these facts are convincing manifestations of syntactical ties within

176

the
units in question. Containing the same elements these units can
change their morphological form and syntactical structure, they may
be
called changeable
set
expressions,
as contrasted to stereotyped
or
unchangeable
set
expressions,
admitting
no change either morphological or syntactical. The examples discussed
in the previous paragraph mostly belong to this second type,
indivisible and unchangeable; they are nearer to a word than their
more flexible counterparts. This opposition is definitely correlated
with structural properties.

All these examples proving the
divisibility and variability of set expressions throw light on the
difference between them and words.

Обратная связь

I

The term set expression is the most definite and the most suitable one in comparison with phraseology and idiom and phrase, because the first element points out the most important characteristics of these units, their stability and their ready made nature.

Every utterance is a patterned, rhythmed, segmented sequence of signals. On the lexical level, these signals building up the utterance are not exclusively words. Speakers may use larger blocks consisting of more than one word but functioning as a whole. These set expressions are extremely variegated structurally, functionally, semantically and stylistically. To this type may be referred expressive colloquialisms: a sight for sore eye, and also terms like: blank verse, direct object, political clichés: round-table conference, summit meeting and emotionally and stylistically neutral collocations: in front of, as well as, a great deal, give up, etc.

Even this list of expressions illustrates that the number of elements in set expressions as well as their reference to different parts of speech varies. Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi-fixed combinations. All these are but different stages of restrictions imposed upon co-occurrence of words. What is often called idiom is nothing else but restrictions imposed upon the lexical filling of structural patterns which are specific for every language.

The restrictions may be independent on the ties existing in extra-linguistic reality between the objects spoken of and be conditioned by purely linguistic factors or have extra-linguistic causes in the history of the people. In free combinations the linguistic factors are chiefly connected with grammatical properties of words.

A free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change in the other element or elements. This substitution is never unlimited.

In semi-fixed combinations we are not only able to say that such substitutes exist, but fix their boundaries by stating the semantic properties of words that can be used for substitution or even listing them. .g. the pattern consisting of the verb go followed by a preposition and a noun with no article before it (go to school, go to court) is used only with nouns of place where definite actions or functions are performed.

If substitution is only pronominal or restricted to a few synonyms for one of the members only, or impossible, i.e. if the elements of the phrase are always the same and make a fixed context for each other the word-group is a set expression. No substitution of any elements is possible in the following unchangeable set expressions, which differ in all other respects: red tape, first night, heads or tails, to hope for the best, as busy as a bee, to and fro. No substitution is possible because it would destroy the meaning of the euphonic and expressive qualities of the whole.

These set expressions are also interesting from the point of view of their informational characteristics, i.e. the sum total of information contained in the word-group is created by mutual interaction of elements.

E.g. Heads or tails – comes from the old custom of deciding a dispute which of two possible alternatives shall be followed by tossing a coin.

In a free phrase this correlation is different and each element has a much greater semantic independence. Each component may be substituted without affecting the meaning of the other

E.g. to cut bread, to cut cheese, to eat bread.

If we take an expression to cut a poor figure – practically no substitution is possible here without ruining the meaning: E.g. I had an uneasy fear that he might cut a poor figure beside all these clever Russian officers. He was not managing to cut much of a figure. – the only substitution that is possible here concerns adjectives: poor, much of, bad. That is why it refers to semi-fixed combinations.

In the example cut no ice (to have no influence) no substitution is possible.

The give up type presents great interest from the phraseological viewpoint. An almost unlimited number of such units may be formed by the use of the simpler verbs combined with elements that have been treated as adverbs, preposition-like adverbs, postposition of adverbial origin, postpositives, postpositive prefixes.

The verbs most frequent in these units are: bear, blow, break, bring, call, take, make turn, etc.

It is more common with the verbs denoting motion: go on, go by, go ahead, go down etc.

Only combinations forming integral wholes, the meaning of which is not readily derived from the meaning of the components, so that the lexical meaning of one of the components is strongly influenced by the presence of the other, are referred to set expressions.

II

There is a necessity to distinguish between a set expression and a compound word. One of the criteria is the formal integrity of words.

E.g. the word breakfast (it is a word because – he breakfasts not breaks fast)

It is impossible to distinguish all words on this basis. Some authors point out the syntactic function, but it is not specific for all set expressions.

Two types of substitution tests can be useful in showing the points of similarity and difference between words and set expressions. In the first procedure a whole set expression is replaced within a context by a synonymous word in such a way that the meaning of the utterance remains unchanged, e.g. he was in a brown study – he was gloomy.

In the second type of substitution test only an element of the set expression is replaced, e.g. as white as chalk – as white as milk(snow). In this second type it is the set expression that is retained, although its composition or referential meaning may change.

E.g. the set expression dead beat can be substituted by a single word exhausted. This possibility permits us to regard this set expression as a word equivalent. But there are cases when substitution is not possible.

E.g. red tape can be substituted only by a free phrase ‘rigid formality of official routine’.

The main point of difference between a word and a set expression is the divisibility of the latter into separately structured elements, which is contrasted to the structural integrity of words.

Although equivalent to words in being introduced into speech ready-made, a set expression is different from them because it can be resolved into words whereas words are resolved into morphemes. In compound words the process of integration is more advanced.

16. Set expressions.

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§ 9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SET EXPRESSIONS

Many various lines of approach have been used, and yet the bound­aries of this set, its classification and the place of phraseology in the vocabulary appear controversial issues of present-day linguistics.

The English and- the Americans can be proud of a very rich set of dictionaries of word-groups and idiomatic phrases. Their object is chief­ly practical: colloquial phrases are considered an important characteris­tic feature of natural spoken English and a stumbling block for foreign­ers. The choice of entries is not clear-cut: some dictionaries of this kind include among their entries not only word combinations but also separate words interesting from the point of view of their etymology, motivation, or expressiveness, and, on the other hand, also greetings, proverbs, familiar quotations. Other dictionaries include grammatical information. The most essential theoretical problems remain not only unsolved but untackled except in some works on general linguistics. A more or less detailed grouping was given in’the books on English idi­oms by L.P. Smith and W. Ball. But even the authors themselves do not claim that their groupings should be regarded as classification. They show interest in the origin and etymology of the phrases collect­ed and arrange them accordingly into phrases from sea life, from agri­culture, from sports, from hunting, etc.

The question of classification of set expressions is main I y worked out in this country. Eminent Russian linguists, Academicians F.F. For-tunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov and others paved the way for serious syntac­tical analysis of set expressions. Many Soviet scholars have shown a great interest in the theoretical aspects of the problem. A special branch of linguistics termed phraseology came into being in this coun­try. The most significant theories advanced for Russian phraseology are those by S.A. Larin and V.V. Vinogradov.

169

As to the English language, the number of works of our linguists devoted to phraseology is so great that it is impossible to enumerate them; suffice it to say that there exists a comprehensive dictionary of English phraseology compiled by A.V. Koonin. This dictionary sus­tained several editions and contains an extensive bibliography and arti­cles on some most important problems. The first doctoral thesis on this subject was by N.N. Amosova (1963), then came the doctoral thesis by A.V. Koonin. The results were published in monographs (see the list given at the end of the book). Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky also devoted atten­tion to this aspect in his book on lexicology. He considers a phraseolog­ical unit to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its intro­duction into speech as something complete.

The influence his classification exercised is much smaller than that of V.V. Vinogradov’s. The classification of V.V. Vinogradov is syn-chronic. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treat­ment of the material. Thanks to him phraseological units were rigor­ously defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motiva­tion is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression, i.e with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components, and of substituting the whole by a single word. The classification is naturally developed for Russian phraseology but we shall illustrate it with English examples.

According to the type of motivation and the other above-mentioned features, three types of phraseological units are suggested: phraseo­logical fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusions (e. g. tit for tat) represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation into other languages.

Phraseological unities are much more numer­ous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole as in to stick (to stand) to one’s guns, i.e. ‘refuse to change one’s statements or opinions in the face of opposi­tion’, implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type, namely the possibility of synonymic substi­tution, which can be only very limited. Some of these are easily trans­lated and even international, e. g. to know the way the wind is blowing.

The third group in this classification, the phraseological combinations, are not only motivated but contain one compo­nent used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements. The mobil-

170

ity of this type is much greater, the substitutions are not necessarily synonymical.

It has been pointed out by N.N. Amosova and A.V. Koonin that this classification, being developed for the Russian phraseology, does not fit the specifically English features.

N.N. Amosova’s approach is contextological. She defines phraseo­logical units as units of fixed context. Fixed context is de­fined as a context characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them. Units of fixed context are subdivided into phra-semes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as the determin­ing context (small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element mtv have its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time ‘at the exact moment’. Idioms may be motivated or demotivated. A mo­tivated idiom is homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take the bull by the horns ‘to face dangers without fear’. In the nick of time is demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete. Both phrasemes and idioms may be movable (changeable) or immova­ble.

An interesting and clear-cut modification of V.V. Vinogradov’s scheme was suggested by T.V. Stroyeva for the German language. She di­vides the whole bulk of phraseological units into two classes: u n i t-i e s and combinations. Phraseological fusions do not consti­tute a separate class but are included into unities, because the criterion of motivation and demotivation is different for different speakers, depend­ing on their education and erudition. The figurative meaning of a phra­seological unity is created by the whole, the semantic transfer being dependent on extra-linguistic factors, i.e. the history of the people and its culture. There may occur in speech homonymous free phrases, very different in meaning (c /. jemandem den Kopf waschen ‘to scold sb’ — a phraseological unity and den Kopf waschen ‘to wash one’s head’ — a free phrase). The form and structure of a phraseological unity is rigid and unchangeable. Its stability is often supported by rhyme, synonymy, parallel construction, etc. Phraseological combinations, on the con­trary, reveal a change of meaning only in one of the components and this semantic shift does not result in enhancing expressiveness.

A.V. Koonin is interested both in discussing fundamentals and in investigating special problems. His books, and especially the dictionary he compiled and also the dissertations of his numerous pupils are partic­ularly useful as they provide an up-to-date survey of the entire field.

A.V. Koonin thinks that phraseology must develop as an independ­ent linguistic science and not as a part of lexicology. His classification of phraseological units is based on the functions the units fulfill in speech. They may be

nominating (a bull in a china shop), interjectional (a pretty kettle of fishl), communicative (familiarity breeds contempt), or nominating-communicative (pull somebody’s leg). Further classi­fication into subclasses depends on whether the units are changeable

171

more generally, on the interdependence between the meaning of the elements and the meaning of the set expression. Much attention is devoted to different types of variation: synonymic, pronominal, etc.

After this brief review of possible semantic classifications, we pass on to a formal and functional classification based on the fact that a set expression functioning in speech is in distribution similar to definite classes of words, whereas structurally it can be identified with various types of syntagmas or with complete sentences.

We shall distinguish set expressions that are nominal phrases: the wot of the trouble’, verbal phrases: put one’s best foot forward; adjectival phrases: as good as gold; red as a cherry; adverbial phrases: from head to foot; prepositional phrases: in the course of; conjunctional phrases: as long as, on the other hand; interjectional phrases: Well, I never!Astereotyped sentence also introduced into speech as a ready-made formula may be illustrated by Never say die! ‘never give up hope’, take your time ‘do not hurry’.

The above classification takes into consideration not only the type of component parts but also the functioning of the whole, thus, tooth and nail is not a nominal but an adverbial unit, because it serves to modify a verb (e. g. fight tooth and nail); the identically structured lord and master is a nominal phrase. Moreover, not every nominal phrase is used in all syntactic functions possible for nouns. Thus, a bed of roses or a bed of nails and forlorn hope are used only predicatively.

Within each of these classes a further subdivision is necessary. The following list is not meant to be exhaustive, but to give only the principal features of the types.

I. Set expressions functioning like nouns:

N+N: maiden name ‘the surname of a woman before she was married’; brains trust ‘a committee of experts’ or ‘a number of reputedly well informed persons chosen to answer questions of general interest without preparation’, family jewels ‘shameful secrets of the CIA’ (Am. slang).

N’s+N: cat’s paw ‘one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person’ (the expression comes from a fable in which a monkey wanting to eat some chestnuts that were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting them, seised a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to the ground); Hob-son’s choice, a set expression used when there is no choice at all, when a person has to take what is offered or nothing (Thomas Hobson, a 17th century London stableman, made every person hiring horses take the next in order).

Ns’+N: ladies’ man ‘one who makes special effort to charm or please women’.

N+prp+N: the arm of the law; skeleton in the cupboard.

N+A: knight errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people).

N+and+N: lord and master ‘husband’; all the world and his

172
wife (a more complicated form); rank and file ‘the ordinary working members of an organisation’ (the origin of this expression is military life, it denotes common soldiers); ways and means ‘methods of overcoming difficulties’.

A+N: green room ‘the general reception room of a theatre’ (it is said that formerly such rooms had their walls coloured green to relieve the strain on the actors’ eyes after the stage lights); high tea ‘an evening meal which combines meat or some similar extra dish with the usual tea’; forty winks ‘a short nap’.

N+subordinate clause: ships that pass in the night ‘chance acquaintances’.

II. Set expressions functioning like verbs: V+N: take advantage

V+and+V: pick and choose V+(one’s)+N+(prp): snap ones fingers at V+one+N: give one the bird ‘to fire sb’

V+subordinate clause: see how the land lies ‘to discover the state of affairs’.

III. Set expressions functioning like adjectives: A+and+A: high and mighty

(as)+A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as ahatter Set expressions are often used as predicatives but not attributively. In the latter function they are replaced by compounds.

IV. Set expressions functioning like adverbs:

A big group containing many different types of units, some of them with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of expressiveness, others expressive.

N+N: tooth and nail

prp+N: by heart, of course, against the grain

adv+prp+N: once in a blue moon

prp+N+or+N: by hook or by crook

cj+clause: before one can say Jack Robinson

V. Set expressions functioning like prepositions: prp+N+prp: in consequence of

It should be noted that the type is often but not always characterised by the absence of article. Сf: by reason of : : on the ground of.

VI. Set expressions functioning like interjections:

These are often structured as imperative sentences: Bless (one’s) soul! God bless me! Hang it (all)!

This review can only be brief and very general but it will not be difficult for the reader to supply the missing links.

The list of types gives a clear notion of the contradictory nature of set expressions: structured like phrases they function like words.

There is one more type of combinations, also rigid and introduced into discourse ready-made but differing from all the types given above in so far as it is impossible to find its equivalent among the parts of speech. These are formulas used as complete utterances and syntactically shaped like sentences, such as the well-known American maxim Keep smiling! or the British Keep Britain tidy. Take it easy.

173
A.I. Smirnitsky was the first among Soviet scholars who paid attention to sentences that can be treated as complete formulas, such as How do you do? or I beg your pardon, It takes all kinds to make the world, Can the leopard change his spots? They differ from all the combinations so far discussed, because they are not equivalent to words in distribution and are semantically analysable. The formulas discussed by N.N. Amosova are on the contrary semantically specific, e. g. save your breath ‘shut up’ or tell it to the marines. As it often happens with set expressions, there are different explanations for their origin. (One of the suggested origins is tell that to the horse marines; such a corps being nonexistent, as marines are a sea-going force, the last expression means ‘tell it to someone who does not exist, because real people will not believe it’). Very often such formulas, formally identical to sentences are in reality used only as insertions into other sentences: the cap fits ‘the statement is true’ (e. g.: “He called me a liar.” “Well, you should know if the cap fits. ) Compare also: Butter would not melt in his mouth; His bark is worse than his bite.
§ 9.4 SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SET EXPRESSION AND A WORD

There is a pressing need for criteria distinguishing set expressions not only from free phrases but from compound words as well. One of these criteria is the formal integrity of words which had been repeatedly mentioned and may be best illustrated by an example with the word breakfast borrowed from W.L. Graff. His approach combines contextual analysis and diachronic observations. He is interested in gradation from free construction through the formula to compound and then simple word. In showing the borderline between a word and a formular expression, W.L. Graff speaks about the word breakfast derived from the set expression to break fast, where break was a verb with a specific meaning inherent to it only in combination with fast which means ‘keeping from food’. Hence it was possible to say: And knight and squire had broke their fast (W.Scott). The fact that it was a phrase and not a word is clearly indicated by the conjugation treatment of the verb and syntactical treatment of the noun. With an analytical language like English this conjugation test is, unfortunately, not always applicable.

It would also be misleading to be guided in distinguishing between set expressions and compound words by semantic considerations, there being no rigorous criteria for differentiating between one complex notion and a combination of two or more notions. The references of component words are lost within the whole of a set expression, no less than within a compound word. What is, for instance, the difference in this respect between the set expression point of view and the compound viewpoint? And if there is any, what are the formal criteria which can help to estimate it?
174

Alongside with semantic unity many authors mention the unity of syntactic func­tion. This unity of syntactic function is obvious in the predicate of the main clause in the following quotation from J. Wain, which is a simple predicate, though rendered by a set expression: …the government we had in those days, when we (Great Britain) were the world’s richest country, didn’t give a damn whether the kids grew up with rickets or not …

This syntactic unity, however, is not specific for all set expressions.

Two types of substitution tests can be useful in showing us the points of similarity and difference between the words and set expressions. In the first procedure a whole set expression is replaced within context by a synonymous word in such a way that the meaning of the utterance remains unchanged, e. g. he was in a brown study → he mas gloomy. In the second type of substitution test only an element of the set expression is replaced, e. g. (as) white as chalk → (as) white as milk → (as) white as snow; or it gives me the blues → it gives him the blues → it gives one the blues. In this second type it is the set expression that is retained, although its composition or referential meaning may change.

When applying the first type of procedure one obtains a criterion for the degree of equivalence between a set expression and a word. One more example will help to make the point clear. The set expression dead beat can be substituted by a single word ex­hausted. E. g.: Dispatches, sir. Delivered by a corporal of the 33rd. Dead beat with hard riding, sir (Shaw). The last sentence may be changed into Exhausted with hard riding, sir. The lines will keep their meaning and remain grammatically correct. The possibility of this substitution permits us to regard this set expression as a word equivalent.

On the other hand, there are cases when substitution is not possible. The set expres­sion red tape has a one word equivalent in Russian бюрократизм, but in English it can be substituted only by a free phrase. Thus, in the enumeration of political evils in the example below red tape, although syntactically equivalent to derivative nouns used as homogeneous members, can be substituted only by some free phrase, such as rigid for­mality of official routine. Cf. the following example:

BURGOYNE: And will you wipe out our enemies in London, too? SWINDON: In London! What enemies?

BURGOYNE (forcible): Jobbery and snobbery, incompetence and Red Tape … (Shaw).

The unity of syntactic function is present in this case also, but the criterion of equivalence to a single word cannot be applied, because substitution by a single word is impossible. Such equivalence is therefore only relative, it is not universally applicable and cannot be accepted as a general criterion for defining these units. The equivalence of words and set expressions should not be taken too literally but treated as a useful ab­straction, only in the sense we have stated.

The main point of difference between a word and a set expression is the divisibility of the latter into separately structured elements which is contrasted to the structural in­tegrity of words. Although equivalent to words in being introduced into speech ready-made, a set expression is different from them, because it can be resolved into words, whereas words are resolved 175
into morphemes. In compound words the process of integration is more advanced. The methods and criteria serving to identify compounds and distinguish them from phrases or groups of words, no matter how often used together, have been pointed out in the chapter on compounds.

Morphological divisibility is evident when one of the elements (but not the last one as in a compound word) is subjected to morphological change. This problem has been investigated by N.N. Amosova, A.V. Koonin and others.] N.N. Amosova gives the following examples:

He played second fiddle to her in his father’s heart (Galsworthy). … She disliked playing second fiddle (Christie). To play second fiddle ‘to occupy a secondary, subordinate position’.

It must be rather fun having a skeleton in the cupboard (Milne). I hate skeletons in the cupboard (Ibid.) A skeleton in the cupboard ‘a family secret’.

A.V. Koonin shows the possibility of morphological changes in adjectives forming part of phraseological units: He’s deader than a doornail; It made the night blacker than pitch; The Cantervilles have blue blood, for instance, the bluest in England.

It goes without saying that the possibility of a morphological change cannot regularly serve as a distinctive feature, because it may take place only in a limited number of set expressions (verbal or nominal).

The question of syntactic ties within a set expression is even more controversial. All the authors agree that set expressions (for the most part) represent one member of the sentence, but opinions differ as to whether this means that there are no syntactical ties within set expressions themselves. Actually the number of words in a sentence is not necessarily equal to the number of its members.

The existence of syntactical relations within a set expression can be proved by the possibility of syntactical transformations (however limited) or inversion of elements and the substitution of the variable member, all this without destroying the set expression as such. By a variable element we mean the element of the set expression which is structurally necessary but free to vary lexically. It is usually indicated in dictionaries by indefinite pronouns, often inserted in round brackets: make (somebody’s) hair stand on end ‘to give the greatest astonishment or fright to another person’; sow (one’s) wild oats ‘to indulge in dissipation while young’. The word in brackets can be freely substituted: make (my, your, her, the reader’s) hair stand on end.

The sequence of constant elements may be broken and some additional words inserted, which, splitting the set expression, do not destroy it, but establish syntactical ties with its regular elements. The examples are chiefly limited to verbal expressions, e.g. The chairman broke the ice → Ice was broken by the chairman; Has burnt his boats and … → Having burnt his boats he … Pronominal substitution is illustrated by the following example: “Hold your tongue, Lady L.” “Hold yours, my good fool.” (N. Marsh, quoted by N.N. Amosova)

All these facts are convincing manifestations of syntactical ties within
176
the units in question. Containing the same elements these units can change their morphological form and syntactical structure, they may be called changeable set expressions, as contrasted to stereotyped or unchangeable set expressions, admitting no change either morphological or syntactical. The examples discussed in the previous paragraph mostly belong to this second type, indivisible and unchangeable; they are nearer to a word than their more flexible counterparts. This opposition is definitely correlated with structural properties.

All these examples proving the divisibility and variability of set expressions throw light on the difference between them and words.

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  Main types of set expressions in Modern English

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  Set expressions
  The word «phraseology“ has very different meanings in this country and in Great Britain or the United States. In Soviet linguistic literature the term has come to be used for the whole ensemble of expressions where the meaning of one element is dependent on the other, irrespective of the structure and properties of the unit (V.V. Vinogradov); with other authors it denotes only such set expressions which, as distinguished from idioms, do not possess expressiveness or emotional colouring (A.I. Smirnitsky), and also vice versa: only those that are imaginative, expressive and emotional.

  N.N. Amosova overcomes the subjectiveness of the two last mentioned approaches when she insists on the term being applicable only to what she calls fixed context units, i.e. units in which it is impossible to substitute any of the components without changing the meaning not only of the whole unit but also of the elements that remain intact. O.S. Ahmanova has repeatedly insisted on the semantic integrity of such phrases prevailing over the structural separateness of their elements. A.V. Koonin lays stress on the structural separateness of the elements in a phraseological unit, on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its elements taken separately and on a certain minimum stability.

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  Set expressions
  *All these authors use the same word «phraseology» to denote the branch of linguistics studying the word groups they have in mind.
  In English and American linguistics the situation is very different. No special branch of study exists, and the term «phraseology» is a stylistic one meaning, according to Webster’s dictionary, ‘mode of expression, peculiarities of diction, i.e. choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some author or some literary work.
  *The word «idiom» is even more polysemantic. The English use it to denote a mode of expression peculiar to a language, without differentiating between the grammatical and lexical levels. It may also mean a group of words whose meaning it is difficult or impossible to understand from the knowledge of the words considered separately. Moreover, «idiom» may be synonymous to the words «language» or «dialect», denoting a form of expression peculiar to a people, a country, a district, or to one individual. There seems to be no point in enumerating further possibilities. The word «phrase» is no less polysemantic.
  *The term set expression is on the contrary more definite and self-explanatory, because the first element points out the most important characteristic of these units, namely, their stability, their fixed and ready-made nature. The word «expression» suits our purpose, because it is a general term including words, groups of words and sentences, so that both ups and downs and that’s a horse of another colour are expressions.

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  Set expressions
  Set expressions have sometimes been called «word equivalents», and it has been postulated by A.I. Smirnitsky that the vocabulary of a language consists of words and word equivalents (word-groups), similar to words in so far as they are not created in speech but introduced into the act of communication ready-made. It is most important to keep in mind that here equivalence means only this and nothing more.
  Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi fixed combinations. All these are but different stages of restrictions imposed upon co occurrence of words, upon the lexical filling of structural patterns which are specific for even’ language. The restrictions may be independent of the ties existing in extralinguistic reality between the objects spoken of and be conditioned by purely linguistic factors, or have extralinguistic causes in the history of the people. In free combinations the linguistic factors are
  chiefly connected with grammatical properties of words.

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  Set expressions
  If substitution is only pronominal, or restricted to a few synonyms for one of the members only, or impossible, i.e. if the elements of the phrase are always the same and make a fixed context for each other, the word-group is a set expression.
  According to the type of motivation and the other above-mentioned features, three types of phraseological units are suggested: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.
  Phraseological fusions (e. g. tit for tat)
  represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation into other languages.
  Phraseological unities
  are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole as in to stick (to stand) to one’s guns, i.e. ‘refuse to change one’s statements or opinions in the face of opposi­tion’, implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type, namely the possibility of synonymic substi­tution, which can be only very limited. Some of these are easily trans­lated and even international, e. g. to know the way the wind is blowing.
  The third group in this classification, the phraseological combinations, are not only motivated but contain one compo­nent used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements. The mobility of this type is much greater, the substitutions are not necessarily synonymical.

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  Set expressions
  It has been pointed out by N.N. Amosova and A.V. Koonin that this classification, being developed for the Russian phraseology, does not fit the specifically English features.
  N.N. Amosova’s approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context. Fixed context is defined as a context characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them. Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as the determining context (small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element it has its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time ‘at the exact moment’. Idioms may be motivated or demotivated. A motivated idiom is homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take the bull by the horns
  ‘to face dangers without fear’. In the nick of time is
  demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete.
  Both phrasemes and idioms may be movable
  (changeable) or immovable.

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  Set expressions
  An interesting and clear-cut modification of V.V. Vinogradov’s scheme was suggested by T.V. Stroyeva for the German language. She di­vides the whole bulk of phraseological units into two classes: u n i t-i e s and combinations. Phraseological fusions do not consti­tute a separate class but are included into unities, because the criterion of motivation and demotivation is different for different speakers, depend­ing on their education and erudition. The figurative meaning of a phraseological unity is created by the whole, the semantic transfer being dependent on extra-linguistic factors, i.e. the history of the people and its culture. There may occur in speech homonymous free phrases, very different in meaning (c /. jemandem den Kopf waschen ‘to scold sb’ — a phraseological unity and den Kopf waschen ‘to wash one’s head’ — a free phrase). The form and structure of a phraseological unity is rigid and unchangeable. Its stability is often supported by rhyme, synonymy, parallel construction, etc. Phraseological combinations, on the contrary, reveal a change of meaning only in one of the components and this semantic shift does not result in enhancing expressiveness.

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  Set expressions
  A.V. Koonin is interested both in discussing fundamentals and in investigating special problems. His books, and especially the dictionary he compiled and also the dissertations of his numerous pupils are particularly useful as they provide an up-to-date survey of the entire field.
  A.V. Koonin thinks that phraseology must develop as an independ­ent linguistic science and not as a part of lexicology. His classification of phraseological units is based on the functions the units fulfill in speech. They may be nominating (a bull in a china shop), interjectional (a pretty kettle of fish), communicative (familiarity breeds contempt), or nominating-communicative (pull somebody’s leg). Further classi­fication into subclasses depends on whether the units are changeable more generally, on the interdependence between the meaning of the elements and the meaning of the set expression. Much attention is devoted to different types of variation: synonymic, pronominal, etc.
  After this brief review of possible semantic classifications, we pass on to a formal and functional classification based on the fact that a set expression functioning in speech is in distribution similar to definite classes of words, whereas structurally it can be identified with various types of syntagmas or with complete sentences.

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  Set expressions
  We shall distinguish set expressions that are nominal phrases: the wot of the trouble’, verbal phrases: put one’s best foot forward; adjectival phrases: as good as gold; red as a cherry; adverbial phrases: from head to foot; prepositional phrases: in the course of; conjunctional phrases: as long as, on the other hand; interjectional phrases: Well, I never! A stereotyped sentence also introduced into speech as a ready-made formula may be illustrated by Never say die! ‘never give up hope’, take your time ‘do not hurry’.
  The above classification takes into consideration not only the type of component parts but also the functioning of the whole, thus, tooth and nail is not a nominal but an adverbial unit, because it serves to modify a verb (e. g. fight tooth and nail); the identically structured lord and master is a nominal phrase. Moreover, not every nominal phrase is used in all syntactic functions possible for nouns. Thus, a bed of roses or a bed of nails and forlorn hope are used only predicatively.
  Within each of these classes a further subdivision is necessary. The following list is not meant to be exhaustive, but to give only the principal features of the types.

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  Set expressions
  The number of works of our linguists devoted to phraseology is so great that it is impossible to enumerate them; suffice it to say that there exists a comprehensive dictionary of English phraseology compiled by A.V. Koonin. This dictionary sustained several editions and contains an extensive bibliography and arti­cles on some most important problems. The first doctoral thesis on this subject was by N.N. Amosova (1963), then came the doctoral thesis by A.V. Koonin. The results were published in monographs. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky also devoted attention to this aspect in his book on lexicology. He considers a phraseological unit to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its introduction into speech as something complete.
  The influence his classification exercised is much smaller than that of V.V. Vinogradov’s. The classification of V.V. Vinogradov is synchronic. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treat­ment of the material. Thanks to him phraseological units were rigorously defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression, i.e with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components, and of substituting the whole by a single word. The classification is naturally developed for Russian phraseology but we shall illustrate it with English examples.

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  Set expressions

  N+N , N’s+N , Ns’+N, N+prp+N ,N+A , N+and+N
  A+N , N+subordinate clause
  Set expressions functioning like nouns
  V+N, V+and+V, V+(one’s)+N+(prp), V+one+N, V+subordinate clause
  Set expressions functioning like verbs
  A+and+A , (as)+A+as+N

  Set expressions functioning like adjectives
  N+N , prp+N, adv+prp+N, prp+N+or+N, cj+clause
  Set expressions functioning like adverbs
  prp+N+prp
  Set expressions functioning like prepositions
  Set expressions functioning like interjections
  Types of set expressions

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  Set expressions
  I. Set expressions functioning like nouns:
  N+N: maiden name ‘the surname of a woman before she was married’; brains trust ‘a committee of experts’ or ‘a number of reputedly well informed persons chosen to answer questions of general interest without preparation’, family jewels ‘shameful secrets of the CIA’ (Am. slang).
  N’s+N: cat’s paw ‘one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person’ (the expression comes from a fable in which a monkey wanting to eat some chestnuts that were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting them, seised a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to the ground); Hob-son’s choice, a set expression used when there is no choice at all, when a person has to take what is offered or nothing (Thomas Hobson, a 17th century London stableman, made every person hiring horses take the next in order).

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  Set expressions
  Ns’+N: ladies’ man ‘one who makes special effort to charm or please women’.
  N+prp+N: the arm of the law; skeleton in the cupboard.
  N+A: knight errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people).
  N+and+N: lord and master ‘husband’; all the world and his wife (a more complicated form); rank and file ‘the ordinary working members of an organisation’ (the origin of this expression is military life, it denotes common soldiers); ways and means ‘methods of overcoming difficulties’.
  A+N: green room ‘the general reception room of a theatre’ (it is said that formerly such rooms had their walls coloured green to relieve the strain on the actors’ eyes after the stage lights); high tea ‘an evening meal which combines meat or some similar extra dish with the usual tea’; forty winks ‘a short nap’.
  N+subordinate clause: ships that pass in the night ‘chance acquaintances’.

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  Set expressions
  II.Set expressions functioning like verbs: V+N: take advantage
  V+and+V: pick and choose V+(one’s)+N+(prp): snap ones fingers at V+one+N: give one the bird ‘to fire sb’
  V+subordinate clause: see how the land lies ‘to discover the state of affairs’.
  III.Set expressions functioning like adjectives:
  A+and+A: high and mighty
  (as)+A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter
  Set expressions are often used as predicatives but not attributively. In the latter function they are replaced by compounds.
  IV.Set expressions functioning like adverbs:
  A big group containing many different types of units, some of them with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of expressiveness, others expressive.
  N+N: tooth and nail
  prp+N: by heart, of course, against the grain
  adv+prp+N: once in a blue moon
  prp+N+or+N: by hook or by crook
  cj+clause: before one can say Jack Robinson
  VI. Set expressions functioning like prepositions:
  prp+N+prp: in consequence of
  It should be noted that the type is often but not always characterised by the absence of article. Сf: by reason of : : on the ground of.

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  Set expressions
  VI.Set expressions functioning like interjections:
  These are often structured as imperative sentences: Bless (one’s) soul! God bless me! Hang it (all)!
  This review can only be brief and very general but it will not be difficult for the reader to supply the missing links.
  The list of types gives a clear notion of the contradictory nature of set expressions: structured like phrases they function like words.
  There is one more type of combinations, also rigid and introduced into discourse ready-made but differing from all the types given above in so far as it is impossible to find its equivalent among the parts of speech. These are formulas used as complete utterances and syntactically shaped like sentences,
  such as the well-known American maxim
  Keep smiling! or the British Keep Britain tidy.
  Take it easy.

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  Set expressions
  A.I. Smirnitsky was the first among Soviet scholars who paid attention to sentences that can be treated as complete formulas, such as How do you do? or I beg your pardon, It takes all kinds to make the world, Can the leopard change his spots? They differ from all the combinations so far discussed, because they are not equivalent to words in distribution and are semantically analysable. The formulas discussed by N.N. Amosova are on the contrary semantically specific, e. g. save your breath ‘shut up’ or tell it to the marines. As it often happens with set expressions, there are different explanations for their origin. (One of the suggested origins is tell that to the horse marines; such a corps being nonexistent, as marines are a sea-going force, the last expression means ‘tell it to someone who does not exist, because real people will not believe it’). Very often such formulas, formally identical to sentences are in reality used only as insertions into other sentences: the cap fits ‘the statement is true’ (e. g.: “He called me a liar.” “Well, you should know if the cap fits. ) Compare also: Butter would not melt in his mouth; His bark is worse than his bite.
  (information was taken from : I. Arnold, The lexicology of contemporary English)

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Phraseology

Outline 1. Phraseology. Free word-groups vs. set expressions. 2. Different approaches to the classification of phraseological units. 3. Ways of forming phraseological units.

1. Phraseology. Free wordgroups vs. set expressions n n Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary.

n n The component members in some word-groups (e. g. man of wisdom, to take lessons) possess semantic and structural independence. Word-groups of this type are defined as free phrases and are usually studied in syntax.

n n Some word-groups (e. g. by means of, to take place ) are functionally and semantically inseparable. They are set-phrases or phraseological units that are nonmotivated and cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made.

n n They are the subject-matter of phraseology. Phraseology is a branch of lexicology that studies sequence of words that are semantically and often syntactically restricted and they function as single units similar to individual words.

n n Phraseological units (PU), or idioms represent the most picturesque, colorful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary. Phraseology draws its resources mostly from the very depths of popular speech.

confusion about the terminology n n Most Ukrainian and Russian scholars use the term phraseological unit (фразеологічна одиниця). It was first introduced by V. V. Vinogradov.

n The term «idiom» widely used by western scholars has comparatively recently found its way into Ukrainian/Russian phraseology.

other terms n n n set-expressions set-phrases fixed word-groups collocations

n The terminology confusion reflects insufficiency of reliable criteria by which PUs can be distinguished from FWGs.

n n The «freedom» of free word-groups is relative and arbitrary. FWGs are so called because they are each time built up anew in the speech process.

n n But idioms are used as ready-made units with fixed and constant structures.

Free word-groups vs. setexpressions n The criteria for distinguishing between FWGs and set-phrases.

n n n 1. Criterion of stability of the lexical components and lack of motivation. The constituents of FWG may vary according to communication needs. Member-words of PU are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations.

n E. g. , the constituent red in the free word-group red flower may be substituted for by any other adj. denoting color, without essentially changing the denotational meaning of the word-group.

But in the PU red tape (“bureaucratic methods”) no substitution like this is possible, n A change of the adj. would involve a complete change in the meaning of the whole group. n

2. Criterion of function. n PUs function as word-equivalents n Their denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unity

n and grammatical meaning i. e. the partof-speech meaning is belonging to the word-group as a whole irrespective of the part-of-speech meaning of the component words.

n n E. g. : the free word group a long day and the phraseological unit in the long run

n n n 3. Criterion of context. FWG make up variable contexts PU makes up a fixed context.

n n E. g. in FWG small town/ room the adj. small has the meaning “not large” but in PU small hours the meaning of small has nothing to do with the size (early hours from 1 to 4 a. m. )

n n n 4. Criterion of idiomaticity. PU are ready-made phrases registered in dictionaries FWG are made up spontaneously

n The task of distinguishing between FWG and PU is further complicated by the existence of a great number of marginal cases, the so-called semifixed or semi-free word-groups,

n n n also called nonphraseological wordgroups which share with PU their structural stability but lack their semantic unity and figurativeness e. g. to go to school, to go by bus, to commit suicide

n n n Other major criteria for distinguishing between PU and FWG: semantic structural

n n E. G. 1. A C a m b r i d g e don: I’m told they’re inviting more American professors to this university. Isn’t it rather carrying coals to Newcastle? «to take something to a place where it is already plentiful and not needed» E. G. 2 This cargo ship is carrying coal to Liverpool.

the semantic difference of the two word groups n n is carrying coal is used in the direct sense in the second context The first context has nothing to do either with coal or with transporting it, and the meaning of the whole wordgroup is something entirely new and far removed from the current meanings of the constituents.

n The meanings of the constituents merge to produce an entirely new meaning

n e. g. to have a bee in one’s bonnet means to have an obsession about something; to be eccentric or even a little mad

n n The humorous metaphoric comparison with a person who is distracted by a bee continually buzzing under his cap has become erased and half-forgotten, and the speakers using the expression hardly think of bees or bonnets but accept it in its transferred sense: «obsessed, eccentric».

n That is what is meant when phraseological units are said to be characterized by semantic unity.

n n In the traditional approach, PUs have been defined as word-groups conveying a single concept. whereas in FWG each meaningful component stands for a separate concept.

n n This feature makes PU similar to words: both words and PU possess semantic unity.

n n A. V. Koonin, «A phraseological unit is a stable wordgroup characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning. »

The term idiom n n The term idiom is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meanings, that is, to the ones in which the meaning of the whole unit does not correspond to the current meanings of the components.

The structural criterion n n Structural invariability is an essential feature of. PU, though some of them possess it to a lesser degree than others.

n Structural invariability of PU finds expression in a number of restrictions.

restriction in substitution n No word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a PU without destroying its sense.

n n The second type of restriction is the restriction in introducing any additional components into the structure of a PU. The third type of structural restrictions in PU is grammatical invariability.

n to find fault with somebody e. g. The teacher always found f a u l t s with the boy ( is not correct)

Proverbs n n Proverbs are different from the PU. The first distinctive feature is the obvious structural dissimilarity.

n PU are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit into the structure of a sentence performing a certain syntactical function, more or less as words do.

n n e. g. George liked her for she never put on airs (predicate). Big bugs like him care nothing about small fry like ourselves (subject, prepositional object).

n n Proverbs, in their structural aspect, are sentences, and so cannot be used in the way in which phraseological units are used.

Proverbs n n n In the semantic aspect, proverbs sum up the collective experience of the community. They moralize (Hell is paved with good intentions), give advice (Don’t judge a tree by its bark),

n n n give warning ( You sing before breakfast, you will cry before night), admonish (Liars should have good memories), criticize (Everyone calls his own geese swans).

n The function of proverbs in speech is communicative (i. e. they impart certain information).

n n n PUs do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept. Their function in speech is purely nominative (i. e. they denote an object, an act etc. )

n The question of whether or not proverbs should be regarded as a subtype of PU and studied together with the phraseology of a language is a controversial one.

n A. V. Koonin includes proverbs in his classification of PU as communicative phraseological units.

n n There does not exist any rigid borderline between proverbs and PU as PUs rather frequently originate from the proverbs

n n n E. g. the PU the last straw originated from the proverb The last straw breaks the camel’s back birds of a feather < the proverb Birds of a feather flock together to catch at a straw (straws) < A drowning man catches at straws

n n n Some proverbs are easily transformed into PU e. g. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket > to put all one’s eggs in one basket Don’t cast pearls before swine > to cast pearls before swine

2. Different approaches to the classification of PU n n Etymological approach considers the source of PU Semantic approach stresses the importance of idiomaticity Functional is focused on syntactic inseparability Contextual – stability of context combined with idiomaticity.

Etymological classification n The traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units is based on their original content and might be called thematic or etymological.

n n Idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. “Source» refers to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc.

Typical sources are Cultural beliefs, traditions and customs E. g. to keep one’s fingers crossed n Historical events E. g. to meet one’s Waterloo n Mythology, the Bible n E. g. Achiles’ hill n

Names of organizations and posts E. g. the White House, the House of Lords n Barbarisms and translation loans E. g. persona non grata, alma mater n

n n L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their occupations.

n n n In Smith’s classification there are groups of idioms associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. from sports, arts

n n L. P. Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a small part of his classification system.

n Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary.

n But most of them have developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors E. g. to be all at sea — to be unable to understand, be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about smth

to sink or swim — to fail or succeed n in deep water — in trouble or danger n in low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances n

n n to be in the same boat with smb — to be in a situation in which people share the same difficulties and dangers to weather (to ride out) the storm — to overcome difficulties

Conclusion n n The thematic /etymological principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit but it does not take into account the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units.

The semantic principle n n Victor Vinogradov’s classification system was based on the semantic principle. His classification was founded on the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a PU (its motivation)

n n V. V. Vinogradov developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally. This classification was further developed by Nikolai Shanskii.

n n Units with a partially transferred meaning show the weakest cohesion between their components. The more distant the meaning of a PU from the current meaning of its constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion.

V. Vinogradov’s classification n phraseological combinations/collocations (сполучення) P unities (єдності) P fusions (зрощення)

N. Shanskii added one more type : P expressions. They are motivated FWGs and their stability is explained by their frequent usage, e. g. Pop music, the Department of State. n

n n P combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They are clearly motivated, that is, the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents.

n e. g. to be at one’s wits’ end, to be good at something, to have a bite, to come to a sticky end

P unities n n P unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning. The meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts.

n n n They are partially motivated units. The meaning of the whole unit can be deduced through the metaphoric meanings of the constituent parts. The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and transparent.

n n e. g. to stick to one’s guns — to be true to one’s views or convictions. The image is that of a gunner or gun crew who do not desert their guns even if a battle seems lost to sit on the fence — in discussion, politics, etc. refrain from committing oneself to either side

n n n catch/clutch at a straw/straws -when in extreme danger, avail oneself of even the slightest chance of rescue; to lose one’s head — to be at a loss about what to do; to be out of one’s mind) to lose one’s heart to smb. — to fall in love

P fusions n n P fusions are word-groups with a completely changed meaning but, in contrast to the unities, they are demotivated. Their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts.

n n The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning was based, has lost its clarity and is obscure. E. g. to pull one’s leg to kick the bucket red tape

n The border-line separating unities from fusions is vague and even subjective. One and the same phraseological unit may appear motivated to one person (and therefore be labeled as a unity) and demotivated to another (and be regarded as a fusion).

n n n e. g. to come a cropper –to come to disaster at sixes and sevens — in confusion or in disagreement to set one’s cap at smb. — to try and attract a man ( about girls and women).

Structural Classification n n The structural principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as words. In the traditional structural approach, the following principal groups of phraseological units are distinguished.

Verbal ( the head word is a verb) n to run for one’s (dear) life, n to get (win) the upper hand

Nominative (the head word is a N): n dog’s life n cat-and-dog life n calf love n white lie n birds of a feather

Adjectival ( the head word is an Adj): n high and mighty n brand new n safe and sound

n n In this group the so-called comparative word-groups are particularly expressive : (as) cool as acucumber, (as) nervous as a cat, (as) weak as a kitten, (as) good as gold

n n n (as) pretty as a picture, as large as life, (as) slippery as an eel, (as) drunk as an owl (sl. ), (as) mad as a hatter/a hare in March;

Adverbial (the head word is an Adv or Adv. element): n by hook or by crook, n in cold blood, n in the dead of night, n between the devil and the deep sea

Interjectional (the head word is an interjection) n My God! n By George! n Goodness gracious! n Good heavens!

Structural + semantic principles n A. I. Smirnitsky offered a classification system for English PU combining the structural and the semantic principles.

n n n PU in this classification system are grouped according to the number and semantic significance of their constituent parts.

Two large groups are established: n (1) one-summit units, which have one meaningful constituent e. g. to give up, to make out, to pull out, to be tired, to be surprised n

(2) two-summit and multi-summit units which have two or more meaningful constituents E. g. black art, first night, common sense, to fish in troubled waters n

n n Within each of these large groups the phraseological units are classified accordingto the category of parts of speech of the summit constituent. So, one-summit units are subdivided into: a) verbal-adverbial units equivalent to verbs in which the semantic and the grammatical centers coincide in the first constituent (e. g. to give up);

n b) units equivalent to verbs which have their semantic centre in the second constituent and their grammatical centre in the first e. g. to be tired

n c) prepositional-substantive units equivalent either to adverbs or to copulas and having their semantic centre in the substantive constituent and no grammatical centre e. g. by heart, by means of

Two-summit and multi-summit phraseological units are classified into: n a) attributive-substantive two-summit units equivalent to nouns ( e. g. black art);

n n n b) verbal-substantive two-summit units equivalent to verbs (e. g. to take the floor), c) phraseological repetitions equivalent to adverbs (e. g. now or never); d) adverbial multi-summit units (e. g. every other day).

n n Smirnitsky also distinguishes proper phraseological units which are units with non-figurative meanings idioms that are units with transferred meanings based on a metaphor.

n n A. V. Koonin, the leading Russian authority on English phraseology, pointed out certain inconsistencies in this classification system. 1. The subdivision into phraseological units (as non-idiomatic units) and idioms contradicts the leading criterion of a phraseological unit suggested by Smirnitsky:

n n It should be idiomatic. Koonin also objects to the inclusion of such wordgroups as black art, best man, first night in phraseology (in Smirnitsky’s classification system, the two-summit phraseological units) as all these wordgroups are not characterized by a transferred meaning.

n It is also pointed out that verbs with post-positions (e. g. give up) are included in the classification but their status as phraseological units is not supported by any convincing argument.

Koonin’s Classification n n is based on the combined structuralsemantic principle and it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units

n PU are subdivided into the four classes according to their function in communication determined by their structural-semantic characteristics.

n n n 1. Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear (експлуатаційне зношення) well and good ( used to indicate calm acceptance, as of a decision)

n n The first class also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, as the crow flies (as directly as possible) and predicative phrases of the type see how the land lies ( подивимося, як ідуть справи) ships that pass in the night (побіжні/ випадкові зустрічі)

n n 2. Nominative-communicative phraseological units include wordgroups of the type to break the ice – the ice is broken that is, verbal word-groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

3. Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative. They include interjectional wordgroups.

n n n 4. Communicative phraseological units : proverbs sayings

n n These four classes are divided into subgroups according to the type of structure of the phraseological unit. The sub-groups include further rubrics representing types of structural-semantic meanings according to the kind of relations between the constituents and to either full or partial transference of meaning.

Ways of Forming PU n n A. V. Koonin classified PU according to the way they are formed: primary secondary ways

n Primary ways of forming PU are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:

a) Most productive in Mod E is the formation of phraseological units n by means of transferring the meaning of terminological wordgroups e. g. launching pad (стартовий майданчик, пускова платформа) to link up (anchorperson) n

b) A large group of PU was formed from free word-groups by transforming their meaning e. g. Trojan horse

n n c) PU can be formed by means of alliteration e. g. a sad sack (an inept person who makes mistakes despite good intentions) culture vulture( a person considered to be excessively, and often pretentiously, interested in the arts)

n d) They can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic forming interjections e. g. My aunt! (an exclamation of surprise or amazement) Hear, hear! (an exclamation used to show approval of something said).

n e) By means of distorting a word group e. g. odds and ends

f) By using archaisms e. g. in brown study (a mood of deep absorption or thoughtfulness; reverie) n g) By using a sentence in a different sphere of life e. g. that cock won’t fight (не буде діла) n

n h) By using some unreal image e. g. to have butterflies in the stomach, to have green fingers

n i) By using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life e. g. corridors of power, American dream( James Truslow Adams in 1931 )

the winds of change n The «Wind of Change» speech was a historically important address made by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan to the Parliament of South Africa, on 3 February 1960 in Cape Town.

n n The speech signalled clearly that the British Government intended to grant independence to many of its territories, the British possessions in Africa became independent nations in the 1960 s.

n n Secondary ways of forming PU are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit. They are: a) conversion: to vote with one’s feet → vote with one’s feet;

n n b) changing the grammar form: make hay while the sun shines → to make hay while the sun shines; c) analogy: curiosity killed the cat → care killed the cat

n d) contrast: acute surgery → cold surgery n e) shortening of proverbs and sayings: you can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear → a sow’s ear

n n n f) borrowing PU from other languages, either as translation loans, living space (German), to take the bull by the horns (Latin)

n or by means of phonetic borrowings: sotto voce (in an undertone) (Italian)