Replace words and word combinations

(B).

A) 1. The
natural environment is at once a hindrance and a help, and the
architect seeks both to

invite its aid and repel its
attacks.

2. The architect must foresee
destructive potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood, and
disease.

3. The placement and form of
buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of spaces
within buildings, and other planning devices are fundamental elements
in the aesthetics of architecture.

4. Orientation may control
air for circulation and reduce the disadvan­tages of wind, rain,
and snow.

5. Planning may control the
environment by the design of architectural forms that may modify the
effects of natural forces.

6. The choice of materials is
conditioned by their own ability to with­stand the environment as
well as by properties that make them useful to human beings.

7. One of the architect’s
jobs is to find a successful solution to both conditions.

B). to look for, to resist, to
diminish, people, subversive, to vary, basic, a task

III. Answer the questions.

1. When does the architect
begin to work on the project?

2. What are the main aspects
of architectural planning?

3. What are the fundamental
elements in the aesthetics of architecture?

4. What must the architect
control to make buildings habitable and comfortable?

5. What is the planning for
use concerned with?

6. What are the major
expenses in building?

IV. Give the English equivalents.

отразить атаку;
пригодный для жилья; расположение,
положение; результаты воздействия
солнца, ветра и дождя; создавать влажность
и отражать солнце; важное (эффективное)
средство контроля; выбор материалов
для строительства; способность
противостоять воздей­ствиям окружающей
среды; отопление, изоляция, кондиционирова­ние
воздуха, освещение, акустические методы;
функциональное пла­нирование; боковой
неф; склеп, ризница, часовня; расходы;
влиять на выбор материалов; зависеть
от требований заказчика

V. With your partner, speak on the different aspects of architectural planning.

Suggested topics:

Environmental Design

Materials and Techniques

Aesthetic and Functional
Criteria in Architecture

Economics and Architectural
Planning

Text B.
Read the text. Tell about the main functions of architecture

THE ART OF ARCHITECTURE

Architecture
is the art and the technique of building, employed to fulfil the
practical and expressive requirements of civilized people. Almost
every settled society that possesses the techniques for building
produces archi­tecture. It is necessary in all but the simplest
cultures; without it, man is confined to a primitive struggle with
the elements; with it, he has not only a defence against the natural
environment but also the benefits of a human environment, a
prerequisite for and a symbol of the development of civilized
institutions.

The
characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other
man-made structures are (1) the suitability of the work to use by
human beings in general and the adaptability of it to particular
human activities; (2) the stability and permanence of the work’s
construction; and (3) the communication of experience and ideas
through its form.

All these
conditions must be met in architecture. The second is a con­stant,
while the first and the third vary in relative importance according
to the social function of buildings. If the function is chiefly
utilitarian, as in a factory, communication is of less importance. If
the function is chiefly expressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility
is a minor concern. In some buildings such as churches and city
halls, utility and communication may be of equal importance.

Text C. Read the text and
answer the question: What is required for the safety of the
structure?

DESIGN CRITERIA

When the
basic theory of static equilibrium for forces acting in any
di­rection was first applied in structural design in the second
half of the 18century, the criterion of a safe design seemed obvious enough. The
struc­ture would be safe if it could support its own weight, and
perhaps the weight of a wagon passing over it, or of machinery on a
floor, without overloading any crucial element — arch rib, beam,
column, masonry pier, or tie rod. The strength of these elements
could be assessed by loading specimens to failure, or by similarly
loading specimens of the material if the strength of the element
could then be estimated by simple proportion. For greater safe­ty,
some factor would be allowed on the measured or estimated strengths.

During the
19century, loads other than the weight of the structure it­self
became more important. The development of elastic theories of the
behavior of the main structural elements and some complete structural
systems called for further criteria to bypass the reliance on
strength tests of these elements and systems. Tests were made to
determine both wind loads and the effective loads imposed by moving
locomotives, but the data ob­tained remained of limited and
somewhat questionable validity for want of adequate understanding of
the nature of these dynamic loads.

In the
first half of the 20century, design criteria for particular classes of structure — like
steel frames and reinforced-concrete frames — were

progressively codified for
normal design in terms of design loads and al­lowable stresses.

In the last few decades, far
more again has been learned about likely loads, particularly wind
loads and earthquake shocks.

Text D.
Read the text and tell about the subdivisions of Romanesque
architecture and its main features.

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

The generic term Romanesque is
sometimes applied to embrace all the styles of architecture which, in
most European countries, followed the Early Christian style and
preceded the introduction of the Gothic style, c. 1200. It is often
subdivided into pre-Romanesque, which includes the Lombardic,
Carolingian, and Ottonian or Rhenish styles as well as Saxon and
Ro­manesque proper, which is taken to have begun c. AD 1000.

From the ancient Roman
tradition, the pre-Romanesque architects adopted characteristic
features: the semicircular arch, the groined cross vault, and a
modified and simplified form of the Corinthian column with its
capital of acanthus leaves. Occasionally, at an early period, they
used carved fragments of antique buildings. They made important
advances upon Roman structural methods in balancing the thrust of
heavy vaults and domes by means of buttresses, and in substituting
thinner webs supported on the curved stone ribs for the thick vaults
used by the Romans.

The Romanesque period lasted
two centuries, and was the great age of European monasticism.

The architectural work of the
Romanesque period therefor consists al­most exclusively on
monasteries, cathedrals, parish churches, and castles. Very few
domestic buildings have survived.

The
greatest examples of this style are Benedictine abbey church at
Jumieges, Normandy (1036—1066); S. Ambrogio, Milan, Italy, 1140;
Sompting church in Succex, llcentury; Augsburg Cathedral, Germany.

Unit 2

Text A. Read the text and
tell about the orders of classical architecture.

ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE

The first step in architecture
was simply the replacement of wooden pil­lars with stone ones,
and the translation of the carpentry and brick struc­tural forms
into stone equivalents. This provided an opportunity for the
ex­pression of proportion and pattern. This expression eventually
took the form of the invention or evolution of the stone «orders»
of architecture. These orders, or arrangements of specific types of
columns supporting an upper section called an entablature, defined
the pattern of the columnar facades and upperworks that formed the
basic decorative shell of buildings.

The Greeks invented the Doric,
Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The Romans added the Tuscan and the
Composite.

The oldest order, the Doric,
is subdivided into Greek Doric and Ro­man Doric. The first is the
simplest and has baseless columns as those of the Parthenon. Roman
Doric has a base and was less massive.

The parts
of Greek Doric — the simple, baseless columns, the spread­ing
capitals, and triglyph-metope (alternating vertically ridged and
plain blocks) frieze above the columns — constitute an aesthetic
development in stone incorporating variants on themes used
functionally in earlier wood and brick construction. Doric long
remained the favourite order of the Greek mainland and western
colonies, and it changed little throughout its history.

The Ionic order evolved later,
in eastern Greece. About 600 BC, in Asia Minor, the first intimation
of the style appeared in stone columns with cap­itals elaborately
carved in floral hoops — an Orientalizing pattern familiar mainly
on smaller objects and furniture and enlarged for architecture.

It developed throughout so
called Aeolic capital with vertically spring­ing volutes or
spiral ornaments to the familiar Ionic capital, the volutes of which
spread horizontally from the centre and curl downward. The order was
always fussier and more ornate, less stereotyped than Doric. The
Ionic temples of the 6th century exceed in size and decoration even
the most ambitious of their Classical successors. Such were the
temples of Artemis at Ephesus in Asia Minor and the successive
temples of Hera on the island of Samos.

The Corinthian order
originated in the 5th century BC in Athens. It had Ionic capital
elaborated with acanthus leaves. In its general proportions it is
very like the Ionic. For the first time the Corinthian order was used
for temple exteriors. Because of its advantage of facing equally in
tour direc­tions it was more adaptable than Ionic for corners.
There are not many Greek examples of the Corinthian order. The Romans
widely used it for its showiness. The earliest known instance of the
Corinthian order used on the exterior is the choragic monument of
Lysicrates in Athens, 335/334 BC.

A simplified version of the
Roman Doric is the Tuscan order. It has a less decorated frieze and
no mutules in the cornice.

The
Composite order is also a late Roman invention. It combines the
elements from all the Greek orders.

Vocabulary

replacement
— замена

pillar
— столб,
колонна,
опора

eventually
— в конце концов

arrangement
— расположение

to
define
— определять

pattern
— модель, образец

shell
— (зд.) оболочка, каркас

spreading
— простирающийся, распространяющийся

alternating
— чередующийся

ridged
— имеющий борозды, кромки

plain
— (зд.) без узора

to
evolve
— происходить

intimation
— указание, сообщение, намек

elaborately
— тщательно (разрабатывать)

to
carve
— резать, вырезать (по дереву или кости);
высекать (из камня)

hoop
— o6pyч

fussy
— вычурный, аляповатый

to
exceed
— превышать, превосходить

advantage
— преимущество

corner
— угол

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1. The fact that measurements are precise is very important for surveys.

2. Some subsurface rocks are characterized as materials that let the energy go easily through.

3. The factor that consists in the fact that a formation contains rocks of the same character determines the choice of geophysical method.

4. One more method of seismic survey is used when prospectors apply explosives.

5. Geophysical exploration utilizes phenomena which can be interpreted through the fundamental laws of physics.

6. Great depth and simple geology of the formation make it necessary to apply geophysical survey.

7. Employment of more than one survey method in oil prospecting helps to find signs of valuable metallic ores.

8. Irregular shape of rock of complex structure makes it difficult to carry out analysis of measurements of a particular structure.

11. Fill in the gaps with the given words.

necessitate make use decide prospecting particular

substantial electrical conductivity essential

seismic survey quantitative interpretation civil engineering

1. Exploration geophysics represents the use of seismic, gravity, magnetic methods in ………. for oil, gas with the objective of economic exploitation.

2. The process of field development can be divided into three stages, each of them ……. carrying out a number of investigations.

3. Both economic and scientific factors must be considered in ……….. a drilling programme.

4. Geophysical exploration ………….. of phenomena which can be interpreted through the laws of physics.

5. The knowledge of geologic conditions is …………. in some industrial fields.

6. The electrical survey is based on the difference in …………….. of rocks.

7. Results of …………….. of geophysical data make it possible for a drilling company to choose a site.

8. In ………….. where depths are small and high accuracy is required, it is possible to dispense with geophysics.

9. The chance of success of seismic operations is ……………. enough to cover costs for …………………. .

10. As a rule, seismic operations are completed long before getting ……….. answers on questions to be considered.

12. Translate into English.

1.Обширное применение сейсмических работ свидетельствует об их важной роли в разведке на нефть. 2.При выборе мест для забуривания поисково-разведочных скважин, почти все нефтяные компании пользуются результатами интерпретации сейсморазведочных данных. 3.Хотя во многих случаях результаты сейсморазведочных работ позволяют обнаружить геологические структуры, а не непосредственно найти нефть, вероятность успеха достаточно значительна, чтобы окупить затраты на сейсморазведку. 4.Сейсмические изыскания имеют такую же важность в поисках грунтовых вод в гражданском строительстве.5.С их помощью можно измерить глубину залегания коренных пород, знание которой необходимо при строительстве крупных зданий, шоссейных дорог и портовых сооружений. 6.Они также позволяют определить, потребуются ли взрывные работы при строительстве дорог, если под выбранными площадками могут встретиться такие потенциальные опасности, как карстовые полости или заброшенные выработки. 7.В ходе таких работ специалисты устанавливают, есть ли в разрезе разрывные нарушения, которые могут быть опасными для атомных электростанций. 8.С другой стороны, сейсмические методы находят небольшое применение при прямых поисках полезных ископаемых, так как они не могут получить достаточно надежные результаты, когда границы между породами сильно нерегулярны.

(В.С. Белоусов Нефтегазовая промышленность. Основные процессы и англо-русская терминология. Москва, 2006.)