Помогите пожалуйста с английским
Word Formation1. The report must be handed in by the … day of the month ( seven)2.Extreme sports have increased in … in recent years (popular)3.I was surprised he lost his temper as it is so … him (like)4.She made his first … on the stage over fifty years ago ( appear)5.The cinema was … destroyed by the fire (complete)6.Thomas Edison is a world famous … (invent)7.The new designers are a huge … on the previous ones (improve)8.Anna is shy and feels … in large crowds of people (comfort)9.The resort is always full at the … of the tourist season (high)10.The company is increasing … of its most popular model (produce)11.Hundreds of … took part in the cross-country race (cycle)12.It wasn’t a very … job but at least it paid well (excite)13.The minister said it was … to tell when the economy would recover (possible)14.James claimed his refusal was … a matter of principal (basic)15.It’s easy to get around … London on the underground (centre)16.The forest fire forced many … to flee their homes ( reside)17.This tourist agency … in adventure holidays (special)18.Lucy wears … scarves to brighten up her outfits (colour)19.One of the … of the disease is loss of physical strength (character)20.Under the circumstances, I had no … but to accept his offer (choose)21.They came to an … that suited everyone (arrange)22.The new media player will be on … at the end of the year (sell)23.I have a … of jazz music since my early teens (love)24.He looked back on his … as the happiest years of his life (child)25.She tried on … hats until she found one she liked (vary)
Общая структура доклада
Доклад состоит из трёх частей: вступление, основная часть и заключение. Основная часть делится, в свою очередь, еще на несколько частей (как правило, 2–3). При этом и сам доклад, и все его части должны иметь заголовки. Также можно включить дату, расположив её под заголовком доклада. Например:
Subject: Changing Compliment Patterns in Disney Movies
Date: 18th January 2017
Purpose
(под этим заголовком располагается вступление)
Changes (вместо слова ‘changes’ нужно подставить свой заголовок)
(под этим заголовком располагается первая половина основной части)
Reasons (вместо слова ‘reasons’ нужно подставить свой заголовок)
(под этим заголовком располагается вторая половина основной части)
Conclusion
(под этим заголовком располагается заключение)
Примечания: вместо слова ‘purpose’ можно писать ‘introduction’. Вместо слова ‘conclusion’ можно писать ‘recommendation’, если вы пишете доклад-рекомендацию. На олимпиадах писать дату обычно не требуется. Можно переходить ко вступлению сразу после строки, на которой написана тема. Также не обязательно писать в теме слово Subject. Можно просто написать саму тему.
Вступление
Главная задача вступления в докладе — дать читателю понять, о чём будет доклад и с какой целью он написан. Если вы собираетесь описывать какие-нибудь меняющиеся показатели и объяснять причины изменений, то так и говорите во вступлении: «Цель доклада — обозначить изменения и объяснить их причины». Говорить нужно максимально по делу, без абстрактных рассуждений.
Разберем пример. Вам дали табличку, в которой представлены результаты некоего опроса о местном ресторане, и нужно написать по ней доклад. Неправильное вступление в формате report будет звучать так:
- Eating out is a very popular way of spending free time. Many people in our district often visit a local restaurant — the Ivy, which provides them with both food and pleasant atmosphere.
Это вступление является неподходящим, потому что мы уходим в абстрактные рассуждения (они годятся для эссе) и описания (они годятся для статей). Подходящее для формата report вступление будет звучать так:
- The aim of this report is to analyse the results of a survey in which 250 residents were questioned about the local Ivy restaurant. Basing on this analysis, the report provides recommendations on how to improve the service at the restaurant.
В этом вступлении мы сразу переходим к делу и явным образом указываем, о чем будет доклад.
Основная часть
В основной части вы выполняете изложенные в задании требования. Если нужно сравнить данные двух таблиц — сравниваете, если нужно объяснить причины изменений — объясняете, если нужно проанализировать диаграммы — анализируете. При этом необходимо не просто перечислять факты один за другим, а структурировать, группировать информацию. Структурирование и группирование делает информацию проще для восприятия и благотворно влияет на баллы как за содержательную, так и за организационную часть.
Информация без группирования и анализа (просто перечислили цифры из табличек с заданием, потеряли баллы за организацию и содержание):
- In 2000 60% of schoolchildren traveled for tourist purposes, 25% did that to attend summer language courses, and only 15% had higher education among their travelling goals. In 2014 about 28% became interested in higher education, 38% wanted to attend summer language courses and only 34% travelled for pleasure.
Группированная информация с анализом (не просто перечислили цифры, а подумали, как связаны между собой 2000 и 2014 год, что и обобщили в тексте):
- While in 2000 the principal reason for going abroad was tourism (at 60%), its role plummeted to only 34% in 2014. In contrast, educational purposes significance rose by approximately 10%, reaching 28% for higher education and 38% for summer language courses.
Заключение
Задача заключения — подвести итоги, суммировать всю изложенную информацию. В зависимости от того, какой у вас доклад, может также потребоваться выразить своё мнение или дать рекомендацию. Не пишите одно и то же шаблонное заключение к разным докладам — оно во многих случаях просто не выполнит своей функции. Как и в случае со вступлением, нужно писать по делу, не уходя в отвлеченные рассуждения.
Такое заключение не подойдет по формату (потому что содержит не относящиеся к делу общие рассуждения):
- To sum it all up, restaurants are an integral part of our life and the Ivy restaurant is not an exception. Although not everyone is satisfied with it, it still remains an attractive way to spend an evening with a friend.
А такое подойдет (потому что в нем все по делу):
- All points considered, some improvements evidently need to be made if clients are to be fully satisfied with the service provided by the restaurant.
Стиль
Доклад пишется в формальном стиле. Следует заменять простые структуры более сложными, использовать продвинутую лексику, страдательный залог, подходящие средства логической связи. Не должно быть разговорных выражений и сокращений.
- The service there is so cool! The waiters are very polite.
- The majority of those surveyed find the service at the restaurant excellent and note the politeness of the waiters.
Пример работы в формате report
Напишем ответ на такое задание:
Imagine that you are a linguist doing research into the dialogues in children’s animated films. You have collected some data on the ways female characters are complimented (see the charts below). Write a brief report describing the changes you have noticed comparing Disney movies over the years.
Write 220–250 words.
Use the following plan:
- make an opening statement;
- give some general information outlining the trend, analyze the information given in the charts;
- suggest possible reasons for the changes happening;
- make a conclusion.
Первое, что необходимо сделать — внимательно рассмотреть графики. Как только мы это сделаем, так сразу поймём, что есть две четко прослеживающиеся тенденции: комплиментов о внешности становится всё меньше, комплиментов о навыках и умениях — всё больше.
Уловив общее направление, найдем заметные, отличающиеся от остальных точки. Например, Snow White — ни одного комплимента, касающегося умений, зато 83% — о внешности. Pocahontas — первый женский персонаж в истории Диснея, у которого комплиментов о внешности меньше, чем комплиментов о талантах. Brave — максимальное количество комплиментов об умениях и навыках за всю историю. В общем, отмечаем для себя всё то, что сразу бросается в глаза. Причём отмечаем не в голове, а на бумаге:
Дальше мы видим, что временная шкала разделена на три периода: Classic Era, Renaissance, New Age. Эти периоды помогут в структурировании информации о комплиментах, так что берем их на заметку.
Проведя таким образом первичный анализ графиков, мы переходим к составлению плана (подробно о составлении плана можно почитать в статье «Как составить план?»). Для составления плана нам нужно понять, как группировать информацию. Разумеется, в отдельные абзацы выйдут вступление и заключение. Также отдельным абзацем будут причины изменений. Что касается описания самих изменений, тут единственно верного варианта нет, организовывать можно по-разному. Например, разбить описание на два абзаца: skills compliments, appearance compliments. Можно разбить на три, в соответствии с периодами: Classic Era, Renaissance, New Age. Можно вообще не разбивать.
Выбирая способ группировки, нужно помнить о лимите на количество слов. В данном задании мы ограничены 250 словами. Из них около 80 уйдёт на вступление с заключением. Останется примерно 170 слов на основную часть. Если мы выберем вариант описания по периодам, то абзацев в основной части будет четыре: три для периодов и один для описания причин изменений. То есть, в одном абзаце получится всего лишь около 40 слов. Писать такие короткие, но при этом логически безупречные и информативные абзацы весьма непросто. Поэтому целесообразнее будет не дробить на мелкие кусочки, а остановиться на более крупных частях.
Я выберу вариант разделения основной части всего на два абзаца: изменения и их причины. Плюс такого способа я вижу в том, что расположение всех изменений в одном абзаце даст мне возможность активно сравнивать их между собой.
Отражаем все наши мысли в базовом плане:
Когда базовый план готов, можно писать черновик, если на это хватает времени. Если времени мало, лучше детализировать план и, используя этот план, писать работу сразу начисто.
Напишем вступление. Во вступлении нужно обозначить цели и содержание доклада. Также нужно обозначить, откуда взялись данные, которые мы будем описывать.
The linguistic analysis of the dialogues from 12 Disney movies appearing over the period 1937–2013 has revealed certain alterations in the nature of the compliments paid to female characters. This report aims at outlining the discovered changes and explaining the reasons behind them.
Теперь напишем об изменениях. Для этого будем действовать по схеме обобщения и детализации. Как написано у нас в плане, в классических мультфильмах большинство комплиментов относится ко внешности. Примером служит Sleeping Beauty. Так и пишем:
In classic Disney animated films female characters receive several times the amount of praise for their appearance as for their skills and abilities. For instance, Snow White and Sleeping Beauty have respectively 83% and 58% compliments related to the way they look.
Проделываем аналогичную операцию со следующим периодом. Сначала обобщенно говорим о тенденции, потом даём пример:
The same trend generally remains during the renaissance Disney period, although it must be noted that it is then that a character appears (namely Pocahontas, 1995), who is given credit for her skills rather than attractiveness.
С последним периодом поступаем точно так же.
In most recent films the role of beauty-related compliments is noticeably lower — 20% on average, while showing respect for competence has risen in frequency, making up almost half of the total compliments in every film since 2009.
Обратите внимание, что хотя общая схема одинакова, при описании мы используем разные языковые структуры: several times the amount, respectively, the same trend remains, noticeably lower, on average, has risen in frequency. Чем они разнообразнее, тем выше будет оценена работа.
Также необходимо всеми силами избегать повторов. Например, чтобы не писать всё время ‘compliments on appearance’, мы используем синонимы: praise for their appearance, compliments related to the way they look, given credit, attractiveness, beauty-related compliments.
Следующий пункт — описание причин изменений. Это принципиально другой по своей сути текст. В отличие от предыдущего абзаца, он не просто передаёт объективные факты, взятые из графиков, а отражает личное мнение автора. Однако несмотря на это, он должен быть максимально обезличен в соответствии с особенностями формата report.
Differing compliment patterns might have been caused by the changing perception of women’s role in society. When a woman was primarily regarded as wife and mother, her value was mostly based on appearance. A shift towards engagement in activities other than household and motherhood was, in its turn, naturally followed by the increase in ability-related compliments.
Пассивные конструкции ‘might have been caused’, ‘was naturally followed’ позволяют добиться этого обезличивания.
Осталось написать заключение. Подведем итоги всему вышесказанному, кратко обозначив, что изменилось и почему.
To conclude, the quality of the compliments given to female characters in Disney movies has significantly altered, reflecting the ways the societal values have transformed over the past 76 years.
Наш report готов. Не забываем писать заголовки к каждому абзацу, а также к самому докладу.
Subject: Changing Compliments Patterns in Disney Movies
Purpose
The linguistic analysis of the dialogues from 12 Disney movies appearing over the period 1937–2013 has revealed certain alterations in the nature of the compliments paid to female characters. This report aims at outlining the discovered changes and explaining the reasons behind them.
Changes
In classic Disney animated films female characters receive several times the amount of praise for their appearance as for their skills and abilities. For instance, Snow White and Sleeping Beauty have respectively 83% and 58% compliments related to the way they look. The same trend generally remains during the renaissance Disney period, although it must be noted that it is then that a character appears (namely Pocahontas, 1995), who is given credit for her skills rather than attractiveness. In most recent films the role of beauty-related compliments is noticeably lower — 20% on average, while showing respect for competence has risen in frequency, making up almost half of the total compliments in every film since 2009.
Reasons
Differing compliment patterns might have been caused by the changing perception of women’s role in society. When a woman was primarily regarded as wife and mother, her value was mostly based on appearance. A shift towards engagement in activities other than household and motherhood was, in its turn, naturally followed by the increase in ability-related compliments.
Conclusion
To conclude, the quality of the compliments given to female characters in Disney movies has significantly altered, reflecting the ways the societal values have transformed over the past 76 years.
Подводные камни
Очень распространённая ошибка при написании доклада — несоответствие стиля. Использование личных местоимений (I think, I consider), сокращений (it’s, hasn’t), слишком простых предложений и разговорной лексики пагубно отражается на качестве доклада и на количестве получаемых за него баллов.
FCE (First Certificate) Word Formation: Verbs
en- |
-ify |
-ise |
-en |
enlarge |
beautify |
televise |
widen |
Write the correct form of the word in brackets to complete these sentences. Be very careful — these are verbs. So, for example, if the word is DEEP, the verb could be deepen, deepens, deepening or deepened.
- I find it difficult to my work. (PRIORITY)
- I’m studying medicine. I want to in genetics. (SPECIAL)
- This photograph is too small. Can you it for me? (LARGE)
- I didn’t understand what you just said. Could you it? (CLEAR)
- My electronic dictionary me to listen to the pronunciation of new words. (ABLE)
- He loves insects. He can over 50 different types of beetle.(IDENTITY)
- There are a lot of accidents on this road — the council should it. (WIDTH)
- The time we spent apart only my love for him. (STRONG)
- You didn’t what flavour you wanted, so I got you chocolate. (SPECIFIC)
- His speech was too long. He should have it. (SHORT)
- He always thinks he’s right. He never for his mistakes. (APOLOGY)
- I think the government should alcohol. (CRIMINAL)
- Thank you for the flowers you sent last month. They really up my room. (BRIGHT)
- The burglar that no one was in the house before he broke in. (SURE)
- The film «The Ring» me. I couldn’t sleep for days. (TERROR)
- The government’s plans for the hospitals will thousands of lives. (DANGER)
Word Formation: Nouns with -ion
Noun |
Verb |
Adjective |
application |
apply |
applicable |
permission |
permit |
permissable |
solution |
solve |
unsolved |
description |
describe |
descriptive |
intention |
intend |
unintended |
competition |
compete |
competitive |
decision |
decide |
decisive |
explanation |
explain |
unexplained |
production |
produce |
productive |
repetition |
repeat |
repetitive |
consumption |
comsume |
consumable |
qualification |
qualify |
qualified |
Write the correct form of the word in brackets to complete these sentences. Some of the answers are irregular (from the table above), but there are other regular nouns included here. Don’t forget to use an -s if necessary.
- Please send a photograph with your CV and form. (APPLY)
- You need to make a today. (DECIDE)
- Her of the grammar was very unclear. (EXPLAIN)
- We had a long about our problems. (DISCUSS)
- Students must have their parent’s to come on the trip. (PERMIT)
- He is still in hospital, recovering from his . (OPERATE)
- I entered a bowling . (COMPETE)
- My children never show for anything I do! (APPRECIATE)
- I can’t come up with a to this problem. (SOLVE)
- The of junk food has increased over the last 20 years. (CONSUME)
- You need a lot of for this job. (QUALIFY)
- When I lived abroad, I found the from my family very difficult. (SEPARATE)
- The of the new flats is nearly finished. (CONSTRUCT)
- We don’t want a of the violence at last year’s football match. (REPEAT)
- The police are conducting an into the murder. (INVESTIGATE)
- I gave the police a of the thief. (DESCRIBE)
- It wasn’t my to offend you. (INTEND)
- We are making for the wedding. (PREPARE)
- I’ve just had a very interesting with your sister. (CONVERSE)
- You can try our product for free, with no to buy it. (OBLIGE)
Verb + ment / adjective + ness
Many verbs can form nouns with the suffix -ment. And many adjectives can form their nouns with the suffix -ness.
Verb |
Noun |
Adjective |
Noun |
achieve |
achievement |
aware |
awareness |
amuse |
amusement |
dark |
darkness |
argue |
argument |
forgetful |
forgetfulness |
develop |
development |
happy |
happiness |
encourage |
encouragement |
homeless |
homelessness |
excite |
excitement |
lazy |
laziness |
improve |
improvement |
lonely |
loneliness |
involve |
involvement |
rude |
rudeness |
judge |
judgement |
tidy |
tidiness |
measure |
measurement |
weak |
weakness |
Write the correct form of the word in brackets to complete these sentences. There are lots more examples here than in the list above, so remember that often verbs use ‘ment’ to make nouns, and often adjectives use ‘ness’. And remember that sometimes the nouns will be plural!
- «Ladies and gentlemen, I would like to make an . (ANNOUNCE)
- is a problem everywhere, not just in big cities. (HOMELESS)
- His made me very angry. (RUDE)
- What does your doctor recommend for the ‘flu? (TREAT)
- We had a big about whose turn it was to wash up. (ARGUE)
- I woke up at 2am. The house was in complete . (DARK)
- We need some special if we want to go mountain climbing. (EQUIP)
- If you drink too much alcohol, it will impair your . (JUDGE)
- The interviewer asked me about my strengths and . (WEAK)
- My friends gave me a lot of when I was worried about my driving test. (ENCOURAGE)
- To my , I was offered £10,000 for my old car! (AMAZE)
- The company has made lots of to their internet services. (IMPROVE)
- I used to find his funny, but now it really annoys me. (FORGETFUL)
- Winning the race was an amazing for my daughter. (ACHIEVE)
- This book is very unrealistic, but that didn’t spoil my of it. (ENJOY)
- We are still making for the wedding next month. (ARRANGE)
- Drivers should stop to rest during long car journeys, because can cause accidents. (TIRED)
- People can experience at many times during their lives, and for many reasons. (LONELY)
Word Formation: Nouns with -ence and -ance
Two common noun endings are -ance and -ence. Usually, their adjectives are made with -ant and -ent. Here are some common examples which might help you in the FCE exam.
Noun (-ence) |
Adjective |
Verb |
evidence |
evident |
— |
existence |
existing |
to exist |
(in)dependence |
(in)dependent |
to depend |
difference |
different |
to differ |
intelligence |
intelligent |
— |
(dis)obedience |
(dis)obedient |
to (dis)obey |
excellence |
excellent |
to excel |
silence |
silent |
to silence |
violence |
violent |
to violate |
innocence |
innocent |
— |
occurrence |
— |
to occur |
(im)patience |
(im)patient |
— |
Noun (-ance) |
Adjective |
Verb |
attendance |
— |
to attend |
assistance |
— |
to assist |
(dis)appearance |
apparent |
to (dis)appear |
distance |
distant |
— |
(un)importance |
(un)important |
— |
acceptance |
accepting |
accept |
reassurance |
reassured |
to reassure |
(ir)relevance |
(ir)relevant |
— |
(in)significance |
(in)significant |
to signify |
- Unfortunately, accidents are a common along this road. (OCCUR)
- It’s difficult to believe in the of aliens. (EXIST)
- The police are looking for of the attack. (EVIDENT)
- She thinks everyone hates her and needs from her friends all the time. (REASSURE)
- Scientist believe that the mysterious of millions of bees is due to disease. (APPEAR)
- What’s the best punishment for a teenager? (OBEY)
- What he said was true, but it was completely . (RELEVANCE)
- 100% is necessary to pass this course. (ATTEND)
- I’m the only person who believes in his . Even the police think he’s guilty. (INNOCENT)
- There are three shop over there — you should ask one of them for help. (ASSIST)
- Some people think that if you enjoy your job, the salary is , but I love money! (IMPORTANCE)
- I’m excited because I’ve just got a letter of from Cambridge University! (ACCEPT)
- Cats are extremely animals. They don’t really need people. (DEPEND)
- You need a lot of if you want to work with children. (PATIENT)
Word Formation: Adjectives with -ful/-less
Most adjectives which end in -ful make the negative with -less. But, not all. Note also that we can make adverbs from these adjectives with -fully or -lessly. For example, carefully and carelessly. This is a list of key words which might appear in the FCE exam.
Noun |
Verb |
Adjective |
care |
care |
careful/careless |
harm |
harm |
harmful/harmless |
help |
help |
(un)helpful/helpless |
hope |
hope |
hopeful/hopeless |
pain |
pain |
painful/painless |
power |
power |
powerful/powerless |
use |
use |
useful/useless |
thought |
think |
thoughtful/thoughtless |
taste |
taste |
tasteful/tasteless |
Noun |
Verb |
Adjective |
count |
count |
countless/countable |
end |
end |
endless |
home |
— |
homeless |
peace |
— |
peaceful |
play |
play |
playful |
price |
price |
priceless |
success |
succeed |
(un)successful |
truth |
— |
(un)truthful/(un)true |
worth |
worth |
worthless |
Write the correct adjective or adverb for each of these questions. You will need to use -ful/-less or -fully/-lessly. Some answers will also need un-.
What a lovely present! That was very of you. (THINK)- He drives really — one day he’s going to have an accident. (CARE)
- He’s told me times about how good he is at football. (COUNT)
- Because of his bad interview, he was in his job application. (SUCCEED)
- «I didn’t eat your chocolate,» she said , hiding the empty wrapper. (TRUE)
- It’s . England will never win the World Cup football again. (HOPE)
- My best friend is a rich, lawyer. (POWER)
- You must remember to recharge your phone. Without its batteries, it’s . (USE)
- Cigarettes are to your health. (HARM)
- The sales assistant was really and rude. (HELP)
- A newborn baby is completely . (HELP)
- «Don’t worry — this injection will be completely . (PAIN)
- Thieves broke into the museum and stole a painting by Van Gogh. (PRICE)
- She’s really rich, but her clothes are always very and elegant. (TASTE)
- I bought some shares in the company 5 years ago, but unfortunately now they are . (WORTH)
- His speech went on . I thought he’d never stop talking. (END)
Word Formation: Negatives
- Negative prefixes can be used with nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs. For example disapproval, disapprove, disapproving, disapprovingly.
- Usually im + p (impatient) but not always (unpleasant).
- Often il + l (illegal) but not always (unlikely).
- Often ir + r (irregular) but not always (unresponsive).
- Usually -ful changes to -less (harmful/less) but not always (endless).
un- |
in |
dis- |
im- |
unexpected unaware unbelievable unknown unable |
inaccurate inappropriate inefficient incapable ineffective |
disapprove dislike disagree disbelief dishonest |
improbable impossible impolite imperfect impatient |
il- |
ir- |
mis- |
-less |
illegal illiterate illogical illegible |
irregular irresponsible irrational irregular |
misbehave misunderstand misspell misuse |
careless harmless helpless endless |
- The politician was accused of being (HONEST)
- His story was so I thought he was crazy. (BELIEVE)
- She looked at him in when he told her the shocking news. (BELIEVE)
- Many people are of the dangers of mobile phones. (AWARE)
- He’s invited me to his party. It would be to say no. (POLITE)
- Too many children nowadays are growing up . (LITERATE)
- That’s not what I said! You’ve me. (UNDERSTAND)
- My dog is completely . I promise he won’t bite. (HARM)
- The medicine was — he didn’t recover. (EFFECT)
- His answers were very so he failed the Maths exam. (ACCURATE)
- It’s that people will ever live on the moon. (LIKELY)
- He waited for the train. (PATIENT)
- It’s to smoke in public places nowadays. (LEGAL)
- I would never teach children. They always . (BEHAVE)
- The shirt he’s wearing is completely for a job interview. (APPROPRIATE)
- His speech was . I thought he’d never stop talking. (END)
Word Formation: Irregular Nouns
Noun |
Verb |
Adjective |
Adverb |
(dis)belief |
(dis)believe |
(un)believable |
(un)believably |
a choice |
choose |
chosen |
— |
a defense |
defend |
defensive |
defensively |
a death |
die |
dead/deadly |
deadly |
a gift |
give |
— |
— |
a loss |
lose |
lost |
— |
a marriage |
marry |
(un)married |
— |
practice |
practise |
practising |
— |
pretense |
pretend |
— |
— |
proof |
(dis)prove |
(un)proven |
— |
safety |
save |
(un)safe |
safely |
a sight |
see |
unseen |
— |
a speech |
speak |
(un)spoken |
— |
a success |
succeed |
(un)successful |
(un)successfully |
a thought |
think |
thoughtful/less |
thoughtfully/lessly |
The flowers are poisonous — don’t eat them! (DIE)- You have no — you must do it. (CHOOSE)
- Their was a very happy one. (MARRY)
- You need to do some more of this grammar. (PRACTISE)
- We don’t have any that he committed the crime. (PROVE)
- She’s really about her new haircut.(DEFEND)
- The company made a on their new product. (LOSE)
- I stared at him in . (BELIEVE)
- Your parents really care about your . (SAVE)
- The politician’s really made me think about the issues. (SPEAK)
- We tried to keep up the that everything was OK. (PRETEND)
- I need to get a for my parents’ wedding anniverary. (GIVE)
- I’m really sorry. You were in your job application. (SUCCEED)
- He lost his in the accident (SEE)
- He’s really selfish and . (THINK)
Word Formation: height, width …
The word formation part of the FCE use of English exam often tests adjectives such as ‘short’, ‘wide’, ‘dark’ and their nouns and verbs. Here is a list of some of the more common adjectives and their forms.
Adjective |
Noun |
Verb |
deep |
depth |
deepen |
high |
height |
heighten |
— |
weight |
weigh |
wide |
width |
widen |
long |
length |
lengthen |
short |
shortage (= not enough) |
shorten |
large |
enlargement |
enlarge |
low |
— |
lower |
tight |
tightness |
tighten |
loose |
looseness |
loosen |
strong |
strength |
strengthen |
weak |
weakness |
weaken |
dark |
darkness |
darken |
bright |
brightness |
brighten |
Normally I prefer tall men, but my husband’s isn’t a problem. (SHORT)- The news report covered the economic crisis in . (DEEP)
- A healthy diet will your life expectancy. (LONG)
- If they this road, there would be fewer accidents. (WIDE)
- I think I’ll this photograph. (LARGE)
- The airport has security at passport control. (TIGHT)
- I do yoga to my back. (STRONG)
- There is a water nearly every summer in the south of England. (SHORT)
- The moment I left work I my tie and started to relax. (LOOSE)
- When I myself, I found out I’d lost 10kg! (WEIGHT)
- The of my computer screen gives me a headache. (BRIGHT)
- I’m afraid of so I couldn’t live on the 10th floor. (HIGH)
- The lights went out and the room was plunged into . (DARK)
- I’m afraid of the so I sleep with the lights on. (DARKEN)
- The government are going to the legal drinking age to 18. (LOW)
- His long illness has him. (WEAK)
There are four main kinds of word formation: prefixes, suffixes, conversion and compounds.
Prefixes
We add prefixes before the base or stem of a word.
examples |
prefixes |
monorail, monolingual |
mono— means ‘one’ |
multipurpose, multicultural |
multi— means ‘many’ |
post-war, postgraduate |
post— means ‘after’ |
unusual, undemocratic |
un— means ‘not’ or ‘opposite to’ |
Suffixes
We add suffixes after the base or stem of a word. The main purpose of a suffix is to show what class of word it is (e.g. noun or adjective).
examples |
suffixes |
terrorism, sexism |
-ism and -dom are used to form nouns |
employer, actor |
-er and -or are used to form nouns to describe people who do things |
widen, simplify |
-en and -ify are used to form verbs |
reasonable, unprofitable |
-able is used to form adjectives |
unhappily, naturally |
-ly is a common suffix used to form adverbs |
Conversion
Conversion involves the change of a word from one word class to another. For example, the verbs to email and to microwave are formed from the nouns email and microwave:
Can you text her? (verb from noun text, meaning to send a text-message)
They are always jetting somewhere. (verb from noun jet)
If you’re not careful, some downloads can damage your computer. (noun from verb download)
OK, so the meeting’s on Tuesday. That’s a definite. (noun from adjective)
It’s a very big if and I’m not at all sure we can afford it. (noun from conjunction, meaning ‘it’s not at all certain’)
All companies have their ups and downs. (nouns from prepositions)
We also use conversion when we change a proper noun into a common noun:
Has anybody seen my Dickens? (copy of a book by Dickens)
Compounding
When we use compounding, we link together two or more bases to create a new word. Normally, the first item identifies a key feature of the second word. For example, the two bases back and ache can combine to form the compound noun backache, and the two bases post and card combine to form the compound noun postcard.
Compounds are found in all word classes. The most common types of compounds are: Nouns: car park, rock band
Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick
Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke
Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless
It is sometimes difficult to know where to put hyphens in words that are compound ed. It is also difficult to know whether to separate words (e.g. post box) or to join the words (e.g. postbox). In such cases, it is best to check in a good learner’s dictionary.
Abbreviation
Abbreviation involves shortening a word. We do this in three main ways: clipping, acronyms and blends.
We use clipping when we shorten or ‘clip’ one or more syllables from a word. We also commonly clip proper names for people:
ad: advertisement, advert
lab: laboratory
Matt: Matthew
Acronyms are a type of abbreviation formed when the initial letters of two or more words are combined in a way that produces consonant and vowel sequences found in words. Acronyms are normally pronounced as words:
RAM: random access memory (RAM is a term used to describe a computer’s memory.)
Initials are similar to acronyms but are pronounced as sets of letters, not as words:
WHO: World Health Organisation, pronounced W–H–O
CD: compact disc, pronounced C–D
We form blends when we combine parts of existing words to form a new word:
blog: blend of web and log
motel: blend of motor and hotel
smog: blend of smoke and fog
Back-formation
We form words with back-formation when we remove part of a word, usually something which we think is a suffix (or occasionally a prefix). We do this commonly when we form verbs from nouns.
For example: to liaise (back-formed from the noun liaison); to intuit (back-formed from the noun intuition), to enthuse (back-formed from the noun enthusiasm):
Can you liaise with Tim and agree a time for the meeting, please?
She’s always enthusing about her new teacher.
Loan words and new words
Loan words
Loan words are words that are borrowed from other languages. Some recent loan words for food taken from other languages include: sushi, tapas, chapatti, pizza. When we use loan words, we do not normally change them, though we do sometimes inflect them if they are singular countable nouns (pizzas, chapattis). We also sometimes pronounce them more like English words, instead of using their original pronunciation.
New words
Some prefixes are commonly used to create new words. In modern English the prefix e- is used to create new words that are connected with the Internet and the use of the Internet:
e-bank, e-cards, e-commerce, e-learning
Almost any noun may potentially combine with any other noun to form new noun compounds (e.g. computer virus, carbon footprint, quality time).
Содержание
Словообразование (word formation [wəːrd fɔ:r’meɪʃ(ə)n]) — образование нового слова от другого слова.
Словообразование и словоизменение (Word Formation and Inflection)
Словообразование противопоставляется словоизменению: Словоизменение — это процесс изменения слова, выражающий грамматическое значение (например, спряжение глагола или образование множественного числа существительного), но при словоизменении слово не приобретает нового лексического значения т.е. это то же самое слово (лексема) в отличных грамматических формах:
-
He is an actor. – Он (есть) актёр.
-
They are actors. – Они (есть) актёры.
В приведённых примерах «is», «are» и «actor», «actors» — это разные грамматические формы тех же слов, эти формы не образуют нового лексического значения.
Способы словообразования (Types of Word Formation)
Деривация (Derivation)
Деривация (derivation [ˌdeɹɪˈveɪʃ(ə)n]) — процесс образования нового слова от другого слова за счет различных аффиксов (приставок и суффиксов).
Различают два вида деривации:
-
Новое образованное слово (дериватив) переходит в другой класс слов:
-
write → writer (писать → писатель)
-
-
Новое слово не переходит в другой класс слов, а только изменяет лексическое значение исходного слова:
-
friend → friendship (друг → дружба)
-
like → dislike (нравиться, любить → испытывать неприязнь)
-
В английском языке, деривация, а именно переход слова в другой класс также происходит без изменения исходной формы слова. Данный процесс называется нулевая деривация (zero derivation) или конверсия (см. ниже):
-
I love you and I can’t live without your love. – Я люблю тебя и не могу жить без твоей любви.
Словосложение (Compounding)
Словосложение (compounding [kəm’paundɪŋ] / composition [ˌkɔmpə’zɪʃ(ə)n]) — это один из способов образования сложных слов (compound words) , состоящий в морфологическом соединении двух или более слов.
Проблемой в лингвистике английского языка является разграничение некоторых сложных слов и словосочетаний, образуя общий термин композиты (Термин «композит» получил распространение только в русскоязычных грамматиках, в том числе и грамматиках по английскому языку):
-
stay-at-home (домосед)
-
dos and don’ts (правила, нормы)
-
I’m reading the how-to-get-anything-you-want guide. – Я читаю книгу о том, как получить всё, что захочешь.
Раздельное или слитное написание композитов не является основанием, используемым при различении сложных слов и словосочетаний. Основным критерием различия между сложным словом и словосочетанием является обособление лексического значения производного сложного слова от исходного словосочетания.
Вторичное словообразование (Back-formation)
Вторичное словообразование / обратное словообразование[1] / редеривация[2] (back-formation) —
Конверсия (Conversion)
Конверсия (conversion [kənˈvə:rʒ(ə)n]) разновидность словообразования, при котором от одной части речи образуется другая без каких-либо изменений в самой форме слова (безаффиксальное образование слова). Наиболее распространенной моделью конверсии является: [существительное ↔ глагол]
, например: an e-mail (электронная почта) → to e-mail (написать или отправить электронное письмо); to drink (пить) → a drink (глоток; стакан (вина, воды)):
-
I heard her name his name. – Я слышал, как она назвала его имя. (в первом случае «name» — глагол «назвала», а во втором — существительное со значением «имя»),
-
I love you and I can’t live without your love. – Я люблю тебя и не могу жить без твоей любви.
-
Don’t talk the talk if you can’t walk the walk. – «Не говори того, чего не можешь сделать.»
-
He is my best friend. – Он мой лучший друг.
-
I can best them. – Я могу их превзойти (провести / одержать верх).
-
Love betters what is best.[3] – Любовь улучшает лучшее.
-
She lives one floor up. – Она живёт этажом выше.
-
They up the minimum requirements! – Они подняли минимальные требования!
Конверсия прилагательных в существительные может происходить в результате эллипсиса:
-
He’s a good worker but he’s not a very intellectual (person). – Он хороший работник, но не очень умный (человек).
-
The native residents are very hospitable. → The natives are very hospitable. – Местные (жители) очень гостеприимны.
В некоторых случаях происходит временная конверсия прилагательных в существительные. В таких случаях существительное не полностью получает самостоятельное лексическое значение и его полное значение явствует из контекста:
-
Fuel is carried in four tanks, two main tanks and two auxiliariy tanks. → Fuel is carried in four tanks, two main and two auxiliaries. – Топливо перевозится в четырех резервуарах, двух основных и двух вспомогательных.
Употребление прилагательных вместо существительных возможно и без конверсии. Например, некоторые прилагательные могут употребляться вместо существительных, означающих людей и согласуются с глаголом во множественном числе, при этом, прилагательные не принимают формы множественного числа и употребляются с определенным артиклем, например: the rich (богатые), the unemployed (безработные) (см. Субстантивация).
Усечение (Clipping)
Усечение / сокращение (clipping [‘klɪpɪŋ] / truncation [tɹʌŋ’keɪʃ(ə)n] / shortening [‘ʃɔ:ɹtnɪŋ])
-
Инициальное усечение (initial clipping / fore-clipping / apheresis) — усечение начальной части слова:
-
helicopter → copter
-
telephone → phone
-
airplane → plane
-
website → site
-
-
Финальное усечение (final clipping / back clipping / apocope):
-
demonstration → demo
-
doctor → doc
-
examination → exam
-
gasoline → gas
-
-
Срединное усечение (medial clipping / syncope):
-
madam → ma’am
-
mathematics → maths
-
-
Двустороннее усечение (усечение крайних частей слова):
-
influenza → flu
-
refrigerator → fridge
-
-
???:
-
tobacco → baccy
-
reconnaissance → reccy
-
-
Слияние усечений (complex clipping / clipped compound):
-
sci-fi (science fiction)
-
motel (motor hotel)
-
modem (modulator demodulator)
-
Blending
Abbreviations
Acronyms
Eponyms
Coinages
Nonce words
Borrowing
Calquing
1]
Краткий понятийно-терминологический справочник по этимологии и исторической лексикологии. — Российская академия наук, Институт русского языка им. В. В. Виноградова РАН, Этимология и история слов русского языка . Ж. Ж. Варбот, А. Ф. Журавлев . 1998.
2]
Словарь-справочник лингвистических терминов. Изд. 2-е. — М.: Просвещение Розенталь Д. Э., Теленкова М. А. 1976
3]
William Wordsworth. From The Same.
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