Sentence with the word stresses

English students often learn syllable and word stress rules before venturing into sentence stress. This is because sentence stress rules are far more variable and complex, while the rules for correct intonation in English generally stay the same. To demonstrate the differences, let’s look at a few different examples of stress in English.

Syllable Stress vs. Sentence Stress

When you learn how to pronounce different vowel and consonant sounds, you must also learn how to stress different parts of a word correctly. Stress is just another way to say “emphasize.” This means that some parts of a word are stronger (and slightly louder) than others. Here are a few examples:

• Away (pronounced: a-WAY)
• Delicious (pronounced: de-LI-cious)
• Anticipate (pronounced: an-TI-ci-PATE)
• Communication (pronounced: comm-un-i-CA-tion)
• Autobiography (pronounced: au-to-bi-O-gra-phy)

Some longer words have a primary stressed syllable and one or more secondary stressed syllables. The primary stressed syllable is always stronger than the secondary stressed syllable, while both are stronger than unstressed syllables. Be sure to check out our guide on stressed and unstressed syllables to learn more about using proper English intonation.

Sentence stress refers to the words in a sentence that get the most emphasis. While common sayings and phrases usually have unchanging sentence stress rules, you can emphasize different words in a sentence to create new meanings. For example, let’s look at the common saying: I told you so!

The most common way to say this phrase is to put the primary stress on “told” and the secondary stress on “so,” like this:

I TOLD you SO!

However, you could also change the implicit meaning of the phrase by emphasizing “I.” By doing this, you will stress the fact that you (the speaker) were the one who told them (the listener) about something. 

Which words should you stress in a sentence?

So, how can you know which words to stress in a sentence? Again, there are no hard-and-fast sentence stress rules, but there are some general principles that will help you use stress properly when speaking in English. You can often tell which words should be stressed based on the parts of speech and where the words fall in a sentence.

• Content words (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and main verbs) are usually stressed.
• Function words (determiners, prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually unstressed unless you want to emphasize their role(s) in a sentence.
• Question words (who, what, when, where, why, and how) are usually unstressed unless you want to emphasize their role(s) in a sentence.
• Subject pronouns (I, You, He, She, We, They) are usually unstressed, while object pronouns (me, you, him, her, us, them) are usually stressed.

Sentence Stress in a Statement

Pronoun	Main Verb	Adverb	Preposition	Determiner	Noun
I	ran	quickly	to	the	desk.
unstressed	unstressed	STRESSED (primary)	unstressed	unstressed	STRESSED (secondary)

This example denotes the natural rise and fall of the sentence. However, as previously stated, you could stress different words to alter the meaning:

• I ran quickly to the desk. (emphasizes who is doing the running)
• I ran quickly to the desk. (emphasizes what action is being done)
• I ran quickly to the desk. (emphasizes the way in which you ran, but does not fundamentally change the meaning of the sentence)
• I ran quickly to the desk. (inappropriate sense stress, but emphasizes the direction in which you ran)
• I ran quickly to the desk. (inappropriate sense stress, but emphasizes that it was a specific desk)
• I ran quickly to the desk. (emphasizes the object or location to which you ran)

Sentence Stress in a Question

Pronoun	Modal Verb	Main Verb	Preposition	Determiner	Noun
Who	will	come	to	the	party?
unstressed	unstressed	STRESSED (primary)	unstressed	unstressed	STRESSED (secondary)

Like the previous example, the sentence stress here also denotes the natural rise and fall of the word combination. However, you could still ask this question six different ways to convey six slightly different meanings:

• Who will come to the party? (you want to know who the party attendees are)
• Who will come to the party? (you want to know who will definitely be attending the party)
• Who will come to the party? (you want to know who will attend the party, but this form does not change the standard meaning of the question)
• Who will come to the party? (inappropriate sense stress, but emphasizes the location of the party) 
• Who will come to the party? (inappropriate sense stress, but emphasizes which party you’re talking about)
• Who will come to the party? (you want to emphasize the party, possibly in contrast to a separate event)

Sentence Stress and Intonation in English

If you couldn’t already tell, sentence stress is often linked to the way our voices rise and fall (intonation) while speaking. The natural rise and fall in pitch usually determines which words are stressed and unstressed. This is why the two example sentences above have similar structures. They are both examples of falling intonation.

In American English, there are two basic types of intonation: rising intonation and falling intonation. Falling intonation is far more common. When you speak with falling intonation, the pitch of your voice starts high and gets lower by the end of the sentence. More often than not, sentences with falling intonation use stressed verbs and objects. For example:

• I saw a crab at the beach.
• They never return my calls.
• Frank is a responsible person.
• My dad doesn’t like to wash the dishes.

Alternatively, rising intonation occurs when the pitch of your voice starts lower and gets higher at the end of the sentence. This type of intonation is less common, but you can use it when you want to ask a Yes/No question or when you want to express a negative emotion, like anger. Similarly, the stress often falls on verbs and objects, though this can vary depending on the meaning you want to convey. Here are some examples:

• Are you sure?
• Do you want to go to the park?
• You’re so mean!
• I don’t want to talk to you!

What is sense stress?

You might have heard of sense stress, which is very similar to the concept of sentence stress. Sense stress simply refers to the use of stress on different words to convey different meanings. Thus, sense stress is a form of sentence stress. Usually, people refer to appropriate or inappropriate sense stress. Appropriate sense stress sounds natural and correctly conveys the meaning of a sentence. Here are some examples of appropriate sense stress:

• How many HAMBURGERS should we get?
• What TIME is it?
• He ANSWERED the phone.
• They did NOT want to go swimming.

Alternatively, inappropriate sense stress sounds unnatural and conveys strange or incorrect meanings. Here are a few examples:

• Where do you want to eat?
• Did you go to the doctor?
• I never go to the supermarket by myself.
• She was watching a movie when the guests arrived.

Conclusion

Sentence stress is an element of English that can be difficult to grasp, especially for beginner or even intermediate learners. However, with practice, you can use stress to accurately express yourself. With time, you’ll find that sense and sentence stress are some of the best ways to get your point across to other English speakers!

If you’d like to hear native English speakers using sentence stress, be sure to subscribe to the Magoosh Youtube channel!

Методическая разработка

по теме «Стресс»

Болтунова

Ирина Владимировна

Санкт-Петербург

2019

Методическая разработка

по теме «Стресс»

      Пояснительная записка

Представленная методическая разработка состоит из комплекса специально подобранных текстов на английском языке по теме «Стресс» и учебно-тренировочных заданий к ним.

Данная методическая разработка является результатом работы преподавателя английского языка Болтуновой И.В. Аутентичные адаптированные тексты носят информационно-обучающий характер в рамках изучаемых студентами колледжа психолого-педагогических дисциплин.

Обращение к психолого-педагогической тематике на уроках иностранного языка повышает, на наш взгляд, познавательный интерес и мотивацию студентов, показывает универсальность и прикладной характер знаний, получаемых на разных предметах, способствует развитию умения их переноса. Данная подборка предназначена для студентов всех отделений и имеет целью развитие и укрепление межпредметных связей в процессе обучения педагогике, психологии и иностранному языку через реализацию конкретных задач:

В области психологии:

-как можно более полное раскрытие самого понятия «Стресс»;

— выявление причин стресса и его последствий.

В области педагогики:

-ознакомление с различными способами борьбы со стрессом, путями предупреждения его появления.

В области иностранного языка:

-развитие языковых умений;

— овладение новой лексикой по теме «Стресс»;

— совершенствование грамматического навыка.

Методическая разработка по теме «Стресс» предназначена для студентов всех отделений.

Целью методической разработки по теме «Стресс» является познакомить студентов с самим понятием стресс, его причинами, положительными и отрицательными последствиями. Кроме того, предложить различные способы борьбы со стрессом, и все это на английском языке. Таким образом, данные дидактические материалы помогут не только углубить знания по предложенной теме, но и одновременно с этим улучшить свои знания по английскому языку.

Методическая разработка по теме «Стресс» состоят из текстов и заданий к ним, которые направлены на проверку и закрепление изучаемого материала. Можно увидеть следующие задания: подобрать синоним, вычеркнуть лишнее слово, определить слово по его определению, найти соответствующий английский эквивалент, вставить подходящие слова, соединить выражения и другие. Также здесь представлены задания, направленные на понимание текста: ответить на вопросы, определить верно высказывание или нет, завершить предложения. В конце представлен ряд заданий, которые помогут обобщить изученный материал. Данные дидактические материалы содержат ответы на все задания.

Данная методическая разработка содержит ответы ко всем заданиям. Предложенный материал может быть использован как преподавателями на занятиях, так и самими студентами самостоятельно.

.

                           What Is Stress?

We generally use the word «stress» when we feel that everything seems to have become too much — we are overloaded and wonder whether we really can cope with the pressures placed upon us. Anything that poses a challenge or a threat to our well-being is a stress. Some stresses get you going and they are good for you — without any stress at all many say our lives would be boring and would probably feel pointless. However, when the stresses undermine both our mental and physical health they are bad. In this text we will be focusing on stress that is bad for you.

Fight or flight response

The way you respond to a challenge may also be a type of stress. Part of your response to a challenge is physiological and affects your physical state. When faced with a challenge or a threat, your body activates resources to protect you — to either get away as fast as you can, or fight. If you are upstairs at home and an earthquake starts, the faster you can get yourself and your family out the more likely you are all to survive. If you need to save somebody’s life during that earthquake, by lifting a heavy weight that has fallen on them during the earthquake, you will need components in your body to be activated to give you that extra strength -that extra push. 

Our fight-or-flight response is our body’s sympathetic nervous system reacting to a stressful event. Our body produces larger quantities of the chemicals cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenaline, which trigger a higher heart rate, heightened muscle preparedness, sweating, and alertness — all these factors help us protect ourselves in a dangerous or challenging situation.  

Non-essential body functions slow down, such as our digestive and immune systems when we are in fight-or flight response mode. All resources can then be concentrated on rapid breathing, blood flow, alertness and muscle use. 

So, let’s recap, when we are stressed the following happens:

• Blood pressure rises
• Breathing becomes more rapid
• Digestive system slows down
• Heart rate (pulse) rises
• Immune system goes down
• Muscles become tense
• We do not sleep (heightened state of alertness)

Most of us have varying interpretations of what stress is about and what matters. Some of us focus on what happens to us, such as breaking a bone or getting a promotion, while others think more about the event itself. What really matters are our thoughts about the situations in which we find ourselves. 
          We are continually sizing up situations that confront us in life. We assess each situation, deciding whether something is a threat, how we can deal with it and what resources we can use. If we conclude that the required resources needed to effectively deal with a situation are beyond what we have available, we say that that situation is stressful — and we react with a classical stress response. On the other hand, if we decide our available resources and skills are more than enough to deal with a situation, it is not seen as stressful to us. 

Positive and Negative Stress

Signs of positive stress

1. Increased creativity: not only in making or creating things but also in developing new ways to solve problems or finding better ways of doing things.

2. Increased productivity at work and on a personal level.

3. A general feeling of wellbeing, happiness and joy. It is your birthright to lead a happy, fulfilled live during your stay here on earth.

4. An immune system that functions optimally and is able to resist illness, infections, and cancer. Even if you are surrounded by people carrying all sorts of germs, you simply will not become ill.

Warning signs of negative stress

1. Reduced productivity and creativity: nothing works the way it should. Everything is too much for you. You struggle or cannot find solution to problems. Because you are terrified of making the wrong decision, you end up not making any decision at all. You are unable to concentrate or remember things. Depression starts in much the same way.

2. A reduce feeling of wellbeing, joy and happiness: you no longer enjoy anything and don’t look forward to anything. Everything is a burden. These symptoms can be precursors of depression unless you take proper precautions in time.

3. All sort of unfortunate things happen to you. You become so preoccupied with the daily stress of living that, you are unable to focus or concentrate. This easily lead to car accidents, you drop and break things or lose them. You cannot remember anything; you cut yourself on a regular basis etc…

4. You start avoiding social contact. Shunning people for a long period is also a sign of depression. Remember that socialising is one of the basic human needs.

5. Your immune system functions poorly and suffers from colds, influenza, allergies, chronic fatigue, anxiety etc… Unless you take the necessary steps to restore your equilibrium.

6. The ageing process accelerates because of the increased metabolism associated with sustained, unmanaged stress. Free radicals and other waste products accumulate add cell activity deteriorates resulting in premature age.

Task 1.  Answer the questions

1. What happens with processes in our body when we are stressed? (at least 3)

2. Name 3 chemicals that our body produces in larger quantities when we are stressed.

3. Which body functions slows down when we are under stress? (1 word — adjective)

4. What is stress?

5. Which types of response on stressful situation do you know?

Task 2.  Find the synonym in the text.

1. frighten, intimidate

2. weight, load, onus

3. balance, poise

4. decrease, diminish

5. avoid, escape, evade

6. early, untimely, precocious

7. appropriate, due

8. oppose, fight back ,withstand

9. concern, worry

10. gladness, rejoicing, cheer

Task 3. Find the odd word. 

1. Our body produces the chemicals: cortisol, adrenaline, noradrenaline, allergy.
2. Reaction to stressful events : heartbeat, sweating,  heightened muscle preparedness, increased creativity.
3.  Your immune system functions poorly and suffers from: chronic fatigue, anxiety, colds, lack of communication.
4. If you are upstairs at home and suddenly begins: earthquake, tsunami, fire, shaking hands, don’t panic.
5. If you’re in a stressful situation, you start: to sweat, to be nervous, to panic, to dance.
6. The first signs of negative stress: nothing works the way it should, you are unable to concentrate, you can not remember anything, you can easily lift the mood
7. The first signs of positive stress: increased creativity, increased productivity, a general feeling of wellbeing, a reduced feeling of wellbeing.
8. Your immune system, that functions optimally, is able to resist: diseases, infections, cancer, people.
9. All sort of unfortunate things happen to you: you can cut yourself, break things, lose things, be promoted.

Task 4.  You can see the definition of the word, guess the word (find it in the text).

1.  А system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease.
2. A hormone that is released during stressful situations.
3. A state of low mood and aversion to activity.
4. An organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions.
5. The production of a fluid consisting primarily of water as well as various dissolved solids (chiefly chlorides), that is excreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals.
6. It is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves.
7. The reactions that occur when a person’s immune system reacts to normally harmless substances in the environment .
8. It is a steroid hormone, more specifically a glucocorticoid, produced by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal gland.
9. This disease is known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a broad group of various diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth.
10.  It is the invasion of body tissues by disease-causing microorganisms, their multiplication and the reaction of body tissues to these microorganisms and the toxins that they produce.

Task 5. Insert the corresponding expressions

precursors of depression — a sign of depression — restore your equilibrium — sustained  unmanaged stress – concentrate – infections  and cancer — solve problems

1. A reduce feeling of wellbeing, joy and happiness — these symptoms can be ………. .
2. You start avoiding social contact. Shunning people for a long period is also ………. .
3. Your immune system functions poorly and suffers from colds, influenza, allergies, chronic fatigue, anxiety etc… Unless you take the necessary steps to ………. .
4. The ageing process accelerates because of the increased metabolism associated with ………. .
5. You become so preoccupied with the daily stress of living that, you are unable to focus or ………. .
6. An immune system that functions optimally and is able to resist illness, ……….
7. Increased creativity: not only in making or creating things but also in developing new ways to ………. or finding better ways of doing things.

Task 6. True or false. (Text «Positive and Negative Stress»)

1. Positive stress enhances creativity.
2. You begin to avoid social contacts because of the stress.
3. Stress helps us to not get sick for a long time.
4. The aging process is accelerated due to stress.
5. Stress may soon lead to major depression.
6. Positive stress contributes to increased productivity.
7. In the stressful condition, you can get in an accident.
8. Due to stress, you begin to communicate more with people.
9. Thanks to the positive stress the immune system is working optimally.
10.  A person subjected to stress does not suffer from insomnia.

               The Effects of Stress

       There is a famous expression in English: «Stop the world, I want to get off!» This expression refers to a feeling of panic, or stress, that makes a person want to stop whatever they are doing, try to relax, and become calm again. ‘Stress’ means pressure or tension. It is one of the most common causes of health problems in modern life. Too much stress results in physical, emotional, and mental health problems.
                There are numerous physical effects of stress. Stress can affect the heart. It can increase the pulse rate, make the heart miss beats, and can cause high blood pressure. Stress can affect the respiratory system. It can lead to asthma. It can cause a person to breathe too fast, resulting in a loss of important carbon dioxide. Stress can affect the stomach. It can cause stomach aches and problems digesting food. These are only a few examples of the wide range of illnesses and symptoms resulting from stress.

         Emotions are also easily affected by stress. People suffering from stress often feel anxious. They may have panic attacks. They may feel tired all the time. When people are under stress, they often overreact to little problems. For example, a normally gentle parent under a lot of stress at work may yell at a child for dropping a glass of juice. Stress can make people angry, moody, or nervous.
                Long-term stress can lead to a variety of serious mental illnesses. Depression, an extreme feeling of sadness and hopelessness, can be the result of continued and increasing stress. Alcoholism and other addictions often develop as a result of overuse of alcohol or drugs to try to relieve stress. Eating disorders, such as anorexia, are sometimes caused by stress and are often made worse by stress. If stress is allowed to continue, then one’s mental health is put at risk.
                It is obvious that stress is a serious problem. It attacks the body. It affects the emotions. Untreated, it may eventually result in mental illness. Stress has a great influence on the health and well-being of our bodies, our feelings, and our minds. So, reduce stress: stop the world and rest for a while.

Task 7. Replace the Russian word with the corresponding English equivalents.

1. (психическое) health            
2. (дыхательная) system        
3. Blood (давление)                  
4. Feel (тревогу)                      
5. (остро реагировать) to a little problems    
6. (обостренноe) feel                
7. (облегчить) stress              
8. (злоупотребление) of alcohol      
9. (длительный) stress              
10.  (влиять на) heart            

                                   Stress

They say that «Life is a big headache on a long noisy road.» This statement truly explains life nowadays. Life in the twenty first century is full of stress. From dawn to dusk, everyone has to go through a rigorous schedule. Even children are not exempt from this rush. Everyday there are deadlines to meet, reports to write, bills to pay, meetings to attend, papers to submit, etc.,.

Life is a never-ending race to most people. The everyday grind builds up stress and fatigue. Stress Reduction has become a priority with individuals as well as organizations. People have different ways of escaping the stress and difficulties of modern life. In my opinion the best ways of reducing stress are meditation, exercise and reading books.

Meditation is an effective way to overcome stress. Meditation not only soothes the mind from tension but also regulates heartbeat and blood pressures. It helps an individual in attaining inner peace and equilibrium. Meditation helps in tapping a person’s inner potential and opens his mind to the universal spirit.

Exercise is another way to reduce stress. Exercising not only promotes health but also improves thinking. When a person exercises the muscles in the body get a workout that in turn burn fat. The burning of fat releases stored energy and the person has an exhilarating feeling. This feeling helps the person to overcome stress. Thus Exercise is very useful tool in stress reduction.

Reading also has a beneficial effect on individuals in stress. Reading a great book is very therapeutic to a person with stress. Reading helps the mind to look at other things and reduces the focus on the person’s difficulties. Elegant poetry and beautiful prose can soothe a person’s mind and help him reduce stress in his life.

In conclusion, meditation, exercise and reading are the best ways to reduce stress.

Task 8 .  Insert the corresponding words.

1. (…) is an effective way to reduce stress.

2. (…) is very therapeutic to a person with stress.

3. (…) not only promotes health but also helps to reduce stress. 

4. Meditation helps in attaining inner peace and (…).

5. Elegant (…) and beautiful (…) can soothe a person’s mind and help him reduce stress.

Task 9.  Find the synonym in the text.

1. timetable

2. peremptory day

3. internal

4. truth, verity

5. useful, helpful, valuable

6. to intimidate  грозить, запугивать

7. invalidity, invalidism

8. damage, lesion

9. follow, escort, attend

10. adviser

Tasks to the texts: Text «The effects of stress» and «Stress»

Task 10. Are these sentences True or False? 

1)  Stress can’t affect the heart. ( T / F )

1. People, suffering from stress often feel anxious. ( T / F )

3) “Stress” means pressure and relax. ( T / F )

4) Stress can cause a person to breathe too slow. ( T / F )

5) “Life is a big headache on a long noisy road” ( T / F )

6) Life is a never-ending race to most people. ( T / F )

7) Meditation isn’t an effective way to overcome stress. ( T / F )

Meditation can affect the stomach. ( T / F )

9) Exercises are also easily affected by stress. ( T / F )

10) Reading also has a beneficial effect on individuals in stress. ( T / F )

Task 11.  Vowels or consonants

1. Insert the vowels, and get the word

1. str_ss,
2. r_sp_r_t_r_,
3.  _sthm_,
4. bl__d,
5. pr_ss_r_,
6. st_m_ch,
7. m__d_,
8. m_nt_l

1. Insert consonants, and get the word

1. _e__e__io_,
2. a__o_o_i__,
3. _ay,
4. _oo__e,
5. _e_i_a_i_o_,
6. _ _ oo_,
7. _ _ _ e _ _,
8. _ u_ _

Task 12.  What is wrong? Correct the mistakes.

1) Stress can yell the heart.

2) They may has panic attacks.

3) Stress can affect moody stomach.

4) I attacks the body.

5) Life is a big headache on a long funny road.

6) Life in the nineteenth century is full of stress.

7) Even children aren’t exempt from this toys.

Meditation isn’t effective way to overcome stress.

                                 Stress causes

Too much stress isn’t good for anyone. For example, feeling a little stress about a test that’s coming up can motivate you to study hard. But stressing out too much over the test can make it hard to concentrate on the material you need to learn.

Pressures that are too intense or last too long, or troubles that are shouldered alone, can cause people to feel stress overload. Here are some of the things that can overwhelm the body’s ability to cope if they continue for a long time:

1) being bullied or exposed to violence or injury

2) relationship stress, family conflicts, or the heavy emotions that can accompany a broken heart or the death of a loved one

3) ongoing problems with schoolwork related to a learning disability or other problems, such as ADHD (usually once the problem is recognized and the person is given the right learning support the stress disappears)

4) crammed schedules, not having enough time to rest and relax, and always being on the go

Some stressful situations can be extreme and may require special attention and care. Posttraumatic stress disorder is a very strong stress reaction that can develop in people who have lived through an extremely traumatic event, such as a serious car accident, a natural disaster like an earthquake, or an assault like rape.

Some people have anxiety problems that can cause them to overreact to stress, making even small difficulties seem like crises. If a person frequently feels tense, upset, worried, or stressed, it may be a sign of anxiety. Anxiety problems usually need attention, and many people turn to professional counselors for help in overcoming them.

Task 13. Answer the questions.

1) What traumatic events can you name?

2) How may people overcome anxiety problems?

3) What can cause people to feel stress overload?

4) What are signs of anxiety problems?

5) How can you explain the term “posttraumatic stress disorder”?

6) What are the things that make people feel stress overload?

Task 14 Complete the sentences.

1) If a person frequently feels tense, upset and worried, it may be …………. .

2) …………. can cause people to overreact to stress.

3) ………….  can develop in people who have lived through an extremely traumatic event.

4) Pressures that are too intense or last too long, can cause people to …………. .

5) Relationship stress, family conflicts and heavy emotions can ………….  .

Task 15.  Insert  the right letters into the words to complete them.

1. Post_ra_matic,
2. e_rthq_ake,
3. anx_ety,
4. co_nsel_r,
5. s_hed_le,
6. pre_s_re,
7. di_abi_ity,
8. fr_q_ently.

Task 16. Match the word to make expressions.

1) ongoing                     stress                      

2) natural                       emotion

3) anxiety                      problems

4) relationship               disability

5) learning                    schedule

6) crammed                   situation

7) stressful                     disaster

heavy                        problem

                                  Stress

Every day you read in newspapers, books and magazines that it is important to avoid stress. Stress can kill, they say. Stay calm. Be relaxed. Slow down. Don’t worry so much and don’t work so hard. Unfortunately, this is difficult. There are always money problems and family problems. Our cities are full of traffic and noise. Stressful situations seem to be everywhere.

When people are under stress they react in different ways. Some people find it difficult to stay calm and often become tense. Little things, like a baby crying, can make them irritated. They get very annoyed if they have to wait just a few minutes too long in a shop or a restaurant. These people are usually very moody. One minute they are fine and the next they can be really angry – absolutely furious. Other people seem to stay calm almost all the time, and rarely get angry. For example, if they are caught in bad traffic, they don’t get frustrated. They sit calmly in their cars, telling themselves that there is nothing they can do about the situation. These people are not moody at all. They don’t change from moment to moment, but always seem to be in control of their emotions.

Some doctors give names to these two personality types: Type A and Type B people. Type A work very hard, worry a lot, and are often bad-tempered. Type  are the opposite. They don’t worry. Work’s not so important to them and they don’t get angry easily. They like to relax a lot and have fun. The doctors say it is better for your health and heart if you are a Type B person.

Task 17. Answer the questions.

1) What should you do to avoid stress?

2) Where can we get the stress?

3) What people are more prone to stress?

4) Is it necessary to control your own  emotions?

5) What advice do the doctors give for the prevention of stress?

6) Does the hard work influence the emotional state of person?

                     Dealing With Stress

We are profoundly affected by stress. Many believe that stress is one of the most destructive elements in our lives today. In reality, it is the way we react to stress that causes us pleasure or pain. The effects of stress can be positive or negative. Positive stress is a motivator for improving lifestyle and negative stress can be destructive to our health.

What is stress?

• It is the nonspecific response of the body to any demands made upon it.
• Stress can be detected by muscle tension, anxiety, increased heart rate, high blood pressure, shallow breathing, silliness and joy.

Positive outcomes of stress include:

Mental Improvement	Emotional Improvement	Physical Improvement
Creativity	Control of life	Energy
Intellect	Mood	Stamina
Goal orientation	Relationships	Able to do anything
Motivation	Experience emotions	Body function

When stress is negative, it causes distress. How we perceive an event is what determines whether it causes negative or positive stress. For some people, public speaking is exhilarating; for others it is terrifying.

Negative outcomes of stress:

Mental effects	Physical effects	Emotional effects
Poor memory	Flushed face	irritability
Unable to concentrate	Rapid breathing	Mood swings
Low self esteem	Dry mouth	Problems sleeping
depression	High blood pressure	Overweight/underweight
Unable to make decisions	Coronary heart disease	Substance abuse
	ulcers	Ineffective use of time
	migraines

Stress and weight gain

The stress response – in a stressful situation, the brain responds by signaling the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol. Cortisol signals the release of glucose and fatty acids to the blood stream to provide energy for muscles. Chronically high cortisol levels lead to increased appetite and fat deposits in the trunk and abdomen. (fight or flight response to a trigger to be used as a “burst” of energy, ends up stored as fat when not “burned” as fuel).

Stress and eating – appetite can increase with stress; we often crave foods high in calories and low in nutrients when under stress.

Suggestion to help solve stress induced weight gain

1. Reduce stress- find a diversion or release
2. Be active- regular physical activity reduces the production of cortisol during stress
3. Be in charge – taking charge of the stressful situation reduces pressure you perceive
4. Rest- when you are sleep deprived cortisol levels increase

Our mind and body are alkaline based. The hormones secreted by stress are acid based and when we are suffering from chronic stress our PH balance is shifted and we become more acid based than alkaline based. This can lead to a multitude of health problems including struggles with weight loss. A few ways to maintain your PH balance are listed below:

Food – choose foods that are blue, green and purple (Blueberries, beet tops, broccoli, eggplant, plums, asparagus) Take Green supplements to bridge the gap.

Music— listen to relaxing music (Bach, Beethoven, Schubert)

Meditative States— Yoga, tai chi, meditation, sleep, massage, laugh, play, walk in nature

Colour Therapy – Wear and look at colours in the blue, green and violet shades

Exercise – releases endorphins that make you feel good! It’s also something you are doing with and for yourself. Time away from the stressful situation can help you to refocus.

Most importantly, do something! Stress and lack of sleep are two of the biggest contributors to weight gain and many health concerns.

How to deal with stress?

Look around  See if there really is something you can change or control in the situation	Set realistic goals for yourself  Reduce the number of events going on in your life and you may reduce the circuit overload
Remove yourself from the stressful situation  Give yourself a break if only for a few moments daily	Don’t overwhelm yourself by fretting about your entire workload. Handle each task as it comes, or selectively deal with matters in some priority
Don’t sweat the small stuff Try to prioritize a few truly important things and let the rest slide	Learn how to best relax yourself  Meditation and breathing exercises have been proven to be very effective in controlling stress. Practice clearing your mind of disturbing thoughts.
Selectively change the way you react,  but not too much at one time. Focus on one troublesome thing and manage your reactions to it/him/her	Change the way you see your situation;  Seek alternative viewpoints. Stress is a reaction to events and problems, and you can lock yourself in to one way of viewing your situation. Seek an outside perspective of the situation, compare it with yours. and perhaps lessen your reaction to these conditions.
Avoid extreme reactions; Why hate when a little dislike will do? Why generate anxiety when you can be nervous? Why rage when anger will do the job? Why be depressed when you can just be sad?	Do something for others to help get your mind off yourself
Get enough sleep Lack of rest just aggravates stress	Work off stress with physical activity, whether it’s jogging, tennis, gardening
Avoid self-medication or escape  Alcohol and drugs can mask stress. They don’t help deal with the problems	Begin to manage the effects of stress  This is a long range strategy of adapting to your situation, and the effects of stress in your life. Try to isolate and work with one «effect» at a time. Don’t overwhelm yourself. for example, if you are not sleeping well, seek help on this one problem.
Try to «use» stress  If you can’t remedy, nor escape from, what is bothering you, flow with it and try to use it in a productive way	Try to be positive  Give yourself messages as to how well you can cope rather than how horrible everything is going to be. «Stress can actually help memory, provided it is short-term and not too severe. Stress causes more glucose to be delivered to the brain, which makes more energy available to neurons. This, in turn, enhances memory formation and retrieval. On the other hand, if stress is prolonged, it can impede the glucose delivery and disrupt memory.»

Task 18.  Choose Positive Outcome Of Stress

1. Poor memory       Ulcers

    Depression           Motivation

2. Mood Swings       Dry mouth

    Stamina                Irritability

3. Migraines              Creativity

    Rapid breathing      Low self esteem

4. High blood pressure             Anxiety                                  

    Improved body function       Shallow breathing

5.  Mental improvement            Problems sleeping

     Flushed face                         Ineffective use of time

Task 19.  Fill In The Gaps

1. Stress is one of the most (…) elements in our lives today.

2. When stress is negative, it causes (…). 

3. Positive stress is a (…) for improving lifestyle. 

4. Stress can be (…) by muscle tension, anxiety, shallow breathing and etc.

5. Stress is the (…) response of the body to any demands made upon it. 

Task 20.  Match two columns

1) Poor               a) abuse

2) Low               b) swings

3) Rapid             c) blood pressure

4) Dry                d) self esteem

5) Mood            e) sleeping

6) Substance      f) face

7) Problems       g) to concentrate

Flushed          h) breathing

9)  Inability        i) mouth

10) High             j) memory

Task 21.  Devide the words into two groups: positive outcome, negative outcome.
Creativity
depression
flushed face
energy
poor memory
stamina
mood
ulcers
mood swings
rapid breathing
control of life
low self esteem

                          Revision

Task 1. Answer the following questions.

1. When we are stressed what happens with our body?
2. Which signs of positive stress do you know?
3. Which signs of negative stress do you know?
4. Can you name the stress causes?
5. How can we deal with stress? (give some examples)

Task 2. True or false.
A. 

1) Stress starts from nothing.
2) When stress is negative, it causes pleasure.
3) Negative stress can be destructive to our health.
4) The effects of stress can be only negative.
5) Stress influences weight
6) Regular physical activity reduces the production of cortisol during stress
7) Yoga, sleep, relaxing music help you to fight with stress
Positive stress makes you be in sorrow

B.

1. We generally use the word “stress” when we feel that everything seems to have become too calm.
2. The expression “Stop the world, I want to get off!” refers to a feeling of euphoria.
3. Long-term stress can lead to a variety of serious mental diseases.
4. Positive stress can be destructive to our health and negative stress is a motivator for improving lifestyle.
5. Meditation is an effective way to cope with stress.

Task 3. Match two columns to make expressions.  

When we are stressed the following happens:

a) blood pressure	1) slows down
b) breathing	2) goes down
c) digestive system	3) sleep
d) immune system	4) becomes more rapid
e) heart rate	5) rises
f) muscles	6) become tense
g) we do not	7) goes down

Task 4. Circle 9 outcomes of stress in the word square.

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ANSWERS

Task1  

Suggested answers.

1. Pulse rises, muscles become tense, immune system goes down, digestive system slows down, breathing becomes more rapid

2) Сortisol, adrenaline, noradrenaline

3) Non-essential

4) Stress is anything that poses a challenge or a threat to our well-being)

5) Fight response, flight response

Task 2   

1. terrify

2. burden

3. equilibrium

4. reduce

5. shun

6. premature

7 .proper

8 .resist

9.anxiety

10.joy

Task 3   

1. allergy
2. increased creativity
3. lack of communication
4. shaking hands
5. to dance
6. can easily lift the mood
7. a reduced feeling of wellbeing
8. people
9. be promoted

Task 4   

1. immune system
2. adrenaline
3. depression
4. nervous system
5. sweating
6. earthquake
7. allergy
8. cortisol
9. cancer
10.  infection

Task 5   

1. precursors of depression.
2. a sign of depression.
3. restore your equilibrium.
4. sustained  unmanaged stress
5. concentrate
6. infections, and cancer
7. solve problems

Task 6   

1. true
2. true
3. false
4. true
5. true
6. true
7. true
8. false
9. true
10. false

Task 7   

1)  mental health            

1. respiratory system        

3)  blood pressure

4)  feel anxious

5) overreact to a little problems    

6) extreme feeling                

7) relieve stress              

overuse of alcohol      

9) long-term stress              

10) affect heart              

Task 8 

1) meditation

2)  reading

3) exercising

4) equilibrium

5) poetry, prose

Task 9   

1. schedule

2. deadline

3. inner

4. soothe

5. benefical

6. bully

7. disability

8. injury

9. accompany

10. counselor

Task 10  

1) false

2) true

3) false

4) false

5) true

6) true

7) false

false

9) false

10) true

Task 11 

A.

1. stress,
2. respiratory,
3. asthma,
4. blood,
5. pressure,
6. stomach,
7. moody,

 mental

B.

1. depression,
2. alcoholism,
3. say,
4. soothe,
5. meditation,
6. blood,
7. stress,
8. burn

Task 12 

1) yell – affect

2) has – have

3) moody

4) I – it

5) funny – noisy

6) nineteenth – twenty first

7) toys – rush

isn’t – is

Task 13. 

1) Some of traumatic events are a car accident, a natural disaster like an earthquake, an assault like rape.

2) People may turn to professional counselors for help in overcoming anxiety problems.

3) Pressures that are too intense or last too long, troubles that are shouldered alone can cause people to feel stress overload.

4) The signs of anxiety problems are frequently feeling tense, upset, worried or stressed.

5) Posttraumatic stress disorder is a very strong stress reaction that can develop in people who lived through an extremely traumatic event.

6) The things that make people feel stress overload are being bullied or exposed to violence, relationship stress, family conflicts, the heavy emotions, ongoing problems with schoolwork, crammed schedules, not having enough time to rest and relax, always being on the go.

Task 14. 

1) a sign of anxiety problems

2) anxiety problems

3) posttraumatic stress disorder

4) feel stress overload

5) overwhelm the person’s ability to cope

Task 15. 

1. Posttraumatic,
2. earthquake,
3. anxiety, counselor,
4. schedule,
5. pressure,
6. disability,
7. frequently.

Task 16. 

1. Ongoing problems,
2. natural disaster,
3. anxiety problem,
4. relationship stress,
5. learning disability,
6. crammed schedule,
7. stressful situation,
8. heavy emotion.

Task 17  

1) You must stay calm and be relaxed.

2) We can get the stress on the work , in the family , or if we have to wait just a few minutes too long in a shop or a restaurant.

3) People who work very hard, worry a lot, and are often bad- tempered.

4) Yes, it is. We must control our emotions.

5) The doctors advice is to relax a lot and have fun.

6) The hard work influence on the emotional state of person and therefore shouldn’t work so hard.

Task 18  

1. Motivation
2.  Stamina        
3.  Creativity      
4.  Improved body function  
5.  Mental improvement  

Task 19  

1) destructive

2) distress

3) motivator

4) detected

5) nonspecific

Task 20  

1. – j)
2. – d)
3. – h)
4. – i)
5. – b)
6. – a)
7. – e)
8. – f)
9. – g)

10)– c)

Task 21   Смирнова

positive outcomes	negative outcomes.
Creativity energy stamina mood control of life	depression flushed face poor memory ulcers mood swings rapid breathing low self esteem

Revision

Task 1.

Suggested answers.

1. When we are stressed the following things happen: blood pressure rises, breathing becomes more rapid, heart rate rises, immune system goes down, muscles become tense and problems sleeping.
2. I know the following signs of positive stress: increased creativity, increased productivity at work and on a personal level, a general feeling of wellbeing, happiness and joy, an immune system that functions optimally and is able to resist illness, infections, and cancer.
3. I know some negative signs, it is reduced productivity and creativity, a reduce feeling of wellbeing, joy and happiness, all sort of unfortunate things happen to you, you start avoiding social contact, your immune system functions poorly and suffers from colds, influenza, allergies, chronic fatigue, anxiety etc…, the ageing process accelerates because of the increased metabolism associated with sustained, unmanaged stress.
4. The stress causes maybe different, for example if you are being bullied or exposed to violence or injury, relationship stress, family conflicts, or the heavy emotions that can accompany a broken heart or the death of a loved one, problems with schoolwork related to a learning disability or other problems, crammed schedules.
5. If you want to get rid of stress you should remove yourself from the stressful situation, don’t overwhelm yourself, change the way you see your situation, avoid extreme reactions, work off stress, get enough sleep and enjoy your life!

Task 2.  

A.

1. false
2. false
3. true
4. false
5. true
6. true
7. true
8. false

B.

1. False
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True

Task 3 .  

1. 5
2. 4
3. 1
4. 7
5. 2
6. 6
7. 3

Task 4 .  

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In
a sentence or an intonation group some of the words are greater
importance than the others. This largely depends on the situation
or context. Words which provide most of the information
are brought out in speech by means of sentence-stress. Thus sentence
stress
is
a special prominence given to one or more
words according to their relative importance in a sentence.

The
main function of sentence-stress is to single out the communicative
centre
of
the sentence which introduces new information.
The prominence is realized by variations of pitch, force, length
and quality. The syllables of the words marked by sentence-stress
are pronounced with possible changes in pitch, greater
force, greater length of vowels and their full quality, that is
the stressed words are pronounced more distinctly. The most
prominent
part of a sentence is the last stressed word which takes
the nuclear tone.

The
adjoining unstressed words are called proclitics
when
they
precede the stressed words and enclitics
when
they follow the
stressed words.

The
distribution of stresses in a sentence depends on the mantic
value of words and is closely connected with the lexical and
grammatical structure of the sentence.

There
are differentiate three types of sentence-stress:

1. normal (or syntactical)
   sentence-stress,

2. logical sentence-stress,

3. emphatic sentence-stress.

1.
Normal stress affects content words which convey the necessary
information to the listener, eg:
We
have plenty of time.

Normal
sentence-stress is used to arrange words into sentences
or intonation groups phonetically.

2. The
position of the last sentence-stress determines the place
of the nucleus of the communicative centre. By shifting the position
of the last stress we can change the place of the nucleus of
the communicative centre, eg:
Nelly
‘spoke to him yesterday.

Logically
different messages are expressed in the given sentences.
Each shifting of the stress modifies the meaning of the
sentence.

3.
Most human utterances express not only the speaker’s thoughts,
but also his feelings and attitudes to reality and to the contents
of the sentence. Both normal and logical stresses can be unemphatic
or emphatic. Emphatic stress increases the effort
of expression. It may strengthen the stressed word making it still
more prominent. Emphatic stress manifests itself mainly on the High
Fall or the Rise-Fall of the nuclear syllable. Emphatic stress
is a powerful expressive means. It is the highest degree of logical
and emotional prominence of words in a phrase.

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When a little stress is a good thing…

How do students of English learn to speak like native speakers? Everyone knows that pronunciation is important, but some people forget about sentence stress and intonation. The cadence and rhythm of a language are important for fluency and clarity. Languages of the world vary greatly in word and sentence stress—many languages stress content words (e.g., most European languages) while others are tonal (e.g., Thai) or have little to no word stress (e.g., Japanese). Practicing sentence stress in English helps students speak more quickly and naturally. Fortunately for teachers, students usually enjoy activities like the one in the worksheet below! After one of our subscribers asked us for resources on sentence stress this week, I thought I’d share some tips and a worksheet that you can use in class.

Sentence stress occurs when we say certain words more loudly and with more emphasis than others. In English, we stress content words because they are essential to the meaning of the sentence. In general, shorter words or words that are clear from the context don’t get stressed.

Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Negative words such as not or never also get stressed because they affect the meaning of the sentence. Modals, too, can change the meaning of a sentence. Here is a list of words to stress in an English sentence:

• nouns (people, places, things)
• verbs (actions, states)
• adjectives (words that modify nouns)
• adverbs (words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire sentences)
• negative words (not, never, neither, etc.)
• modals (should, could, might, etc., but not will or can)
• yes, no, and auxiliary verbs in short answers (e.g., Yes, she does.)
• quantifiers (some, many, no, all, one, two, three, etc.)
• Wh-Question words (what, where, when, why, how, etc.—note that what is often unstressed when speaking quickly because it’s so common)

Not to Stress

Some words don’t carry a lot of importance in an English sentence. Short words such as articles, prepositions, and conjunctions don’t take stress. Pronouns don’t usually get stressed either because the context often makes it clear who we’re talking about. The Be verb and all auxiliary verbs don’t carry much meaning—only the main verb does. Here is a list of words that shouldn’t be stressed in an English sentence:

• articles (a, an, the)
• prepositions (to, in, at, on, for, from, etc.)
• conjunctions (and, or, so, but, etc.)
• personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, etc.)
• possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, etc.)
• Be verb (am, is, are, was, were, etc.)
• auxiliary verbs (be, have, do in two-part verbs or questions)
• the modals will and be going to (because they’re common, and the future tense is often clear from context)
• the modal can (because it’s so common)

Examples

Model the following examples for your students and have them repeat after you. The words (or syllables when the word has more than one) that should be stressed are in bold.

• The kids are at the park.
• Do you have any brothers or sisters?
• Why aren’t you doing your homework?
• He bought a red car for his daughter.
• I am Brazilian.
• We are not familiar with this new computer program.
• The athlete ran quickly and won the competition.
• She does not know the answer.
• I don’t know the answer, either.
• We aren’t sure.
• I’ve never heard of that before, but it makes sense.
• They’ll ask the teacher for help.
• Some people prefer Macs, but many others prefer PCs.
• She is going to study tonight.
• I can speak French.
• I can’t speak Japanese.
• Yes, I can. / No, I can’t.

Practice

When practicing sentence stress, whether in the examples above, the worksheet below, or your own activity, encourage reductions such as wanna, gonna, whaddaya, etc. These reductions will make it easier for your students to speak more quickly and will help them recognize when native speakers use these reduced forms. Plus, they’re fun to say!

Sentence Stress – Grammar & Usage Resources

Worksheet Answers

1. boys, playing, video game
2. computer, broken
3. Where, going, after, class
4. doesn’t,like, cake
5. writing, test, long, time
6. prefer, coffee, tea
7. doing, tonight (optional: What /encourage reduced pronunciation of Whaddaya)
8. brother, wants, buy, red, car (demonstrate wanna for the subjects I, you, we, they, and plural count nouns)
9. come, party (encourage reduced pronunciation of gonna)
10. said, has, dog, not, cat

Here’s hoping your students don’t get too stressed!

Tanya

Sentence stress

Sentence stress is the governing stress in connected speech. All words have their individual stress in isolation. When words are connected into sense groups (also called thought groups, i.e., logically connected groups of words), and sense groups are connected into sentences, content words keep their stress, and function words lose their stress. The most important words in the sentence receive stronger stress. The last stressed word in the sentence receives the strongest stress with the help of a fall or a rise.

ANN is READing a NEW BOOK.

WHAT BOOK is she READing?

Does she LIKE the /BOOK?

Note: In this material, capital letters indicate stressed syllables and stressed one-syllable words; the backslash indicates the falling tone; the forward slash indicates the rising tone. Sentence stress is indicated according to the American variant of pronunciation.

Stress in some words or word combinations may be shifted or weakened in a certain way to keep the rhythm of speech. For example: New YORK – NEW York CITy; in the afterNOON – AFternoon SLEEP.

Emphatic stress may be used in the sentence, usually to compare, correct, or clarify things. Emphatic stress singles out the word that the speaker considers the most important, and in this case even a function word may become stressed.

Tina gave the book to ANN.

I said that MAX gave the book to Ann.

HE gave her the book.

Sentence stress is not just a phonetic peculiarity of English. Sentence stress has a very important function of marking the words that are necessary for understanding an utterance. When native speakers of English listen to their conversation partners, they listen for stressed words, because stressed words provide important information. It is often difficult to understand the meaning of the sentence in which even one content word is missing. It is also difficult to understand the sentence in which an important word is not stressed or a function word is stressed.

Unstressed function words make sentences grammatically correct. They are not very important in terms of the information that they provide, and their meaning is usually understandable from their immediate surrounding in a sentence. Even if you don’t get some quickly pronounced function words, the meaning of the whole sentence will be clear to you.

For example, a message from your friend says, «Missed train back Sunday.» You will understand that it means «I missed my train. I will be back on Sunday», right? Only content words are written in the message, but the meaning is clear. In the same way you should listen for stressed content words in speech to understand the meaning of the whole utterance. And you should stress content words in your speech so that other people could understand you.

Sentence stress and rhythm

Sentence stress is the main means of providing rhythm in speech. Rhythm is the key to fluent English speech. Imagine a metronome beating the rhythm. The stressed syllables are like the beats of the metronome: regular, loud, and clear. The unstressed syllables between the beats are shortened, obscured, and joined together.

Look at this sentence:

Kevin sent a letter.

Let’s mark the stressed syllables:

KEVin SENT a LETter.

The pattern of stress in this sentence is stressed – unstressed – stressed – unstressed – stressed – unstressed, with equal number of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. Try to pronounce this sentence rhythmically. It should be easy to do because the alternation of one stressed and one unstressed syllable is easy to reproduce. Be sure to make the stress in the stressed syllables strong – much stronger than normal Russian stress.

KEVin SENT a LETter.

Let’s make this sentence a little longer:

Kevin decided to send a letter to his relatives in the village.

Mark the stressed syllables and the fall:

KEVin deCIDed to SEND a LETter to his RELatives in the VILlage.

Now we have one, two, or several unstressed syllables in the intervals between the stressed syllables, but we have the same amount of time for each interval because the stressed syllables, like the beats of the metronome, have to occur regularly. And the sentence is not very long, so we won’t need noticeable pauses between the sense groups.

How do we fit all the unstressed syllables in the intervals between the stressed syllables without breaking the rhythm that we had in «Kevin sent a letter»? The rules of linking and reduction will help us to do it.

Linking and reduction

To preserve speech rhythm, the unstressed vowels in the sentence become shorter and less distinct. Completely unstressed vowels in the unstressed syllables become very short and are often pronounced as the neutral sound. In some cases, the neutral sound may be dropped, for example, can [kən], [kn], BAKery [‘beikəri], [‘beikri]. By the way, the neutral sound [ə] is the most common vowel sound of English, and it deserves your special attention.

The final consonant sound of a word is usually linked to the initial consonant sound of the next word without any pause between them. For easier linking, pronunciation of adjoining consonants may be changed in a certain way. For example, the sounds [s], [z], [θ], [ð], [t], [d] may lose part of their articulation at the juncture (e.g., what’s this; need three); the sounds [t], [d] usually blend into one sound at the juncture (e.g., hot day; need time), or the first [t] or [d] in the pair may be dropped (e.g., just drive; must do it).

The sound [h] in the unstressed words «his, him, her» may disappear to provide smooth linking of adjoining words.

The unstressed syllables become a stream of sounds jammed together. They are lower in pitch and much less distinct than the stressed syllables.

Sentence stress and intonation

Sentence stress is the key component of English intonation. Intonation organizes words into sentences, distinguishes different types of sentences, and adds emotional coloring to utterances. English intonation is quite difficult for Russian students. Developing the ability to hear, understand, and reproduce sentence stress in speech is the main prerequisite to mastering English intonation.

Let’s sum up the functions of sentence stress:

Sentence stress organizes separate words into sentences by making content words stressed and function words unstressed.

Sentence stress makes the utterance understandable to the listener by making the important words in the sentence stressed, clear, and higher in pitch and by shortening and obscuring the unstressed words.

Sentence stress organizes the words in the sentence rhythmically, making the stressed syllables occur at regular intervals and jamming together the unstressed syllables between the stressed syllables.

Sentence stress organizes the words in the sentence into sense groups by joining the unstressed syllables to the main stressed syllable in the group and marking the end of the sense group with a slight pause if necessary.

If necessary, sentence stress singles out the most important word in the sentence by giving it emphatic stress.

Sentence stress marks the end of the sentence by giving the strongest stress to the last stressed syllable with the help of a fall or a rise.

How to study stress and rhythm

It’s not possible, of course, to learn sentence stress and rhythm just by talking about them. Listening and repeating should become an important part of your work on pronunciation. Always try to choose textbooks that have corresponding listening materials – conversations, dialogues, monologues, poems, short stories, etc.

It is necessary to use a lot of additional listening materials to make your pronunciation stable. When you practice repeating sentences after the recorded speaker, mark falling and rising tones, sense groups, pauses, stressed and unstressed words, full and reduced vowels. (See examples in listening materials in the subsection Listening for Intonation in the section Phonetics.)

Beginning students usually find it useful to practice stress and rhythm with the help of those audio materials in which speech is not too fast and sentence stress is very clear, for example, short rhythmical poems, nursery rhymes, children’s songs, folk songs. (Information about poems and songs for children is provided in Nursery Rhymes Foreword and Songs for Children Foreword in the section Kids.)

Modern English songs are also a useful means for learning English stress and rhythm. At the beginning, it is better to practice singing (or saying loudly) the lyrics of those songs in which pronunciation, stress, and rhythm are very clear. (Some advice on how to study English songs can be found in Hobby in the section Hobby.)

You will be surprised how quickly your pronunciation will improve with the help of various audio materials if you practice repeating them regularly, loudly, with the stress, rhythm and intonation that you hear in the audio recordings.

Ударение в предложении и ритм

Ударение в предложении

Ударение в предложении – главное ударение в связной речи. Все слова по отдельности имеют свое индивидуальное ударение. Когда слова соединяются в смысловые группы (называемые sense groups или thought groups, т.е. логически связанные группы слов), а смысловые группы соединяются в предложения, значимые слова сохраняют свое ударение, а служебные слова теряют ударение. Самые важные слова в предложении получают более сильное ударение. Последний ударный слог в предложении получает самое сильное ударение с помощью понижения или повышения.

Анна читает новую книгу.

Какую книгу она читает?

Нравится ли ей эта книга?

Примечание: В этом материале, заглавные буквы указывают ударные слоги и ударные односложные слова; обратный слеш указывает тон понижения; прямой слеш указывает тон повышения. Ударение в предложении указано согласно американскому варианту произношения.

Ударение в некоторых словах или словосочетаниях может смещаться или ослабляться определённым образом, чтобы сохранить ритм речи. Например: New YORK – NEW York CITy; in the afterNOON – AFternoon SLEEP.

Эмфатическое ударение может применяться в предложении, обычно чтобы сравнить, исправить или прояснить что-то. Эмфатическое ударение выделяет слово, которое говорящий считает самым важным, и в этом случае даже служебное слово может стать ударным.

Тина дала книгу Анне.

Я сказал, что МАКС дал книгу Анне.

ОН дал ей книгу.

Ударение в предложении – это не просто фонетическая особенность английского языка. Оно имеет очень важную функцию выделения слов, которые нужны для понимания высказывания. Когда носители английского языка слушают своих собеседников, они ожидают услышать ударные слова, потому что ударные слова дают важную информацию. Часто бывает трудно понять значение предложения, в котором хотя бы одно значимое слово отсутствует. Также трудно понять предложение, в котором важное слово не ударное или служебное слово ударное.

Неударные служебные слова делают предложения грамматически правильными. Они не очень важны в смысле информации, которую они обеспечивают, и их значение обычно понятно по их ближайшему окружению в предложении. Даже если вы не уловите некоторые быстро проговариваемые служебных слов, значение всего предложения будет вам понятно.

Например, в сообщении от вашего друга говорится: «Пропустил поезд назад воскресенье». Вы поймете, что это значит «Я пропустил мой поезд. Я вернусь назад в воскресенье», правильно? Только значимые слова написаны в этом сообщении, но смысл понятен. Таким же образом вы должны вслушиваться в ударные значимые слова в речи, чтобы понять значение всего высказывания. И вы должны делать ударными значимые слова в своей речи, чтобы другие люди могли понять вас.

Ударение в предложении и ритм

Ударение в предложении – это главное средство обеспечения ритма в речи. Ритм это ключ к свободной английской речи. Представьте себе метроном, отбивающий ритм. Ударные слоги как удары метронома: регулярные, громкие и ясные. Неударные слоги между ударами укорачиваются, делаются неотчётливыми и соединяются вместе.

Посмотрите на это предложение:

Кевин послал письмо.

Давайте разметим ударные слоги:

KEVin SENT a LETtеr.

Модель ударения в этом предложении: ударный – неударный – ударный – неударный – ударный – неударный, с равным числом чередующихся ударных и неударных слогов. Постарайтесь сказать это предложение ритмично. Это должно быть легко сделать, т.к. чередование одного ударного и одного безударного слога легко воспроизвести. Обязательно сделайте ударение в ударных слогах сильным – гораздо сильнее, чем нормальное русское ударение.

KEVin SENT a LETtеr.

Сделаем это предложение немного длиннее:

Кевин решил послать письмо своим родственникам в деревне.

Разметьте ударные слоги и понижение:

KEVin deCIDed to SEND a LETtеr to his RELatives in the VILlage.

Теперь у нас один, два или несколько неударных слогов в интервалах между ударными слогами, но мы имеем то же самое количество времени для каждого интервала, потому что ударные слоги, как удары метронома, должны возникать регулярно. А предложение не слишком длинное, поэтому нам не понадобятся заметные паузы между смысловыми группами.

Как нам разместить все неударные слоги в интервалах между ударными слогами без нарушения ритма, который у нас был в «Kevin sent a letter»? Правила соединения и редукции помогут нам сделать это.

Соединение и редукция

Чтобы сохранить речевой ритм, неударные гласные в предложении становятся короче и менее отчётливыми. Полностью безударные гласные в неударных слогах становятся очень короткими и часто произносятся как нейтральный звук. В некоторых случаях нейтральный звук может выпадать, например, can [kən], [kn], BAKery [‘beikəri], [‘beikri]. Кстати, нейтральный звук [ə] – самый распространённый гласный звук английского языка, и он заслуживает вашего особого внимания.

Конечный согласный звук слова обычно соединяется с начальным согласным звуком следующего слова без какой-либо паузы между ними. Для более лёгкого соединения, произношение соседних согласных может изменяться определённым образом. Например, звуки [s], [z], [θ], [ð], [t], [d] могут потерять часть своей артикуляции на стыке (например, what’s this; need three); звуки [t], [d] обычно сливаются в один звук на стыке (например, hot day; need time), или первый [t] или [d] в паре может выпасть (например, just drive; must do it).

Звук [h] в неударных словах «his, him, her» может исчезнуть, чтобы обеспечить гладкое соединение соседних слов.

Неударные слоги становятся потоком звуков, сжатых вместе. Они ниже по тону и гораздо менее отчётливые, чем ударные слоги.

Ударение в предложении и интонация

Ударение в предложении – это ключевой компонент английской интонации. Интонация организует слова в предложения, различает разные типы предложений и добавляет эмоциональную окраску в высказывания. Английская интонация весьма трудна для русских студентов. Развитие способности слышать, понимать и воспроизводить ударение в предложении – главное необходимое условие для освоения английской интонации.

Давайте суммируем функции ударения в предложении:

Ударение в предложении организует отдельные слова в предложения, делая значимые слова ударными, в служебные слова неударными.

Ударение в предложении делает высказывание понятным слушателю, делая важные слова ударными, отчётливыми и выше по тону и укорачивая и делая неотчётливыми неударные слоги.

Ударение в предложении организует слова в предложении ритмически, заставляя ударные слоги возникать через регулярные интервалы и сжимая вместе неударные слоги между ударными слогами.

Ударение в предложении организует слова в смысловые группы путем присоединения неударных слогов к основному ударному слогу в группе и обозначая конец смысловой группы небольшой паузой, если требуется.

Если необходимо, ударение в предложении выделяет наиболее важное слово, давая ему эмфатическое ударение.

Ударение в предложении отмечает конец предложения, делая самое сильное ударение на последнем ударном слоге с помощью понижения или повышения.

Как изучать ударение и ритм

Конечно, невозможно изучить ударение и ритм одними разговорами о них. Прослушивание и повторение должны стать важной частью вашей работы над произношением. Старайтесь всегда выбирать учебники, имеющие сопроводительные материалы для прослушивания – разговоры, диалоги, монологи, стихотворения, короткие рассказы и т.д.

Необходимо использовать много материалов для прослушивания, чтобы сделать ваше произношение стабильным. Когда вы повторяете предложения за диктором на записи, отмечайте тоны понижения и повышения, смысловые группы, паузы, ударные и неударные слова, полные и редуцированные гласные. (См. примеры в материалах для прослушивания в подразделе Listening for Intonation в разделе Phonetics.)

Начинающие студенты обычно находят полезными упражнения по ударению и ритму с помощью тех аудиоматериалов, в которых речь не очень быстрая, а ударения очень отчётливые, например, короткие ритмичные стихотворения, детские стихи, детские песни, народные песни. (Информация о стихах и песнях для детей дана в статьях Nursery Rhymes Foreword и Songs for Children Foreword в разделе Kids.)

Современные английские песни – тоже полезное средство для изучения английского ударения и ритма. Сначала лучше тренироваться петь (или громко проговаривать) слова тех песен, в которых произношение, ударение и ритм очень отчётливые. (Некоторые советы, как изучать английские песни, можно найти в статье Hobby в разделе Hobby.)

Вас удивит, как быстро ваше произношение улучшится с помощью различных аудиоматериалов, если вы будете тренироваться повторять их регулярно, громко, с ударением, ритмом и интонацией, которые вы слышите в аудиозаписях.

The stress placed on syllables within words is
called word stress or lexical
stress. The stress placed on words
within sentences is called sentence
stress or prosodic
stress. 

Sentence stress is a greater prominence of words which are made more
prominent in the international group. The prominence of accented
words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes
in the direction of voice pitch.

Stress in utterance provide the basis for understanding the content,
they help to perform constitutive, distinctive, indemnificatory
function of intonation.

Word stress is definitely the key to understanding spoken English and
it is used so naturally by native speakers of the English language
that they are not even aware they are doing it. When non native
speakers talk to English natives without the use of word stress they
are likely to encounter two problems: 

1. The listener will find it difficult to understand the fast
speaking native.

2. The native speakers may find it difficult to understand the non
native speakers.

Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We
perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word
stress, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress
is indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syllable.

Stress is defined differently by different
authors. B. A. Bogoroditsky,

for instance, defined stress as an
increase of energy, accompanied by an

increase of expiratory and
articulatory activity. D. Jones defined stress as

the degree of
force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhala­

tion
and gives an impression of loudness. H.
Sweet also stated that stress

is
connected with the force of breath.

Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more
sylla­bles in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the
force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.

1. Theories of syllable formation and syllable division.

The syllable is a complicated phenomenon and like
a phoneme it can be studied on four levels — articulatory, acoustic,
auditory and functional.
The complexity of the phenomenon gave rise to many theories.

We could start with the so-called expiratory
(chest pulse or pressure) theory by R.H. Stetson.
This theory is based on the assumption that expiration in speech is a
pulsating process and each syllable should correspond to a single
expiration. So the number of syllables in an utterance is determined
by the number of expirations made in the production of the utterance.
This theory was strongly criticized by Russian and foreign linguists.
G.P. Torsuyev,
for example, wrote that in a phrase a number of words and
consequently a number of syllables can be pronounced with a single
expiration. This fact makes the validity of the theory doubtful.

Another theory of syllable put forward by O.
Jespersen is generally called the
sonority theory.
According to O. Jespersen, each sound is characterized by a certain
degree of sonority which is understood us acoustic property of a
sound that determines its perceptibility. According to V.A.
Vassilyev the most serious drawback of
this theory is that it fails to explain the actual mechanism of
syllable formation and syllable division. Besides, the concept of
sonority is not very clearly defined.

Further experimental work aimed to description of
the syllable resulted in lot of other theories. However the question
of articulatory mechanism of syllable in a still an open question in
phonetics. We might suppose that this mechanism is similar in all
languages and could be regarded as phonetic universal.

In Russian linguistics there has been adopted
the theory of syllable by LV Shcherba.
It is called the theory of muscular tension. In most languages there
is the syllabic phoneme in the centre of the syllable which is
usually a vowel phoneme or, in some languages, a sonorant. The
phonemes preceding or following the syllabic peak are called
marginal. The tense of articulation increases within the range of
prevocalic consonants and then decreases within the range of
postvocalic consonants.

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What is sentence stress?

Sentence stress (also called prosodic stress) refers to the emphasis placed on certain words within a sentence. This varying emphasis gives English a cadence, resulting in a natural songlike quality when spoken fluently.

Sentence stress is generally determined by whether a word is considered a “content word” or a “function word,” and the vocal space between stressed words creates the rhythm of a sentence.

Content Words vs. Function Words

In the most basic pattern, content words will always be stressed, while function words will often be unstressed. Let’s briefly discuss the difference between the two.

Content words

A content word (also known as a lexical word) is a word that communicates a distinct lexical meaning within a particular context—that is, it expresses the specific content of what we’re talking about at a given time. Nouns (e.g., dog, Betty, happiness, luggage), most* verbs (e.g., run, talk, decide, entice), adjectives (e.g., sad, outrageous, good, easy), and adverbs (e.g., slowly, beautifully, never) all have meaning that is considered lexically important.

Content words will always have at least one syllable that is emphasized in a sentence, so if a content word only has a single syllable, it will always be stressed.

(*Auxiliary verbs are specific types of verbs that are used in the grammatical construction of tense and aspect or to express modality—that is, asserting or denying possibility, likelihood, ability, permission, obligation, or future intention. These types of verbs are fixed in their structure and are used to convey a relationship between other “main” verbs, so they are considered function words, which we’ll look at next.)

Function words

A function word (also known as a structure word) is a word that primarily serves to complete the syntax and grammatical nuance of a sentence. These include pronouns (e.g., he, she, it, they), prepositions (e.g., to, in, on, under), conjunctions (e.g., and, but, if, or), articles (e.g., a, an, the), other determiners (e.g., this, each, those), and interjections (e.g., ah, grr, hello).

In addition to these parts of speech, function words also include a specific subset of verbs known as auxiliary verbs, which add structural and grammatical meaning to other main verbs. These include the three primary auxiliary verbs be, do, and have, as well as a number of others known as modal auxiliary verbs, such as can, may, must, will, and others.

Finally, function words, especially those with only one syllable, are commonly (but not always) unstressed in a sentence—since they are not providing lexical meaning integral to the sentence, we often “skip over” them vocally. For example, in the sentence, “Bobby wants to walk to the playground,” the particle to, the preposition to, and the definite article the are all said without (or without much) stress. The content words (Bobby, wants, walk, and playground), on the other hand, each receive more emphasis to help them stand out and underline their importance to the meaning of the sentence.

Sentence Stress vs. Word Stress

While function words are often unstressed in a sentence, those that have more than one syllable still have internal word stress on one of their syllables. For example, the word because has two syllables (be·cause), with stress placed on the second syllable (/bɪˈkɔz/). However, in a sentence with a normal stress pattern, because will have less overall emphasis than the content words around it, which helps maintain the cadence and flow of the sentence in everyday speech.

Likewise, multi-syllable content words will have even more emphasis placed on the syllable that receives the primary stress. It is this syllable that is most articulated within a sentence, with the rest of the word being unstressed like the function words.

Examples of normal sentence stress

Let’s look at some examples, with function words in italics and the primary stress of content words in bold:

• “I have a favor to ask.”
• “Jonathan will be* late because his car broke down.”
• “I’m going to the store later.”
• “We do not agree with the outcome.”
• “Please don’t tell me how the movie ends.”

(*Note that be is technically a content word here—it is the main verb in the phrase will be late—but it remains unstressed like a function word. Because they are often used as auxiliary verbs to form verb tense, conjugations of be are almost always unstressed in sentences irrespective of their technical grammatical function.)

Rhythm

English is what’s known as a stress-timed language, which means that we leave approximately the same amount of time between stressed syllables in a sentence to create a natural cadence. These are sometimes referred to as the “beats” of a sentence.

This rhythm is easier to hear in sentences in which content words and function words alternate regularly, as in:

• “I have a favor to ask.”

Things become more complicated when a sentence has multiple content or function words in a row.

Generally speaking, when multiple function words appear together, we vocally condense them into a single beat, meaning that they are spoken slightly faster than content words on either side.

When multiple single-syllable content words appear together, the reverse effect occurs: a greater pause is given between each word to create natural beats while still maintaining the proper amount of emphasis. (Content words with more than one syllable are usually not affected, since at least one part of the word is unstressed.)

Let’s look at one of our previous examples to see this more clearly:

• “Jonathan will be late because his car broke down.”

After the first syllable of the content word Jonathan is stressed, the words will be and the last two syllables of Jonathan are all unstressed and spoken together quickly to form a beat before the next content word, late. The next two words, because his, are also unstressed and spoken quickly to form the next beat. The next three words, car broke down, are all content words, and they are each stressed separately. Because of this, we add a slight pause between them to help the rhythm of the sentence sound natural.

This rhythmic pattern between stressed and unstressed words occurs when a sentence is spoken “neutrally”—that is, without any additional emphasis added by the speaker. However, we can add extra stress to any word in a sentence in order to achieve a particular meaning. This is known as emphatic stress.

Emphatic Stress

The convention regarding the stress and rhythm of content words and function words is consistent in normal (sometimes called “neutral”) sentence stress. However, English speakers often place additional emphasis on a specific word or words to provide clarity, emphasis, or contrast; doing so lets the listener know more information than the words can provide on their own. Consider the following “neutral” sentence, with no stress highlighted at all:

• “Peter told John that a deal like this wasn’t allowed.”

Now let’s look at the same sentence with emphatic stress applied to different words, and we’ll see how its implied meaning changes accordingly:

• “Peter told John that a deal like this wasn’t allowed.” (Clarifies that Peter, as opposed to someone else, told John not to make the deal.)
• “Peter told John that a deal like this wasn’t allowed.” (Emphasizes the fact that John had been told not to make the deal but did so anyway.)
• “Peter told John that a deal like this wasn’t allowed.” (Clarifies that John was told not to make the deal, not someone else.)
• “Peter told John that a deal like this wasn’t allowed.” (Emphasizes that Peter said the deal was not allowed, indicating that John thought or said the opposite.)

Representing emphatic stress in writing

In writing, we normally use the italic, underline, or bold typesets to represent this emphasis visually. Italics is more common in printed text, while underlining is more common in handwritten text.

Another quick way to indicate emphatic stress in writing is to put the emphasized word or words in capital letters, as in:

• “Peter TOLD John that a deal like this wasn’t allowed.”

This is much less formal, however, and is only appropriate in conversational writing.