Sentence Combining in English
Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms
Updated on November 04, 2019
Definition
Sentence combining is the process of joining two or more short, simple sentences to make one longer sentence. Sentence combining activities are generally regarded as an effective alternative to more traditional methods of teaching grammar.
«Sentence combining is a kind of linguistic Rubik’s cube,» says Donald Daiker, «a puzzle that each person solves by using intuitions and syntax, semantics, and logic» (Sentence Combining: A Rhetorical Perspective, 1985).
As demonstrated below, sentence combining exercises have been used in writing instruction since the late-19th century. A theory-based approach to sentence combining, influenced by Noam Chomsky’s transformational grammar, emerged in the U.S. in the 1970s.
How It Works
Here’s a simple example of how sentence combining works. Consider these three short sentences:
— The dancer was not tall.
— The dancer was not slender.
— The dancer was extremely elegant.
By cutting out the needless repetition and adding a few conjunctions, we can combine these three short sentences into a single cohesive sentence. We might write this, for instance: «The dancer was not tall or slender, but she was extremely elegant.» Or this: «The dancer was neither tall nor slender but extremely elegant.» Or even this: «Neither tall nor slender, the dancer was extremely elegant nonetheless.»
Example and Exercises
Direction. Combine the following short sentences into longer ones.
Caution. In combining short sentences into longer ones, the pupil should be careful to give every part its proper place. The leading thoughts must form the principal clauses and the others must occupy positions of subordination, corresponding to their importance. For example, in combining the statements, «In 1857 an Act was passed. It cut down the average of duty to twenty percent,» if we wish to give «the passing of the Act» prominence, the sentence will read, «In 1857 an Act was passed, cutting down,» etc. If, however, we desire to give prominence to the «cutting down of the average of duty to twenty per cent,» then we must write, «The average of duty was cut down to twenty per cent by an Act passed in 1857.»
Separate: A frog had seen an ox. She wanted to make herself as big as he. She attempted it. She burst asunder.
Combined:
- A frog had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big as he; but when she attempted it she burst asunder.
- A frog that had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big as he, burst asunder when she attempted it.
- When the frog burst asunder, she was wishing and attempting to make herself as big as an ox which she had seen.
- Because a frog, when she had seen an ox, wanted to make herself as big as he, and attempted it, she burst asunder.
- It is said that a frog, having seen an ox, wanted to make herself as big as he, and burst asunder in the attempt.
1. He drew a picture of his old home. It showed the house. He was born in it. It showed the barns. It showed the orchard.
2. They played on. They played till six in the evening. They then desisted. They desisted till after dinner.
3. He reached his house. He gave orders. He was not to be disturbed. He went to bed. He tried to sleep. He tried in vain.
4. The Declaration of Independence was agreed to. It was agreed to on the 4th of July. It was engrossed on paper. It was signed. John Hancock signed it. He was president of the Congress.
5. Fair sir, you spit upon me. It was last Wednesday morning. You called me dog. That was another time. I am to lend you money. It is for these courtesies.
6. Xerxes resolved to invade Greece. He raised an army. The army consisted of two millions of men. This was the greatest force ever brought into the field.
7. He then left the lists. But he returned. He returned almost immediately. He had in his hand a willow wand. It was long. It was about six feet long. It was straight. It was thick. It was thicker than a man’s thumb.
8. I struck the man in self-defense. I explained this to the magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had a right to do this. This right is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I remonstrated.
9. Then two or three boys laughed. They sneered. A big fellow was standing in the middle of the room. He picked up a slipper. He shied at the boy. The boy was kneeling. The big fellow called him a sniveling young fellow.
10. The ceiling is arched and lofty. At one end is a gallery. In this there is an organ. The room was once adorned with weapons and trophies of the chase. The walls are now covered with family portraits.
Compound Sentence Examples and Definition, 100 Compound Sentences Examples
Compound Sentences
Compound sentences consist of at least two independent clauses. These coordinated sentences consisting of independent clauses can sometimes be difficult to construct. Compound sentences, which are the most established sentence types in English, can be formed with conjunctions. In addition, examples of compound sentences that can be combined with semicolons are included in the text. You can access the details about compound sentences by examining the article.
Compound Sentences Examples
If you want to examine examples of compound sentences, they are in many sections within themselves. It is possible to examine the types of sentences with different construction methods below. You can check below for examples.
Compound Sentences with Conjunctions
Examples of compound sentences formed with conjunctions are given below. Correct punctuation must be placed before the conjunction. These examples are below:
- He wouldn’t cheat in exams because he knew he would be caught.
- I have to go to school every day, but there is no vehicle to take me to school.
- I am aware that I have gained weight, but I also knew that I wanted to eat more.
- He’s out of money, so he’s stopped going out with us now.
- They arrived at the hotel early and immediately went to rest.
- They had no food left at home, and they had no money to go to the grocery store.
- Everyone was busy studying for the exam, so I went out alone.
Semicolon Compound Sentences
Compound sentences can also be formed by combining them with semicolons without any additional words. A semicolon is required to join two independent clauses. Examples on this topic are given below:
- Henry cooked the chocolates; Lily ate.
- It was a difficult test; However, Henry successfully passed the exam.
- The weather is bright; The stars are shining.
- The waves were crashing fast towards the shore; It was a beautiful sight.
- Snow conditions in the town were getting worse; Therefore, no one could pass because the roads were covered with snow.
- He said he didn’t go to school yesterday; Many people had seen him.
- France is one of my favorite countries; I want to spend time there next year.
- Monday was the last day to submit the project; He knew he wouldn’t be able to pass the class otherwise.
- He must prepare all his gear for the camp; For example, a sleeping bag is necessary material.
- He paid off his credit card debt; As a result, he no longer had to deal with debts.
100 Compound Sentences Examples
They will go to England in order that they can improve their speaking.
I study my lessons very hard in order that I can pass the exams.
We got up early in order that we would not be late for the meeting.
Only if you like pop music is it worth coming tonight.
You can go out only if you finish your homework.
Only if a teacher has given permission is a student allowed to leave the room.
I’ve already seen that film. I don’t want to see it again.
Arriving at the bus station, I found the bus had already left.
Have you already taken the money?
He has already done the shopping , he is watching T.V now.
Mark has already here, but John hasn’t come yet.
This is the first time I have ever eaten Italian pizza.
She came first. Therefore she got a good seat.
Mary studied hard for the chemistry exam. Therefore, she got an A+.
There were not enough participants. Therefore, the trip was cancelled.
I’m sleepy. Therefore, I’m going to bed.
Even if you take a taxi, you’ll still miss your plane.
You will go to that cinema even if they don’t allow you.
My sister neither drinks nor smokes.
Neither my friends nor the bookstore has the book.
Neither the employees nor the boss was at work.
Neither Susan nor her friends are going to go to the party tonight.
Neither my father nor my mother went to university.
She usually eats at home, because she likes cooking.
The girl ran because she was afraid.
I use water when making pasta whereas my mom uses eggs.
He had climbed many mountains when he was a boy.
You had better wait until the fireman come.
A company is stronger if it is bound by love rather than by fear.
Before I have breakfast, I always have a shower.
They can go wherever they want.
Although he was sick, he still wen to work.
Even if Alex earned a big salary, he would not buy a fast car.
While she was walking I was running.
Even if Alex earned a big salary, he would not buy a fast car.
Even if I had three hours to spare for shopping, I wouldn’t go out and buy a notebook.
Either Mark or Samuel will go.
You can either come with me now or walk home.
You can either call me at home or the office.
I’ll either write to you or phone you next week.
Whether you drive fast or slow, please drive carefully.
I don’t know whether he will come.
She asked me whether I was happy or not.
I want to know whether he needs help or not.
Someone’s got to tell him, whether it’s you or me.
Hannah is completely unlike her mother.
Japanese is unlike Spanish.
For this house was different, unlike any I’d seen.
Unlike sugar, cholesterol does not break down in the blood.
They can listen to music provided they disturb nobody.
I can afford to have a holiday provided that I earn 1000 dollars a day.
You can borrow my notebook provided that you promise to use carefully.
She will be sick unless she stops eating.
Unless you are to tired let’s go for a walk at the park.
Unless my son finish his homework, He can’t go out.
Mark is handsome; moreover, he is rich.
Smoking is a bad habit; moreover, it is a very expensive.
In the making of domestic policy; moreover, she is often at sea.
The student’s essay was badly written. Moreover, it was too short.
Neither Mark nor his wife is very tall.
I won’t go to the party though I was invited.
Neither Mark nor his wife is very tall.
My sister neither drinks norsmokes.
Neither my friends nor the bookstore has the book.
Neither the employees nor the boss was at work.Neither is used as a conjunction.
This structure, “neither … nor”, is used to connect the same kind of word or phrase in the sentence.
Neither makes a negative statement about two people or things.
Either he or she cooks dinner.
Either Mark or Samuel will go.
You can either come with me now or walk home.
They don’t have enough time. They can either have breakfast or have a shower.
I will leave the party early in order that I will catch the bus.
They should take your umbrella because it ́s raining.
I could have passed my math exam if I had studied harder.
If my son could have taken the English course, he could have passed the exam.
If she could have gone to Mexico, she would have seen the best friends.
If they could have developed their business, they would have enlarged their workplaces.
If my income had been very much, I could have bought a house with a garden.
You could have stayed up late, but You decided to go to bed early.
I could have moved out when I was 18, but I didn’t want to leave my family.
What is a Compound Sentence?
There are four types of sentence structures. Namely, Simple sentence, Compound sentence, Complex sentence, and Compound-complex sentence. Compound sentence is one of these sentence structures. We know that a simple sentence has only one independent clause. A compound sentence consists of at least two independent, closely related clauses. It does not contain any dependent clause.
Prerequisites to comprehend this article
For grasping the contents of this article, it’s essential that you have sufficient knowledge of the following grammatical terms:
- Sentences
- Sentence Structure
- Subject
- Simple subject
- Complete subject
- Compound subject
- Predicate
- Simple predicate
- Complete predicate
- Compound predicate
- Clauses
- Independent clause aka Coordinate clause/Main clause/Principal clause
- Linking words aka Connectives
- Coordinating conjunctions
- Correlative conjunctions
- Conjunctive adverbs
- Verb
- Finite verb
- Nonfinite verb
Compound Sentence Structure
The Compound sentence generally consists of two independent clauses joined using a linking word (namely, coordinating conjunction, correlative conjunction, and conjugative adverb) or a semicolon.
Forming Compound sentences
We can form Compound sentences combining two closely related independent clauses using a linking word (such as, Coordinating conjunction, Correlative conjunction, and Conjugative adverb), or a semi column.
Forming Compound sentence using Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions used to link, words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal status. Here they are used to connect two independent clauses (also called coordinate clauses or main clauses.). There are only seven of them in English language. They are:
- For
- And
- Nor
- But
- Or
- Yet
- So
The mnemonic, FANBOYS, is useful to remember the seven coordinating conjunctions.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “FOR”
When the second independent clause is the cause for the first clause, we use the Coordinating conjunction, “for” to link them.
Example:
- I took an umbrella, for I felt that it might rain.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “AND“
“AND” is the most used coordinating conjunction. In the case of compound sentences, the contexts in which “AND” is used, are given hereunder.
a. When the two independent clauses are of equal value, we use “AND” to connect the two clauses.
Example:
- Pyramids are in Egypt, and Eiffel tower is in France.
b. When the action mentioned in the second independent clause occurs after that mentioned in the first clause, we use “AND” to connect the two clauses.
Example:
- The child saw his dear father coming, and he ran to the gate to meet him.
c. When the second independent clause is the result of the first clause, we use “AND” to connect the two clauses.
Example:
- It rained for days, and the fields were covered with green grass.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “NOR”
We use the Coordinating conjunction,” nor”, when the first independent clause uses the negative words ‘neither’ or ‘never’. In this case, both the clauses do not happen.
Example:
- Neither my mother can attend the meeting, nor can I attend.
Note: Please note the subject- verb inversion in “can I”.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “BUT”
When the second independent clause contrasts with the first, we use but conjunction to introduce the second clause.
Example:
- Mary loved John very much, but John could not reciprocate.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “OR”
To join two independent clauses, that are alternative clauses, we use the coordinating conjunction, “or”
Example:
- Jack will go to London, or Jill will go.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “YET”
We use the Coordinating conjunction, “Yet”, to join the clauses of a compound sentence when there is a contrast between the meanings of the two independent clauses of the sentence.
Example:
- I read the article several times, yet I could not grasp the subject fully.
Compound sentences using Coordinating conjunction – “SO”
When the first clause of the compound sentence is the reason for the second clause, we use the Coordinating conjunction, ” so”, to join the two clauses.
Example:
- I had a test on Wednesday, so I shall not be able to attend your sister’s marriage on Wednesday.
Note: When we use a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses, we can skip a subject word and modal auxiliary verb, if we so desire, from the second clause.
Examples:
- She has already bought two dresses for her daughter, and now she wants to buy two more.
The same can be written like this as well – She has already bought two dresses for her daughter and now wants to buy two more. (in the second clause the subject word, “she” is skipped)
- She can go to the school by a taxi, or she can take a bus.
The same can be written like this as well – She can go to the school by a taxi or take a bus. (in the second clause the subject word, “she” is skipped)
General Punctuation rule: A comma must be placed before the coordinating conjunctions. But when both the independent clauses are short, comma is optional.
Examples:
- My school is 5km away from my house, but I go to school on foot. (Comma is placed before the coordinating conjunction, “but”.)
- Jill opened the door and Jack took the luggage inside. (Comma is not placed before the coordinating conjunction, “and”, as the clauses are short.)
Forming Compound sentence using Correlative conjunction
We know that Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions that are always used together. These can be used to form Compound sentences. Each conjunction precedes an independent clause of the compound sentence to be formed. They can join only two independent clauses.
When forming Compound sentences using correlative conjunctions, special attention must be given to the subject-verb agreement.
When correlative conjunctions join sentences with two subjects, the verb used must agree to the noun or subject closer to it.
Care must be taken to follow the above rule also when pronouns are to be used.
Examples:
- Neither my brother nor my sister likes indoor games. (The verb ‘likes’ is singular because the noun, sister, close to it is singular)
- Neither my brother nor my sisters like indoor games. (The verb ‘like’ is plural because it is closer to the noun ‘sisters’ which is also plural)
Note: Neither…nor together make a correlative conjunction. Alone, “neither” is an adjective and “nor” a coordinate conjunction. Similarly, either…or together form a correlative conjunction. “Either “alone is an adjective, and “or “a coordinate conjunction
Examples:
- Neither Mary nor Jill brought her costume. (The pronoun, her, is singular as the subject near to it, i.e. Jill, is singular.)
- Neither Mary nor her sisters brought their costume. (The pronoun, their, is plural as the subject, sisters, near to it, is plural.)
- Neither Mary’s brothers nor Mary brought her costume. (The pronoun, her, is singular as the subject near to it, i.e. Mary, is singular.)
Examples of compound sentences formed using some other correlative conjunctions:
Either…Or: This correlative conjunction pair can be used to form a compound sentence when the independent sentences to be joined are positive items or options.
Example:
- We can either sit at home to play chess or go to the club nearby.
Whether…Or: This correlative conjunction pair is like the conjunction ‘if’. It can be used to form compound sentences by joining two independent clauses.
Example:
- He has not yet decided about whether he should continue his studies or go for a job.
Punctuation note: When we use correlative conjunctions to form compound sentences, a comma should be put before the conjunction that starts the second independent clause.
Forming Compound sentence using Conjugative adverb
We can form compound sentences using Conjugative adverbs too. Conjugative adverb, also called adverbial conjunction, can link two complete thoughts providing smooth transition from one thought to the next. In other words, adverbs which are used as linking words are called conjugative adverbs.
Conjugative adverbs show different types of relationships such as contrast, comparison, concession, consequence, emphasis etc. Sometimes the function of a conjunctive adverb is to show addition. They may also signify time.
Compound Sentence examples using conjugative adverbs:
- I wanted to play; however, my friend wanted to study.
- He was determined to get high marks.; therefore, he began to work hard.
- I want to play tennis; on the other hand, my friend wants to play football.
- John did hard work to get high marks; nevertheless, he did not even pass.
- A heavy rain was forecast; hence we cancelled our program for picnic.
Punctuation rules in English: The first clause is to be followed by a semicolon, and a comma is to be put after the conjunctive adverb.
Forming Compound sentences using a semicolon.
If the two independent clauses to be connected are closely related, we can join them using semicolon.
Example:
- Jill made the cake; Jack decorated it
- I wanted to play; but Jack wanted to study.
Examples of compound sentences using coordinating conjunctions
- The girl is obese, yet she eats ice-creams daily.
- Sheela wants to get good marks, but she did not like to read.
- They wanted to see a big aquarium, but I wanted to see a museum.
- He is not smart, and he knows it
- I do not enjoy parties, so I do not attend any party.
- He stopped drinking five years ago, so now he has a good saving.
Examples of compound sentences using Correlative conjunctions
- The teacher not only punished the students, but also left the classroom angrily.
- Neither do the girls want to go to school, nor do their parents ask them to go.
- Just as, hockey is the national sport of India so is Ice hockey in Latvia.
- “Either my brother will come to pick me up, or my father will.
- The flood not only took the lives of hundreds of people, but also caused millions of dollars’ worth of damage.
Examples of compound sentences using Conjugative adverb
- The rain did not stop; still, we did not cancel the picnic programme.
- Mary cooked the steaks; Meanwhile, her husband made the dessert.
- I approached several authorities for help; however, no one helped me.
- We cancelled the picnic programme; instead, we decided to stay home watching a movie.
- He walked to the beach; later, he stopped for an ice cream.
Examples of compound sentences using Semicolon
- The boys sang; the girls danced.
- Mary cooked the steaks; her husband made the dessert.
- I did not want to go on the trip; I had a lot of work to do.
- I wanted a red car; I bought it later.
- He rang the doorbell; a servant opened the door
Compound sentences are useful for adding more details in a sentence thereby reducing the repeated use of simple sentences. Thus, compound sentences improve quality of an article by adding richness to the sentences.
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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups
KEY TERMS
Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.
Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur
Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words
Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).
Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.
The syntagmatic relation explains:
• The word position and order.
• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.
The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)
Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words
The adjective yellow:
1. color: a yellow dress;
2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;
3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS
Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.
Some examples of collocations:
- Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
- Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
- Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
- Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
- Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
- Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.
Idioms
Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.
Idioms are distinct from collocations:
- The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
- The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom
It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.
Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:
- Break a leg.
- Miss the boat.
- Call it a day.
- It’s raining cats and dogs.
- Kill two birds with one stone.
Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.
Compare,
a) read books
b) read many books
c) read very many books.
In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).
The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.
The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.
The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.
Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.
It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.
With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.
It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero
(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.
Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.
Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:
• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;
• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:
• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);
• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.
• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Types of word combinations:
- Semantically:
- free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
- set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
- Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
- noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
- verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
- adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
- adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
- pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
- According to the number of the components:
- simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
- Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.
Classifications of word-groups:
- through the order and arrangement of the components:
• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);
• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);
- by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:
• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);
• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);
- according to the headword:
• nominal (beautiful garden);
• verbal (to fly high);
• adjectival (lucky from birth);
- according to the syntactic pattern:
• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);
• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:
(a) subordinative (modern technology);
(b) coordinative (husband and wife).
4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.
The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements
Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;
To fall into a rage – to get angry.
Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.
A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.
Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.
Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:
- My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
- The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
- If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)
Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:
- Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
- i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
- I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
- Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)
Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:
- It was a dark and stormy night
- Once upon a time
- There I was
- All’s well that ends well
- They lived happily ever after
6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word
Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.
The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:
- trains run — поезда ходят;
- a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
- It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
- Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.
Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».
«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».
«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».
The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:
«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.
| Worth & Worthy | |
| Worth is used to say that something has a value:
• Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency:
|
Worthy:
• If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency:
|
| Ensure, insure, assure | ||
| Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’.
Valency:
|
Insure — make sure
Valency:
|
Assure:
• to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency:
|
| Observance & Observation | |
| Observance:
• the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day. |
Observation:
• the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency:
|
| Go & Walk | |
|
Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’:
• A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency:
|
| Influence & Влияние | |
| Influence:
• A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency:
|
Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо.
Сочетаемость:
|
| Hold & Держать | |
| Hold:
• to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency:
|
Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть
Сочетаемость:
|
- Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:
| Chance | Шанс |
|
|
| Situation | Ситуация |
|
|
| Partner | Партнёр |
|
|
| Surprise | Сюрприз |
|
|
| Risk | Риск |
|
|
| Instruction | Инструкция |
|
|
| Satisfaction | Сатисфакция |
|
|
| Business | Бизнес |
|
|
| Manager | Менеджер |
|
|
| Challenge | Челлендж |
|
|
10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:
- acute, keen, sharp (knife, mind, sight):
• acute mind;
• keen sight;
• sharp knife;
- abysmal, deep, profound (ignorance, river, sleep);
• abysmal ignorance;
• deep river;
• profound sleep;
- unconditional, unqualified (success, surrender):
• unconditional surrender;
• unqualified success;
- diminutive, miniature, petite, petty, small, tiny (camera, house, speck, spite, suffix, woman):
• diminutive suffix;
• miniature camera/house;
• petite woman;
• petty spite;
• small speck/camera/house;
• tiny house/camera/speck;
- brisk, nimble, quick, swift (mind, revenge, train, walk):
• brisk walk;
• nimble mind;
• quick train;
• swift revenge.
11. Collocate deletion: One word in each group does not make a strong word partnership with the word on Capitals. Which one is Odd One Out?
1) BRIGHT idea green
smell
child day room
2) CLEAR
attitude
need instruction alternative day conscience
3) LIGHT traffic
work
day entertainment suitcase rain green lunch
4) NEW experience job
food
potatoes baby situation year
5) HIGH season price opinion spirits
house
time priority
6) MAIN point reason effect entrance
speed
road meal course
7) STRONG possibility doubt smell influence
views
coffee language
SERIOUS
advantage
situation relationship illness crime matter
- Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.
| Sentence | Meaning |
| The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon. | The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon |
| Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores. | Animals whose main diet is meat |
| A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods. | deliberately avoid |
| After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country. | full of incessant or frantic activity. |
| Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say. | grasp mentally; understand.to perceive |
| The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him. | to calm down someone |
| It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry. | necessary |
| The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors. | The dream about some achievements |
| In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.” | The person who have a lot of power |
| After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request. | to Agree with some request |
| He is devoid of human feelings. | Someone have the lack of something |
| This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes. | produce or provide |
| It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students. | good relationship |
You have four options for combining two complete sentences:
- comma and a conjunction («and,» «but,» «or,» «for,» or «yet»)
- semicolon and a transitional adverb, like «therefore,» «moreover,» or «thus»
- semicolon (;)
- colon (:)
The appropriate option(s) depend upon the context.
1. Comma + Conjunction
When combining two complete sentences with a conjunction («and,» «but,» «or,» «for,» or «yet»), precede the conjunction with a comma.
Example: Still, the sun is slowly getting brighter and hotter, and it will eventually enter the red giant phase.
2. Semicolon + Transitional Adverb
Transitional adverbs can connect and transition between two complete sentences. They include words like the following:
- therefore
- however
- moreover
- thus
- meanwhile
- thereafter
- indeed
- instead
- consequently
- eventually
- finally
- still
- besides
Precede the transitional adverb with a semicolon and follow it with a comma.
Example: These texts were used personally by the researcher; thus, these books were purchased at different stages of her learning process.
3. Semicolon
Semicolons can combine two complete sentences (without a conjunction) when the sentences are closely related and it would make sense to combine the sentences with «and.»
Example: The chapter ends as soon as Jimmy’s love does; in the next chapter titled “Love,” the war has ended, and Jimmy has gone back to loving Martha.
4. Colon
Colons connect two complete sentences when the second sentence completes, explains, or illustrates the idea in the first sentence.
Example: A fully prescriptive approach may be harmful in this type of situation: prescriptive language could keep readers abiding by and enforcing prescriptive rules in all contexts to avoid being “wrong,” “unprofessional,” or “illogical,” even when there is no such risk.
Proofreading Tips
Locate the boundary between two separate sentences by reading each out loud. Each sentence should have its own subject and verb and be able to stand on its own.
- Mark the boundary with a line, if you’re proofreading on paper.
- Double-check that the boundary contains the appropriate punctuation and transition words.
If two complete sentences appear next to each other without separating punctuation and/or a connecting word, they are called run-ons. You have three ways to fix a run-on sentence:
Example: The Great Red Spot is a giant hurricane on Jupiter | it has existed for over 400 years.
1. Add a conjunction and a comma.
Example: The Great Red Spot is a giant hurricane on Jupiter, and it has existed for over 400 years.
2. Insert a semicolon (;), if it makes sense to combine the sentences with «and.»
Example: The Great Red Spot is a giant hurricane on Jupiter; it has existed for over 400 years.
3. Insert a period and make two separate sentences.
Example: The Great Red Spot is a giant hurricane on Jupiter. It has existed for over 400 years.
If two complete sentences appear next to each other and are only combined by a comma, they are called comma splices. You have three ways to fix a comma splice:
Example: Many children played on the Dickinson property, | Emily was often on their side against the adult order.
1. Add “and” or another conjunction after the comma.
Example: Many children played on the Dickinson property, and Emily was often on their side against the adult order.
2. Replace the comma with a semicolon (;).
Example: Many children played on the Dickinson property; Emily was often on their side against the adult order.
3. Replace the comma with a period and making two separate sentences.
Example: Many children played on the Dickinson property. Emily was often on their side against the adult order.