Reduction in word formation

Lexical
reductions are divided into three main types: abbreviation
(abbreviation), truncation (clipping) and contamination (blending).

Abbreviations
usually called the process and result of the process of creating the
first letters of words or syllables of components of a compound word
or phrase [16, 65]. It in its turn is presented initialisms
(alphabetical / initial abbreviation, initialism), which are read as
a series of initials (BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation, MTV –
Music Television, EU – European Union, VCR – video-cassette
recorder) – as scientists’ observation evidenced elements created
by initial reduction are not able to independently act as tokens and
therefore are only a part of abbreviations and complicated
abbreviations of words [11, 11]:
«Somehow, being MIA in Australia, on the other side of the
globe, makes it worse «(1, 3). «In the meantime, St James
would pay a call at the police station and glean from DCI Le Gallez
whatever information he could regarding Cherokee’s arrest» (2,
433).

Acronym
(acronym, acronymic abbreviation), that is sequence of sounds marked
components of letters as it is a common word (UNICEF – United
Nations Children’s Emergency Fund, NATO — North Atlantic Treaty
Organization, scuba – self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus, VIP – very important person ) – recently, this type is
very common in all areas of human activity, especially in the
political and technical vocabulary; homoacronyms are acronyms that
coincide with normal English words, sometimes semantically associated
with the object person or phenomenon whose name is declining (ASH —
Action on Smoking and Health, NOW – National Organization for
Women, WIN — Whip Inflation Now) – such acronyms can provoke
humorous effect (of course, quantitative measure of such entities is
significantly lower, due to the specifics of this type of initial
cuts, because of its phonetic shell these innovations coincide with
existing in word) [16, 66].

“But
all of the luxury brands depend on the $250,000 to $500,000 income
group, a cohort Danziger said has been dubbed «HENRYs: High
Earners, Not Rich Yet” (11).

“Here
and elsewhere, a few entrepreneurs, engaging in SPIN, or Small Plot
Intensive, agriculture, rent backyards – several at a time – to
grow produce for sale” (9).

Also
we can talk about anacronyms which are acronyms that have not been
treated as a reduction of the speaker, and few people remember that
represent letters in these words (radar — radio detecting and
ranging, laser — lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation) — the term ‘anacronym’ is also an acronym for
‘anachronistic acronym’. Attracts
attention to the following innovative way of creating new linguistic
units that can be named phonological abbreviations. The feature of
this method appears that semantics is changing units in the same
form. In the role of current examples can serve neoplasms such as ICU
— I See You and ICQ — I Seek You and more. Quite
interesting point in this regard turns example accession derivational
element to the structure of e-ICU, and the structure ICQ — affixes
-ism, thereby demonstrating inclusion phonologic cut a
synergistically-determined process further modeling language material
[5, 185].

“Remote
ICU centers, in which critical-care doctors (called intensivists) and
nurses watch patients from afar, can save lives and money, according
to Visicu, the Baltimore firm that developed the concept. The firm’s
eICU, developed by former Johns Hopkins, Brian Rosenfeld and Michael
J. Breslow, is now used by 40 hospital systems to monitor roughly
4,800 beds”(10) .

“Logic
dicatates as the cold reality creeps in to David Axelrod and his
consorts that their Bidenisms and ICQisms are fast losing their
political canvas as Mrs. Clinton sits upon her chair the pretender
was allowed in jest to perform”(12) .

General
linguistic opinion uses the term akronomy defining it as «a way
of word formation,» but lexical unit under this mechanism does
not actually formed [5, 186]. Exploring how abbreviations and
acronyms, keep in mind that these growths time (to include a
mechanism lexicalization) only represent syntactic level
communication unit, formed by reduction initial own vocabulary
component type and their subsequent drawing.

Innovation
kind of akronomisation syntactic language units of type recursive
akronomisation appears that, despite the complexity of the model,
step by step strengthens its position among a number of mechanisms,
which operates the vocabulary of modern English.
Thus,
the result of its operation appear recursive acronyms ; through this
method were created following English economical unit communication
as VISA (VISA International Service Association), WINE (Wine Is Not
an Emulator), GNU (GNU’s Not Unix!), EMACS (EMACS Makes A Computer
Slow) and others. Typically formed thus innovation is particularly
mainstreaming in interactive (cyber) communication [5, 186].

It
is appropriate that the researches’ thesis that the creation of
linguistic units entails, above all, the desire to reduce the
communicants complicated name, the form of which is contrary to the
integrity and unity of their nominative function. During the creation
of letter abbreviations speakers guided primarily convenience
argument, so a smaller number of components of abbreviations and
acronyms promotes the productive use of structures formed by them.

However,
along with the mechanisms set out above can be seen now and
functioning of innovative production mode of linguistic units
containing in its structure not only initial letters (as in
abbreviations and akronomisation) and other graphic characters or
consist only of graphic signs. It
would be logical to call this way graphics condensation, and formed
by its units through communication — graphic condensate (eg, Y2K —
year two thousand, B2B or B2C — business-to-business or
business-to-consumer marketing, 9/11).

“Another
general message to the believers was: B2B (business-to-business
marketing) and B2C (business to consumer) are so five minutes ago;
from now on it’s all about B2B2C” (11).

“Terms
like B2B, B2C and C2C are the buzzwords that raise eyebrows. Little
do they know that Internet models change so fast that they have
‘mutated’ into B2B2C and C2B2C along with the e-commerce model”
(8).

Keep
in mind that there is always a part of neoplasms digit takes
associative and phonological features. For example, the communication
unit stands out for its idiomatic 11/9, indicating the month and the
number of terrorist act in the center of New York [5, 186]. This also
applies to derivatives Generation 9/11.

“I
don’t want to be a 9/11 widow for the rest of my life” (11).

“After
the deadliest attack on American soil in the history of the republic,
the generation that previously seemed directionless and without a
fitting title now had one – Generation 9/11”(11) .

An
innovative way to «alliteration» (which combines elements
initial reduction mechanisms, word affixation and drawing) recently
producing more tumors. Firstly
a typical feature of this method is the presence of a constant
component of the model — the letter that stands initial reduction of
speech; Secondly this kind of innovation actually is nominative
binomial; Thirdly and established the mechanism for the participation
unit affixed remind derivation as the word joins item is ready with
its usual form and content.

For
example «initial monograph-phonemic reduction» e- (electronic-
(information) actively functioning in modern English and are part of
the morpheme false. It should be noted that these methods have the
ability to save up to 50% Shape-content [18 5]. With the
participation of the above items were created neologisms such as:
iPod, i-biology, e-fence, e-thrombosis and many others.

“Criminals
can «e-fence» stolen goods with virtual anonymity and
little risk of being tracked, compared with the face-to-face
transaction of selling the merchandise to a pawn shop or from the
back of a truck” (9).

“The
warning came as it emerged that a computer programmer from Bristol
almost died after a 12-hour stint in front of his screen in what is
believed to be one of the first cases in the UK of a growing
phenomenon dubbed e-thrombosis” (8).

It
should be emphasized that the formants «I-» appears to
refer to two different concepts: «information» and «Internet».
However on more careful thought out, it is clear that at the present
stage of development of new communication technologies distinction
seem almost impossible aforementioned concepts. Thus we face the
phenomenon of conceptual identification and action [5, 188].

“The
i-biology approach represents the consolidation of the many diverse
data in life science research into refined information. In contrast
to bioinformatics, which represents solely computational biology,
i-biology stands for an integrated approach, bringing applied
scientists and bioinformaticians together” (9).

“In
most cases, police say the targets, perpetrators and beneficiaries of
these «iCrimes» are young people. Last weekend in Toronto’s
west end, four people with iPods were taken to hospital with cuts and
bruises after being swarmed by a gang of youths wielding a metal
mallet used to tenderize meat. Nine people were subsequently arrested
and charged. At least nine people in Toronto – most of them youths
– have been mugged for their iPods since late October” (12).

Quite
interesting is the fact that its reduction units are not only
syntactic and lexical level language system. Nowadays there are also
such innovative processes as Reformation affixed fund English
language, which also serve as visual aids of the principle of
balancing the entire vocabulary. Yes, derivational element -mobile-,
which initially was randomly selected from the lexical units of
automobile, now represents a new option m- which has arisen involving
English neologism m-commerce.

“Vending
machines are a favorite example among those peddling the m-commerce
concept” (11).

In
addition affix tele-, who once was isolated from the word television,
today introduced a new version of formative T-. This allows recent
innovation was produced by T-commerce.

“This
year we will see the arrival of T-commerce – or telecommerce”
(11).

However,
it should pay particular attention to the fact that new forms of
derivative elements that are appropriate initial call affixes may
coincide in form. Thus, not only the above-described derivative
morpheme functioning as tele- affix initial T in the same form of the
tumors included derivative morpheme tera-, as with the innovation of
t-ray (terahertz ray: trillion cycles per second). Thus, two
different affixes can have the same option which, in turn, despite
the newness of the operation actually takes on multiple meanings.

“These
so-called t-rays can, like x-rays, see through most materials. But
t-rays are believed to be less harmful than x-rays” (10).

The
same form can take the T and syntactic unit type through-the-line,
such as tumors composed of T-shaped.

“For
it to really work, communications planners need to be «T-shaped»
people. … «T-shaped» communications planners, with a
background in media, have a deep understanding of media, and a broad
understanding of the other disciplines within the marketing spectrum”
(10).

Truncation
(clipping / curtailment / truncation) is the process and result of
the process of reduction of one or more syllables of speech [16, 67].
According to some scientists, such reductions are not created for the
sake of consumption within the common vocabulary of speech, but
started: as terms of a narrow group of people (medical staff,
soldiers, students, etc.) that hint enough to denote a word [24].
For
example, words such as examination), mathematic) s, lab (oratory)
first appeared in the slang of students, spec (ulation), tick (et) –
in broadcasting workers stock exchanges, vet (eran), cap (tain) –
in the military slang. While these terms are a group that is
influential in society, can go into the general vocabulary of
English, social truncation small groups and remain just within them.

Truncations
are divided into 4 main types [11, 12].

Apocope
(apocope / back-clipping) is called only preserve the original
structure (or warehouses) words: ad ← advertisement, con ←
conservative, doc ← doctor, ed ← education, exec ← executive,
lab ← laboratory, logo ← logotype, med ← medicine, memo
←memorandum, oft ← often, porn ← pornography, pro ←
professional, teen ← teenager. This
type is most common. The original word which is formed apocope can be
both simple and composed (public house — pub).

“’We
could go on a detox diet’”, Nadia suggests tentatively” (1,
82).

“Enough
to go home in a cab to Pratt’s Hotel; but not more” (4, 140).

The
smaller is the group of lexical abbreviations, created by saving the
final element of the original token in original omission, ie
apheresis (aphaeresis / apheresis / fore-clipping), for example phone
← telephone, bus ← omnibus, copter ← helicopter, zine ←
magazine.

“My
mobile phone is lying on the bedside table” (1, 300).

Syncope
(syncope) is called the cut-off mid-word, for example:
comms
– communications, specs – spectacles, maths – mathematics.

“It’s
been so long since I’ve had any sex that I’m struggling to get
into my own pants” (1, 82).

As
for cuts, created by cutting the initial and final elements of the
original multi-word (eg, flu ← influenza, fridge ← refrigerator),
is mixed truncation (fore-and-aft clipping), the number of small, so
this kind of reduction is hardly possible considered productive [16,
67]. «‘Dieting?» Ted helped himself to a bottle of white
that was chilling in the fridge «(1, 264).
Knowing
the rules of reduction, you can always restore full form of the word,
and with it the content [11. 12]. Creation by formal modification
options tokens coexist in different styles of speech: from the spoken
to the officially-business [4, 46]. But at the end of the last
century truncation mechanisms have significantly reduced their duties
on the creation of more economical forms of lexical units. It may be
noted that they are sufficiently stable position within the system
determined their bi-functionality [5, 190].
Thus,
the mechanism truncation of words that in most cases the traditional
linguistics is treated as «arbitrary allocation morpheme»
produced innovative affixes. Thus confirmed the idea that the product
of these mechanisms currently facing units not lexical morphological
and level of English multiverse.

In
the twentieth century, English and especially its American variant,
displaying numerous discoveries and inventions in science and
technology, radio and television, physics, aerospace, chemistry,
biology, linguistics, enriched lexical units special word creative
structure resulting from the so-called telescopes, or
contamination(blend/blending/telescoped words/ portmanteau words/
portmanteau/ fusion/ telescoping/ contamination/
dvandva-compounds/contraction) [25].

“Chantal,
Autumn, Nadia and I, Lucy Lombard – chocoholic supreme and founder
member of the club – are hunkered down on the sofa in front of the
fire” (1, 2).

“We
were having long, transcontinental calls via our respective webcams –
some of which were getting rather pleasantly steamy” (1, 4).

For
a long time, some linguists considered the creator L.Kerrola
telescopes. It is widely used so-called portmanteau words in his
fantastic tales (snake + shark> snark; tea + supper> tupper).
Etymological dictionaries allow dating back to restore ancient times
tend to develop telescopes in English. Here are some examples of
retrospective sequence:

ХХ
century: betatron (beta + electron), cinerama (cinema + panorama),
plumcot (plum + apricot);

ХІХ
century: squareson (squire + parson), electrocute (electricity +
execute);

ХVIII
century: splatter (splash + spatter), chump (chunk + lump);

ХVII
century: flurry (flaw + hurry), plotch (plot +blotch);

ХVI
century: lunch (lump + bunch);

ХV
century:
tilt (tild + tent).

The
appearance of such entities was, as noted linguists, the result of
frivolous attitude to words, reservations, result slips or shift the
speaker close to the value of two words.

Sharp
replenishment of the twentieth century vocabulary of English words
Telehandler indicates the performance of this type of word formation.

Thus,
the telescope — is a way of word formation, which is a merger of two
(or more) truncated bases or base to complete the merger truncated,
in which formed a new word that combines all or part of the value of
its structural components.

Studying
the study of domestic and foreign linguists on the creation
skladnoskorochenyh words, the analysis of different approaches to
this process of word formation, we must consider structural criteria
(plan statement or expression) and semantic criterion (of the
content).

The
formation of words Telehandler necessarily involves two successive
stages provided the two initial elements: the first stage — the
truncation of one or two bases; second — drawing truncated bases.

Studying
the study of domestic and foreign linguists on the creation compound-
reduced
words, the analysis of different approaches to this process of word
formation, we must consider structural criteria (plan statement or
expression) and semantic criterion (of the content).

The
formation of words Telehandler necessarily involves two successive
stages provided the two initial elements: the first stage — the
truncation of one or two bases; second — drawing truncated bases.

There
are different classifications of distribution telescopic
word-structural types. Due to them, we can offer three groups:
Telehandler words full, partial and haplolohy or «false.»
Full Telehandler words formed by merging two or more bases in the
truncated one new word [20, 11]. In turn, this group can be divided
into five groups:

1.
The words formed by the combination of two truncated forms the
starting point, or «bars»:

Appestat
< appe(tite) + (thermo)stat; avionics < avi(ation) +
(electr)onics; buppie < b(lack) + (y)uppie; Clariphane <
clari(ty) + (cello)phane; cockapopso < cockapo(o) + (Lhasa a )pso;
Eisencrat < Eisen(hawer) + (Demo)crat; globflation < glob(al) +
(in)flation; guppie < g(reen) + (y)uppie; Hurr Buster <
Hurri(cane) + (tank)-buster; infotainment < info(rmation) +
(enter)tainment; magdraulic < mag(netic) + (hy)draulic; medflation
< med(ical) + (in)flation; anagate < Pana(ma) + (Water)gate;
Perma-lastic < perma(nent) + (e)lastic; plench < pl(iers) +
(wr)ench; quadminimum < quad(ri-) + (condo)minimum; republocrat <
republ(ican) + (dem)ocrat; rockoon < rock(et) + (ball)oon;
simulcast < simul(taneous) + (broad)cast; sluppy < Sl(oane) +
(y)uppie; smaze < sm(oke) + (h)aze; soaperatic < soap (opera) +
(op)eratic; spammer < sp(ace) + (h)ammer; squack < squ(aw) +
(sh)ack; suppie < s(outhern) + (y)uppie; synchrotron <
synchro(nize) + (cyclo)tron; tenique < ten(sion) + (fat)igue;
Aluminaut < alumin(um) + (agro)naut; autel < aut(o) + (ho)tel;
cafetorium < cafet(eria) + (audi)torium; Eisenhopper <
eisenh(ower) + (grass)hopper; Infomercial < info/r/m(ation) +
(c)ommercial; motel < mot(or) + (h)otel; orature < ora(l) +
(lite)rature; patriotute < patriot(ic) + (prosti)tute; republicrat
< republic(an) + (demo)crat; vocumentary < voc(al) +
(d)ocumentary;Chinglish < Chinese + English; Indish < Indian +
English; Dinglish < Deutch + English; Singlish < Singapore +
English.

2.
Words are formed by a combination of start of the first and beginning
of the second component [20, 11]:

Britcom
< Brit(ish) com(edy) + (s)itcom; Alcan < Al(aska) + Can(ada);
bacitracin < baci(llus subtrilis) + Trac(y) + -in; Benelux <
Be(lgium) + Ne(therlands) + Lux(emburg); cockapoo < cocke(r
spaniel) + poo(dle); plexipave < plexi(glass?)+ pave(ment);
telecon < tele(type) + con(versation).

3.
The words formed by a combination of original parts based on the
original truncated words:

Benelux
< Belgium + Netherlands + Luxembourg; Fritalux < France + Italy
+ Benelux.

This
group should include the formation of a mixed nature, which are a
fusion of a truncated second component and abbreviations initialism:

Binac
< binary automatic computer; Caldic < California digital
intermidiate computor; Calutron < California University cyclotron;
Shoran < short range navigation.

4.
The words formed by the combination of the first beginning and middle
of the second component:

Confab
< confer + confabulation; Papreg < paper + impregnated; Russel
< russian + satellite.

5.
A small number of units of the group formed by merging the end of the
first component to the end of the second:

Memberlect
< remember + recollect; Phonematic < telephone + automatic;
Phonevision < telephone + television; Rosetry < prose + poetry.

The
second group is partial telescope – lexical units presented two
models [20, 12]:

1.
The combination of the first component in full form with the end of
the second:

Airbrasive
< air + (a)brasive; Asialationist < Asia + (iso)lationist;
Bean-o-tash < bean + (succ)otash; beefcake < beef +
(cheese)cake; bookvertising < book + (ad)vertising; car hop <
car + (bell)hop; carlegging < car + (boot)legging; cartnapper <
cart + (kid)napper; cheeseburger < cheese + (ham)burger; daddy
track < daddy + (mommy) track; fanzine < fan + (maga)zine;
Fleur –o-lier < fleur + o + (chande)lier; gasahol < gas +
(alc)ohol; grass trap < grass + (speed) trap; gray market <
gray + (black) market; gray marketeer < gray + (black) markrteer;
grayout < gray + (black)out; hot war < hot + (cold) war; Little
Bang < little + (Big) Bang; low-rise < low + (high)- rise;
lukewarm pants < lukewarm + (hot) pants; middlebrow < middle +
(high/low)-brow; monokini < mono + (bi)kini; moonquake < moon +
(earth)quake; Popsicle < pop + (i)cicle; potatophernalia <
potato + (para)phernalia; Pretoriastroika < Pretoria +
(pere)stroika; quadriminium < quadri- + (condo)minium; radiobotage
< radio + (sa)botage; radioboteur < radio + (sa)boteur;
RV-cationer < RV + (va)cationer; slumlord < slam + (land)lord;
space opera < space + (soap) opera; spud-ucopia < spud +
(corn)ucopia; squadrol < squad + (pat)rol; tank-dozer < tank +
(bull)dozer; turkeyfurter < (frank)furter; uraniumaire <
uranium + (million)aire; xericsaping <xeric + (land)scaping;
yuppieback < yuppie +(paper)back.

2.
The combination of the start of the first component with a second in
full form:

Adenovirus
< aden(oid) + o + virus; aeroneer < aeron(aut) + -eer;
alcometer < alco(hol) + meter; bar-b-burger < bar-b-(cue) +
burger; binac < bin(ary) + -ac; build-down < build(-up) + down;
femspeak < fem(inine) + speak; hit lady < hit (man) + lady; hit
woman < hit (man) + woman; hot lederhosen <hot (pants) +
lederhosen; near collision < near (miss) + collision; Okie <
Ok(ahoman) +-ie; ploughperson`s < plough(man)`s + person;
synchrocyclotron < synchro(nise) + cyclotron; transaxle <
trans(mission) + axle; vidspud < vid(eo) + spud; Waterbungler <
Water(gate) + bungler.

The
third group consists of the word haplologies [20, 12]. A
characteristic feature of the structure is the presence of total
sound (sounds) at the junction of components that are combined. There
is a blending of sounds one component to another:

Aerobat
< aero + (ac)robat; abroadcast < abroad + broadcast;
alcohollywood < alcohol + Hollywood; coronotion < coronation +
Notion; grumble < growl + rumble; autotel < auto + (h)otel;
beefalo < beef + (buf)falo; bidvertiser < bid + (a)dvertiser;
boatel < boat + (h)otel; confrontainment < confront +
(enter)tainment; dramedy < drama + (co)medy; ear-condition <
ear + (air)-condition; ecotage < eco- + (sab)otage; ecoteur <
eco- + (sab)oteur; electionomics < election + (ec)onomics;
fanference < fan + (co)nference; go-show < go + (n)o-show;
hairsatz < hair + (e)rsatz; handie-talkie < handy +
(walk)ie-talkie; inner space < inner + (out)er space; jetomic <
jet + (a)tomic; jigaboo < jig + (bu)gaboo; McGovernomics <
McGovern + (eco)nomics; Nixonomics < Nixon + (ec)onomics;
pencilatelist < pencil + (ph)ilatelist; Reaganaut < Reagan +
(argo)naut; Reaganomic < Reagan + (eco)nomic; Reaganomics <
Reagan + (eco)nomics; rockumentary < rock + (do)kumentary;
Tenderoni < tender + (mac)aroni; trainasium < trai +
(gym)nasium; cowfeteria <cow + c(a)feteria; Dixiecrat < Dixie +
D(emo)crat; Dixiecratic < Dixie + D(emo)cratic; turkeymallies <
turkey t(a)male; netiqurtte< net + etiquette; selectorate <
select + electorate; swellegant < swell + elegant; telectorate <
tele + electorate; televaglerizm < tele + evangelerizm.

With
telescopes could be mixing two values: smog <smoke + fog and the
typical for the derivation modification value of the base in order to
emphasize the semantics of existing words in the language:
begincement <beginning + commencement.
However,
most often the imposition of values, creating a more complex
semantics of phonetically simplified form: motel <motorist’s
hotel. However, the indisputable fact is that each of the structural
elements Telehandler words invests all or part of its value, and the
value Telehandler words can be a new — gerrymander <Elbridge Gerry
+ salamander («electoral fraud») — and not new, but
difficult: simulcast <simultaneous + broadcast («simultaneous
transmission by radio and television»).

Most
of the telescopic words this formation, the structure which is the
elements that are not repeated in other otochennyah with the same
value. If the structure part Telehandler words one component (base
uncircumcised source word) can freely operate in the language, the
second (truncated part of the foundations of the original words —
«antipersonnel» element) in most cases used only in one
formation and not found in a different environment.

«Fragmentation»
element (-thon, -rama, -tron, -cast, -tel) no longer relate to the
initial lexical items and is seen as a structural element with a
particular function and semantics.

It
has a telescopic word additional information was the result of an
unusual combination of its components.

Depending
on the nature of relations components Telehandler words are the
following semantic groups’ telescopes [20, 13]

1.
The value Telehandler words the sum of its components:

Oxbridge
<Oxford + Cambridge.

However,
this group can be identified formation, the significance of which,
although it is as the sum of the information-pieces embedded in
components Telehandler words, but bears no new semantic information
since the formation of such units is merging synonymous or similar in
syntactic relation of components to pass old concept or phenomenon of
reality emotional and expressive. In this case Telehandler word is
not a means of conveying semantic and emotional information:

Happenstance
<happen + circumstance (case); begin cement <beginning +
commencement (start); humongous <huge + monstrous (huge, huge).

2.
The second group includes telescopic formation, the significance of
which, although consisting of the values of its components, but does
not mean their sum. This value is not new or more complex it is wider
than the value Telehandler formation and contains further information
about the object or phenomenon of reality:

Euratom
<European + atom («European Atomic Community»); Macon
<mutton + bacon («lamb cooked like bacon»).

3.
A large group consists of words whose meaning consists of values
components, characters. Two components Telehandler words have
different semantic load. One of the components thus acts as a «base»
and is a major, major, and one complements the values transmitted
first component, said it and acts as a modifier of «basic»
element. The bulk of such entities are partial and haplology
Telehandler words. It
identified two groups of entities: a) Telehandler modifier words are
the first component and the second is the «base» element
Telehandler formation: naviator <navy + aviatir, airgation <air
+ navigation; b) formation in which first component acts as a «base»
and the second value of the first supplements, modifies yoho:
girlsical <girl + musical, criticular <critical + particular,
jetomic jet + atomic.

All
Telehandler words are secondary formations derived and so motivated.
Telehandler word motivation depends on many factors: the structure
Telehandler words (of its type), the structure of «fragmentation»
element and the frequency of its use, the development of «model
creation» in the formation Telehandler words.

Telehandler
words have a wide scope of application: household, scientific and
technological vocabulary, vocabulary from the sphere of cinema,
theater, art and literature, space and aviation, television and
broadcasting, military, socio-political, agricultural, economic,
medical vocabulary etc.

There
are different views on space telescopes System word building in
modern English language: should we refer to non-derivative
Telehandler creation of words, consider whether these entities in the
category compounding and abbreviations whether to allocate a separate
telescopes way of word formation. It is evident adjacent space of the
telescopes. The formation of words occurring two processes:
truncation of words based on the original, or at least one of them
and the merger of these foundations or truncated base with a
full-blown. Telehandler
words differ from complex that the second component of the telescopic
bases cannot freely operate in the language used and only the second
component Telehandler words. Full presented Telehandler word
«fragmentation» elements of both initial components.
Structural components of complete Telehandler words are dependent
forms that cannot operate freely in the language.

Compatible
telescopes and highlights some specificity. There are unique «Frag»
components that are repeated in other combinations: -thon, -cast,
-tel, -rama, -teria etc.

Such
elements tend to abstract affixed importance. Thus they have a
specific lexical meaning.

Telehandler
full of words like «fragmentation» elements tend to
derivatives.

Trend
Telehandler full of words adapted from one side to simple words and
the other to the derivatives and stresses the specificity and
contiguity telescopes [20, 13].

The
partial Telehandler words cannot be attributed to either complex or
derivative. The presence of «fragmentation» element
distinguishes telescopes of compounding. The frequency of
«fragmentation» elements in other environments Telehandler
brings partial to the original words, and they exhibit such elements
tend to move to affix.

Y.A.
Zatsny’s Studies have shown that «antipersonnel» element
can be part of the acronym [14, 88].

A
number of neologisms was created, for example, with the above trendy
acronym yuppie (young upwardly mobile professional person): buppie
(black + yuppie), guppie (green + yuppie), juppie (japanese +
yuppie), yummie (yuppie + muslim), yupsky (yuppie + mssky), chuppie
(chinese + yuppie), huppie (hippy + yuppie).

Telehandler
word character formation close to the lexical type abbreviations:
A-bomb, A-terror, T-word, S-word, etc. Characterized in that
«antipersonnel» element is part of a truncated based on the
original words and abbreviations containing lexical incorporates full
initial basis and abbreviations. They are initial letter and the
second component and are written with a hyphen. Telehandler words are
always written together and have integrally-decorated formations. As
for the operation, the abbreviations used to express the stylistic
variations of the word. The main purpose of telescopes is the
formation of new lexical units [20, 14].
Telescopes
according to some scientists are autonomous way derivation, as there
is a kind of «hybrid» form and word formation. In the
process of telescopes involved as mechanisms for recovery of
fundamentals (which are leading in compounding) and reduction
mechanisms, fragmentation words (which is typical for shaping).
Mechanisms
of telescopes have much in common with the compounding due to the
fact that the basis of education as telescopes and compound words
lexical items are free; both in terms of semantic derivation methods
are condensation semantics phrases within a single lexical unit;
basis for communication between components as composites and is
telescopes value basis. The main difference telescopes of compounding
are that they are based on the recovery of bases which partially or
completely lost their integrity.

Considering
the telescope is not for mention its role in the formation of new
word-building elements. Some elements within the architectonics
telescopes entities may, in the case of high frequency of use in
structurally similar tokens start functioning as word-building
formants. Word-building
elements, the source of creation were telescopes, as researchers
believe have a great potential because they cannot because of «damage
of» forms act as independent tokens, and this «lack»
creates the need accession to implement structural word potentials to
the full bases or for similar thereto.

Reduced
participation element in the creation of a number of words, in which
he acts as a typed value, helps to perpetuate in the minds of native
speakers affixed its status. Telescoping units are «artificial
product» is creation of a number of structurally similar lexical
units involving constant element is the prerogative affixed
derivation. In the case of similar to telescope new tokens of the
same component, the latter may become a word-building formants.
Such
items should be called «steam affixes» — word-formation
elements of transitional because they only undergo «affixation»:
in fact, they serve as the suffix or prefix, but they still kept
semantic correlation with their free counterparts.

Thus
reduction of speech mechanisms plays a leading role in the shaping
and word formation. In some cases the reduction is a key word and the
only mechanism word-creation, and in others it operates in a complex
of base-addition mechanisms. Replacement of lexical unit «more
economical source» is not only rationalization of speaking
native speakers but also optimize the formative processes. Reduced
sign language can be used in the speech message as an equivalent
substitute prototype tokens or can participate in the creation
hard-shortened words. Participation reduced vowels elements to create
hard-shortened words can create conditions for their fixation. Thus,
in the case of a similar telescope to a specific number of new
structurally similar words composed of permanent departure reduced
component, the latter can sometimes become a word-building affixes.

ability
способность,
inability
неспособность;
disability
нетрудоспособность able
способный, умелый
unable
неспособный
disabled
искалеченный; инвалид enable
дать возможность
disable
делать неспособным, калечить ably
умело, искусно absurdity
абсурдность absurd
абсурдный acceptability
приемлемость acceptable
приемлемый
unacceptable
неприемлемый accept
принимать, соглашаться access
доступ
accessibility
доступность accessible
доступный accessibly
доступно accident
случай, случайность accidental
случайный accidentally
нечаянно, случайно action
действие
actor
актер
actress
актриса
activity
активность
activities
деятельность
acting
представление active
активный
acting
действующий, работающей act
действовать actively
активно achievement
достижение achieve
достигать addiction
привычка, приверженность, увлеченность
addict
увлеченный человек, имеющий стойкую привычку addictive
способный вызывать привычку addict
увлекаться, предаваться admiration
восхищение admirable
восхитительный admire
восхищаться admirably
восхитительно advice
совет advisable
рекомендуемый advise
советовать affectation
притворство, искусственность
affection
привязанность, любовь affected
притворный
affectionate
любящий
affective
эмоциональный affect
воздействовать, влиять; притворяться agreement
соглашение, согласие
disagreement
разногласие, несогласие agreeable
соответствующий, приятный agree
соглашаться
disagree
не соглашаться agreeably
соответственно aggression
агрессия
aggressor
агрессору зачинщик aggressive
агрессивный aggress
нападать aggressively
агрессивно aim
цель aimless
бесцельный aim
целиться, намереваться aimlessly
бесцельно affordable
то, что может быть позволено
unaffordable
то, что невозможно себе позволить afford
позволять себе amusement
развлечение amused
приятно изумленный
amusing
забавный amuse
развлекать, забавлять amusedly
изумленно appearance
внешность; появление
disappearance
исчезновение appear
появляться
disappear
исчезать appointment
назначение; деловая встреча
disappointment
разочарование, досада appointed
назначенный
disappointed
огорченный
disappointing
разочаровывающий appoint
назначать
disappoint
разочаровывать approval
одобрение approved
одобренный
approving
одобрительный approve
одобрять approvingly
одобрительно arrangement
соглашение; расположение arranged
приведенный в порядок arrange
приводить в порядок, организовывать argument
аргумент, довод
argumentation
аргументация arguable
доказуемый (в споре)
argumentative
спорный, конфликтный argue
утверждать, спорить, ссориться argumentatively
доказательно appropriation
присвоение; ассигнование appropriate
подходящий, соответствующий
inappropriate
несоответствущий, неуместный appropriate
присваивать, предназначать appropriately
соответственно, подходяще arrival
прибытие arrive
прибывать, приезжать attraction
притяжение, привлекательность attracted
привлеченный
attractive
привлекательный attract
привлекать attractively
привлекательно avoidance
избежание, отмена avoidable
то, чего можно избежать
unavoidable
неизбежный avoid
избегать unavoidably
неизбежно beauty
красота; красавица beautiful
красивый beautify
украшать beautifully
красиво bearing
роды bearable
сносный, допустимый
unbearable
невыносимый bear
носить; терпеть unbearably
невыносимо belief
вера believable
вероятный, правдоподобный
unbelievable
невероятный believe
верить benefit
выгода beneficial
выгодный benefit
получать выгоду bore
зануда
boredom
скука bored
испытывающий скуку
boring
скучный, надоедливый bore
надоедать boringly
скучно breath
дыхание, дуновение
breathing
дыхание
breather
короткая передышка breathing
дышащий
breathless
бездыханный breathe
дышать breathlessly
затаив дыхание business
дело
businessman
деловой мужчина
businesswoman
деловая женщина busy
занятой
businesslike
деловой, практичный busy
занимать делом busily
деловито, по-деловому саrе
забота, уход careful
заботливый
careless
небрежный саrе
заботиться, любить carefully
заботливо
carelessly
небрежно celebration
празднование
celebrity
знаменитость celebrated
знаменитый, прославленный celebrate
праздновать, прославлять certainty
определенность
uncertainty
неопределенность, неуверенность certain
определенный
uncertain
неопределенный certainly
определенно, уверенно change
изменение; мелочь, сдача changeable
изменчивый
changed
изменившийся
changeless
неизменный
unchanged
не изменившийся change
менять; обменивать(ся) changelessly
неизменно character
характер characteristic
характерный, типичный characterise
характеризовать choice
выбор choosy
разборчивый choose
выбирать child
ребенок
children
дети childish
детский; ребяческий clearance
очистка; устранение препятствий clear
четкий, ясный clear
очищать, расчищать clearly
четко, ясно cloud
облако cloudy
облачный
cloudless
безоблачный collection
собрание; коллекция
collector
сборщик collective
коллективный, совокупный collect
собирать; коллекционировать colony
колония colonial
колониальный colonise / colonize
колонизировать colour
цвет colourful
цветной
colourless
бесцветный
multi-coloured
разноцветный colour
раскрашивать comfort
комфорт; утешение
discomfort
беспокойство; неудобство comfortable
удобный, комфортабельный
uncomfortable
неудобный comfort
утешать, успокаивать comfortably
удобно
uncomfortably
неудобно community
община, общество communal
общественный, коллективный communication
сообщение
communicator
коммуникатор, переговорщик communicative
использующийся в общении; коммуникативный communicate
сообщать; общаться comparison
сравнение compared
сравниваемый
comparative
сравнительный compare
сравнивать comparatively
сравнительно, относительно competition
соревнование; конкуренция
competitor
конкурент, соперник competitive
соревновательный compete
соревноваться, конкурировать competitively
в форме соревнования, конкуренции completion
завершение, окончание completed
законченный
complete
полный, завершенный
incomplete
неполный, назавершенный complete
заканчивать, завершать completely
полностью congratulation
поздравление congratulate
поздравлять connection
соединение, объединение connected
связанный, соединенный connect
соединять
disconnect
разъединять consideration
внимание; рассмотрение, обсуждение considerable
значительный
considerate
внимательный, деликатный, тактичный
inconsiderate
неосмотрительный; невнимательный к другим consider
считать, полагать; рассматривать considerably
значительно conscience
совесть conscientious
совестливый, добросовестный
conscientiousless
бессовестный conscientiously
добросовестно consciousness
сознание conscious
осознающий
unconscious
без сознания consciously
сознательно, осознанно consultation
консультация
consultant
консультант consulting
консультирующий consult
консультировать container
вместилище, контейнер containing
содержащий contain
содержать, вмещать continuity
непрерывность continuous
продолжающийся, длящийся continue
продолжать continuously
непрерывно control
управление, руководство controllable
поддающийся управлению
uncontrollable
неподдающийся управлению
controlled
управляемый
uncontrolled
неуправляемый control
управлять, регулировать uncontrollably
бесконтрольно conviction
убеждение convincing
убедительный
convinced
убежденный convince
убеждать convincingly
убедительно cook
повар
cooker
плита, духовка over-cooked
переваренный
under-cooked
недоваренный cook
готовить еду correction
исправление
corrector
корректор correct
правильный
incorrect
неправильный correct
исправлять correctly
правильно counter
прилавок
discount
скидка
accountant
бухгалтер countable
исчисляемый
uncountable
неисчисляемый count
считать uncountably
немеряно, без счета courage
храбрость courageous
храбрый
encouraged
воодушевленный
encouraging
подбадривающий
discouraged
обескураженный encourage
приободрять, поддерживать
discourage
отговаривать, обескураживать courageously
смело, храбро creation
создание
creativity
творчество
creator
творец, создатель
creature
творение; живое существо creative
творческий create
создавать, творить creatively
творчески credit
вера, доверие credible
вероятный, заслуживающий доверия
incredible
невероятный credibly
вероятно
incredibly
невероятно critic
критик
criticism
критика critical
критический; переломный; рискованный criticise
критиковать critically
критично, критически cultivation
культивация, обработка cultivated
культивированный, обработанный cultivate
обрабатывать culture
культура cultured
культурный, воспитанный
cultural
культурный (как часть культуры) culturally
культурно cure
лекарство; лечение curable
излечимый
incurable
неизлечимый cure
вылечивать, исцелять incurably
неизлечимо danger
опасность dangerous
опасный endanger
угрожать dangerously
опасно day
день daily
ежедневный daily
ежедневно deception
обман, заблуждение deceptive
обманчивый
deceitful
обманчивый, лживый deceive
обманывать deceitfully
обманчиво, предательски decision
решение decided
определенный, явный
undecided
нерешительный, неясный
decisive
решительный, убежденный, убедительный decide
решать, принимать решение decisively
решительно, определенно definition
определение definite
четкий, определенный
indefinite
неопределенный define
определять, давать определение definitely
определенно, ясно
indefinitely
нечетко, неопределенно delight
восторг, наслаждение delightful
восхитительный
delighted
польщенный delight
восхищаться delightfully
с восторгом delivery
доставка, поставка delivered
доставленный deliver
доставлять dependence
зависимость
independence
независимость dependent
зависимый
independent
независимый depend
зависеть independently
независимо depression
депрессия, подавленность depressive
депрессивный, вызывающий депрессию
depressed
подавленный depress
подавлять description
описание descriptive
описательный, наглядный describe
описывать design
проект, дизайн
designer
дизайнер, проектировщик design
проектировать desire
желание, стремление desirable
желательный, желаемый
undesirable
нежелательный desire
желать, стремиться desirably
желательно destruction
разрушение destroyed
разрушенный destroy
разрушать, уничтожать determination
решительность; определение determined
решительный determine
решать, определять development
развитие
developer
разработчик developed
развитой
developing
развивающийся
undeveloped
неразвитый develop
развивать(ся) dying
умирающий die
умирать difference
разница, различие
indifference
безразличие different
другой, отличающийся
indifferent
безразличный differ
отличаться differently
по-другому
indifferently
с безразличием disturbance
тревога, беспокойство; нарушение тишины, порядка disturbed
обеспокоенный
disturbing
беспокоящий disturb
беспокоить, мешать doubt
сомнение doubtful
сомнительный
doubtless
несомненный
undoubted
бесспорный doubt
сомневаться doubfully
с сомнением
doubtlessly
не сомневаясь
undoubtedly
без сомнения ease
легкость, свобода
disease
болезнь easy
легкий
uneasy
неловкий, тревожный ease
облегчать, ослаблять easily
легко
uneasily
неловко economy
хозяйство economic
экономический
economical
экономный economise
экономить economically
экономически; экономно educator
воспитатель, педагог
education
образование educated
образованный
uneducated
необразованный
educative
образовательный educate
воспитывать, давать образование effect
следствие, результат
effectiveness
эффективность effective
эффективный, действующий effect
производить, выполнять effectively
эффективно, действенно electricity
электричество
electrician
электрик electric
электрический electrify
электрифицировать empire
империя
empiror
император empire
имперский
empiric / empirical
исходящий из опыта, эмпирический employment
служба, работа
unemployment
безработица
employer
наниматель, работодатель
employee
работающий по найму employed
нанятый, занятый
unemployed
безработный employ
нанимать end
конец, окончание endless
бесконечный
unending
нескончаемый end
конец, окончание endlessly
бесконечно environment
окружающая среда environmental
природный entertainment
развлечение entertaining
развлекательный entertain
развлекать enthusiasm
энтузиазм, восторг
enthusiast
энтузиаст, восторженный человек enthusiastic
восторженный enthusiastically
с восторгом equipment
оборудование equipped
снаряженный, оборудованный equip
снаряжать essence
сущность essential
главный, основной essentially
главным образом examination / exam
экзамен; медосмотр examined
проэкзаменованный; осмотренный врачом examine
экзаменовать; осматривать excitement
возбуждение, волнение exciting
возбуждающий
excitable
возбудимый
excited
возбужденный, взволнованный excite
возбуждать, волновать excitedly
взволнованно, возбужденно expectation
ожидание, предчувствие expected
ожидаемый
unexpected
неожиданный expect
ожидать, предчувствовать expence(s)
расход(ы), затраты expensive
дорогой
inexpensive
недорогой expend
тратить, расходовать expensively
дорого experience
опыт, опытность
inexperience
неопытность
experiment
эксперимент experienced
опытный
inexperienced
неопытный
experimental
эспериментальный experience
испытывать explosion
взрыв
explosive
взрывчатое вещество explosive
взрывчатый explode
взрываться expression
выражение expressive
выразительный express
выражать expressively
выразительно extent
пространство, степень extended
длительный,обширный
extensive
обширный extend
простираться, тянуться extensively
обширно, протяженно extreme
крайняя степень, крайность extreme
крайний, чрезвычайный extremely
крайне fascination
очарование, обаяние fascinating
чарующий
fascinated
очарованный fascinate
очаровывать fairness
справедливость; порядочность fair
порядочный, справедливый
unfair
несправедливый fairly
справедливо, честно; довольно-таки finance
финансы financial
финансовый finance
финансировать financially
финансово firmness
твердость firm
твердый affirm
утверждать firmly
твердо fitness
физическая форма, физическое состояние fit
находящийся в хорошей форме; подходящий
unfit
неподходящий fit
подгонять, подстраивать following
следующий follow
следовать fool
глупыш, дурак foolish
глупый fool
обманывать foolishly
глупо forgettable
забываемый
unforgettable
незабываемый
forgetful
забывчивый
forgotten
забытый forget
забывать forgiveness
прощение forgiving
прощающий
forgivable
простительный
unforgivable
непростительный forgive
прощать forgivingly
с прощением fortune
судьба, счастье; богатство, состояние fortunate
счастливый
unfortunate
несчастный fortunately
к счастью
unfortunately
к сожалению freedom
свобода free
свободный; бесплатный freely
свободно frequency
частота frequent
частый frequent
часто посещать frequently
часто friend
друг
friendship
дружба
friendliness
дружелюбие friendly
дружеский, дружелюбный
unfriendly
недружеский in a friendly way / manner
дружелюбно fright
страх, испуг frightful
страшный
frightened
испуганный
frightening
пугающий frighten
пугать, устрашать frightfully
страшно; испуганно generosity
щедрость generous
щедрый generously
щедро gentleman
джентльмен gentle
мягкий, нежный gently
мягко, нежно ghost
привидение, призрак ghostly
похожий на привидение grass
трава grassy
травяной habit
привычка, обычай
habitant
обитатель
habitat
естественная среда
habitation
жилище, обиталище habitual
привычный habituate
приучать habitually
обычно hand
рука; рабочий
handful
горсть handy
удобный (для использования)
handmade
изготовленный вручную hand
вручать happiness
счастье
unhappiness
несчастье happy
счастливый
unhappy
несчастный happily
счастливо
unhappily
несчастливо harm
вред harmful
вредный
harmless
безвредный harm
повредить, навредить harmfully
вредно health
здоровье healthy
здоровый
unhealthy
нездоровый home
дом, жилище homeless
бездомный honour
честь honourable
почетный honour
почитать, чтить honourably
почетно hope
надежда
hopefulness
оптимизм, надежда hopeful
надеющийся
hopeless
безнадежный hope
надеяться hopefully
с надеждой humanity
человечество human
человеческий
humane
гуманный
inhuman
бесчеловечный
humanitarian
гуманитарный humour
юмор humorous
юмористический humorously
с юмором hurry
спешка hurrying
торопливый, спешащий
hurried
торопливый hurry
торопиться hurriedly
торопливо ice
лед icy
ледяной importance
важность important
важный
unimportant
незначительный importantly
важно impression
впечатление impressed
впечатленный
impressive
впечатляющий
unimpressed
безучастный impress
производить впечатление impressively
впечатляюще improvement
улучшение improved
улучшенный improve
улучшать impulse
толчок, побуждение impulsive
импульсивный impulsively
импульсивно incident
несчастный случай; конфликт, инцидент incidental
случайный incidentally
случайно increase
рост, увеличение increasing
растущий increase
увеличивать(ся) increasingly
с ростом industry
промышленность industrial
промышленный
industrious
трудолюбивый. усердный industrialise
индустриализовать industrially
в промышленном отношении information
сообщение, информация
informant
осведомитель
formality
формальность informed
осведомленный
well-informed
знающий, хорошо информированный
misinformed
неверно информированный
formal
формальный, официальный
informal
неофициальный inform
информировать
misinform
неверно сообщать; дезинформировать informationally
информационно intensity
интенсивность intensive
интенсивный intensify
интенсифицировать intensively
интенсивно interest
интерес interested
заинтересованный
interesting
интересный interest
интересовать inventor
изобретатель
invention
изобретение inventive
изобретательный invent
изобретать inventively
изобретательно invitation
приглашение invited
приглашенный invite
приглашать inspiration
вдохновение inspired
вдохновленный
inspiring
вдохновляющий inspire
вдохновлять knowledge
знание
acknowledgement
признание; расписка acknowledged
признанный acknowledge
признавать, подтверждать legality
законность, легальность legal
юридический, законный
illegal
незаконный, подпольный legalize
легализовать legally
законно
illegally
незаконно likeness
сходство, подобие likeable
приятный
unlike
непохожий
like
аналогичный like
относиться хорошо
dislike
относиться отрицательно likely
вероятно
unlikely
невероятно
unlike
в отличие life
жизнь
living
жизнь lively
оживленный, веселый
live
актуальный, реальный live
жить in a lively way
оживленно literature
литература literal
буквальный
literary
литературный
literate
грамотный
illiterate
неграмотный literally
буквально location
место, поселение local
местный locate
размещать locally
в определенном месте loneliness
одиночество lonely
одинокий; один luck
удача lucky
удачливый
unlucky
неудачливый, неудачный luckily
к счастью luxury
роскошь luxurious
шикарный majority
большинство major
главный, основной manager
управляющий, руководитель managerial
управленческий manage
управлять; справляться marriage
женитьба married
женатый / замужняя
unmarried
неженатый / незамужняя marry
жениться meeting
встреча; собрание meet
встречать, знакомиться memory
память
memorial
мемориал memorial
памятный memorise
заучивать наизусть misery
нищета miserable
нищенский, ничтожный month
месяц monthly
ежемесячный monthly
ежемесячно motion
движение motionless
неподвижный motion
показывать жестом mystery
тайна, загадка mysterious
таинственный, загадочный mysteriously
таинственно, загадочно necessity
необходимость necessary
необходимый
unnecessary
ненужный necessarily
необходимо nerve
нерв nervous
нервный ennerve
нервировать nervously
нервно number
число; количество numerous
многочисленный
numerate
умеющий считать
innumerate
неумеющий считать number
обозначать цифрами object
объект, предмет
objective
цель; возражение objective
объективный object
возражать objectively
объективно obstinate
упрямый obstinately
упрямо occurrence
случай, происшествие occur
происходить operation
операция; оперирование, приведение в действие operate
управлять, действовать opportunity
возможность
opportunist
оппортунист opportune
своевременный, подходящий opposition
оппозиция, противостояние
opponent
оппонент, противник opposite
напротив
opposed
противоположный oppose
противопосталять owner
владелец, хозяин own
собственный own
владеть pain
боль painful
болезненный
painless
безболезненный painfully
болезненно
painlessly
безболезненно patience
терпение
impatience
нетерпение
patient
пациент patient
терпеливый
impatient
нетерпеливый patiently
терпеливо
impatiently
нетерпеливо participant
участник
participation
участие participating
участвующий participate
принимать участие particulars
подробности particular
особенный particularly
особенно perfection
совершенство perfect
совершенный, идеальный
imperfect
несовершенный perfect
совершенствовать, улучшать perfectly
отлично, безупречно period
период, срок periodical
периодический periodically
периодически performance
представление; исполнение
performer
исполнитель perform
исполнять, выполнять, совершать peace
мир, спокойствие peaceful
мирный peacefully
мирно permission
разрешение
permissiveness
вседозволенность
permit
пропуск permissive
позволяющий permit
позволять permissively
с позволением pleasure
удовольствие pleasant
приятный
pleased
довольный
displeased
недовольный please
доставлять удовольствие pleasantly
приятно point
точка; пункт pointed
остроконечный, нацеленный
pointful
уместный, удачный
pointless
бесцельный point
указывать, направлять pointedly
остро, по существу politeness
вежливость polite
вежливый
impolite
невежливый politely
вежливо popularity
популярность popular
популярный
unpopular
непопулярный popularise
популяризировать possession
владение, собственность
possessor
обладатель, владелец possessive
собственнический possess
владеть, обладать possibility
вероятность, возможность possible
возможный
impossible
невозможный possibly
возможно power
сила, мощь powerful
мощный
powerless
бессильный empower
уполномочивать preference
предпочтение preferable
предпочтительный
preferential
пользующийся препочтением prefer
предпочитать preferably
предпочтительно preparation
подготовка prepared
подготовленный
unprepared
неподготовленный prepare
подготовить preparedly
с готовностью prestige
престиж prestigious
престижный prestigiously
престижно profession
профессия professional
профессиональный professionally
профессионально profit
выгода profitable
выгодный
unprofitable
не приносящий выгоды profit
получать выгоду profitably
выгодно progress
прогресс, продвижение progressive
прогрессивный progress
продвигаться вперед progressively
постепенно, продвигаясь вперед proposal
предложение proposed
предложенный propose
делать предложение prosperity
процветание prosperous
процветающий prosper
процветать prosperously
процветающе public
общественность public
общественный publicise
разглашать publicly
открыто, публично quickness
быстрота quick
быстрый quicken
убыстрять quickly
быстро reality
реальность
realization
реализация, осуществление real
реальный, настоящий
unreal
нереальный realize
реализовать, осуществлять really
действительно, в самом деле recognition
признание, узнавание recognised
признанный recognise
узнавать; признавать reduction
снижение, понижение reduced
уменьшенный; сниженный reduce
снижать; сбавлять relaxation
отдых, расслабление relaxed
расслабленный
relaxing
отдыхающий; расслабляющий relax
отдыхать, расслабляться relaxedly
расслабленно reliability
надежность reliable
надежный
unreliable
ненадежный rely
доверять, полагаться reliably
надежно religion
религия religious
религиозный reluctance
нежелание, неохота reluctant
неохотный reluctantly
неохотно regularity
регулярность
irregularity
нерегулярность regular
регулярный, правильный
irregular
неправильный; нестандартный regulate
регулировать regularly
регулярно remark
замечание remarkable
замечательный remark
замечать, отмечать remarkably
замечательно representation
представление
representative
представитель representative
представительный represent
представлять reproach
упрек irreproachable
безупречный reproach
упрекать reproachingly
с упреком reputation
репутация reputated
имеющий хорошую репутацию, почтенный
disreputable
имеющий плохую репутацию repute
давать репутацию
disrepute
компрометироватъ resistance
сопротивление resistible
ударопрочный;
irresistible
неотразимый
resistant
прочный resist
сопротивляться irresistibly
неотразимо respect
уважение respectful
уважительный respect
уважать respectfully
с уважением rest
отдых restless
беспокойный rest
отдыхать restlessly
беспокойно reward
награда rewarding
стоящий награды
unrewarded
невознагражденный reward
награждать riches
богатства
richness
богатство rich
богатый enrich
обогащать richly
богато risk
риск risky
рискованный risk
рисковать sadness
грусть sad
грустный sadden
огорчать sadly
грустно safe
сейф
safety
безопасность safe
безопасный
unsafe
опасный save
спасать; экономить safely
безопасно satisfaction
удовлетворение
dissatisfaction
неудовлетворенность; недовольство satisfied
довольный
dissatisfied
недовольный
satisfactory
удовлетворительный
unsatisfactory
неудовлетворительный satisfy
удовлетворять
dissatisfy
разочаровывать; огорчать research
исследование search
искать, осуществлять поиск security
безопасность secure
безопасный
insecure
находящийся в опасности secure
охранять, гарантировать securely
безопасно seriousness
серьезность serious
серьезный seriously
серьезно science
наука
scientist
ученый scientific
научный scientifically
научно sense
чувство
insensibility
отсутствие чувствительности sensitive
чувствительный
insensitive
несочувствующий
sensible
разумный
insensible
нечувствительный, неосознающий sense
ощущать sensitively
чувствительно
sensibly
разумно service
услуга, обслуживание
servant
слуга served
обслуженный; поданный на стол serve
служить, обслуживать, подавать на стол significant
значительный
insignificant
незначительный signify
иметь значение significantly
значительно similarity
сходство, похожесть similar
похожий, подобный similarly
похоже, подобно sincerity
искренность sincere
искренний
insincere
неискренний sincerely
искренне shorts
шорты short
короткий shorten
укорачивать shortly
кратко sleep
сон
sleeper
спящий; спальный вагон sleeping
спящий
sleepless
бессонный sleep
спать sleeplessly
без сна solution
решение; раствор solved
решенный; растворенный solve
решать; находить выход; растворять speciality
специальность; фирменное блюдо
specialty
особенность special
особенный; специальный
specific
специфический specify
точно определять
specialize
специализировать(ся) specially
специально
specifically
специфично strength
сила strong
сильный strengthen
укреплять strongly
сильно stress
стресс stressful
стрессовый stress
ударять, ставить ударение stressfully
в состоянии стресса success
успех successful
успешный
unsuccessful
безуспешный succeed
преуспевать successfully
успешно sufñcience
достаточность
insufñcience
недостаточность sufficient
достаточный
insufficient
недостаточный suffice
быть достаточным sufficiently
достаточно suitable
подходящий
unsuitable
неподходящий suit
подходить, устраивать suggestion
предложение suggest
предлагать suspect
подозреваемый suspicious
подозрительный suspect
подозревать suspiciously
подозрительно swimmer
пловец
swimming
плавание swimming
плавающий, плавательный swim
плавать sympathy
сочувствие, понимание sympathetic
сочувствующий sympathize
сочувствовать sympathetically
с пониманием; сочувственно sureness
уверенность sure
уверенный
unsure
неуверенный
assured
обеспеченный; уверенный
self-assured
уверенный в себе ensure
обеспечивать; гарантировать
assure
уверять, обеспечивать surely
конечно; уверенно
assuredly
с уверенностью surrounding
окружение surrounded
окруженный surround
окружать talk
беседа, разговор talkative
разговорчивый talk
беседовать taste
вкус
distaste
отсуствие вкуса tasteful
сделанный со вкусом; обладающий вкусом
tasteless
безвкусный taste
пробовать tastefully
со вкусом
tastelessly
без вкуса terror
террор
terrorist
террорист terrible
ужасный
terrific
потрясающий
terrifying
ужасающий
terrified
напуганный terrify
ужасать terribly
ужасно
terrifically
потрясающе thirst
жажда thirsty
испытывать жажду tights
колготки tight
плотный, тесный tighten
сжимать, натягивать tightly
тесно, плотно thought
мысль thoughtful
задумчивый
thoughtless
бездумный think
думать, иметь мнение thoughtfully
задумчиво tragedy
трагедия tragic
трагичный
tragical
трагический tragically
трагично travelling
путешествие
traveller
путешественник travelling
путешествующий travel
путешествовать truth
правда
untruth
неправда true
правильный; настоящий
untrue
неверный, не соответствующий действительности
truthful
правдивый truly
по-настоящему, искренне
truthfully
правдиво value
ценность valued
ценимый
valuable
ценный value
ценить, оценивать variety
разнообразие
variability
изменчивость, непостоянство variable
изменяемый
invariable
неизменный vary
менять, разнообразить invariably
неизменно year
год yearly
ежегодный yearly
ежегодно understanding
понимание
misunderstanding
непонимание; недоразумение understandable
понятный understand
понимать use
польза
misuse
неправильное использование;
usage
использование useful
полезный
useless
бесполезный
used
использованный
unused
неиспользованный use
использовать, пользоваться usefully
полезно
uselessly
бесполезно week
неделя weekly
еженедельный weekly
еженедельно width
ширина wide
широкий widen
расширять widely
широко will
воля, желание; завещание willing
жаждущий, желающий
unwilling
не желающий will
проявлять волю, желать willingly
охотно, с удовольствием
unwillingly
неохотно wind
ветер windy
ветренный
windless
безветренный wisdom
мудрость wise
мудрый
unwise
неблагоразумный wisely
мудро
unwisely
неблагоразумно worth
стоимость, ценность worthy
достойный
worthless
не имеющий ценности

Word Formation Processes in English

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Admire God’s Creations

Definition

Word Formation Process (also called Morphological Process) is a means by which new words are produced either by modification of existing words or by complete innovation, which in turn become a part of the language.

Types of Word Formation Processes

Different types of word formation processes are employed to create new words. However, all word formation processes basically bring either inflectional or derivational changes. Therefore, inflection (also called inflexion) and derivation are the two core processes of word formation. Inflection differs from derivation to the following extent:

Inflection	Derivation
Produces grammatical variants of the same word.	Produces a new word on the basis of an existing word.
Modifies a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case.	Changes the word class (also called parts of speech; form class; lexical class; syntactic category).
Does not change the meaning of a word. For example: determine→ determines, determining, determined.	Modifies the meaning of the root. For example: modern → modernize (to make modern).

The major word formation processes include but are not limited to the following:

Affixation

It is a word formation process wherein an affix is attached to a root (also called stem; base) to form a new word. A root is a free morpheme (also called unbound morpheme) that can appear alone. On the other hand, an Affix is a bound morpheme which never occurs by itself, but is always attached to some free morpheme and can be either inflectional or derivational. An Inflectional affix modifies the form/grammatical category of a word, i.e., tense, person, number, gender, case, etc. For example: rat → rats. Contrariwise, a derivational affix modifies the parts of speech of the root, while leaving the grammatical category unchanged. In this way, there is a change of meaning of the root. For example: write → writer.

In English there are two types of affixations:

1. Prefixation: In this morphological process words are formed by adding an affix to the front of a root. The type of affix used in this process is referred to as prefix. For example: un + tidy → untidy
2. Suffixation: In this morphological process words are formed by adding an affix to the end of a root. The type of affix used in this process is referred to as suffix. For example: fear + less → fearless

Conversion

This refers to the change of function or parts of speech of a word without adding an affix. Conversion is also called zero derivation or null derivation since the functional change is brought about by supplementing an invisible affix. Sometimes it is also called functional shift. Typically conversion is made from “noun to verb” and from “verb to noun”. Less frequently, conversion is also done from “adjective to verb” and “adjective to noun”. For instance:

 Noun to Verb:  

• access
• email
• film
• name
• shape

Verb to Noun:

• attack
• alert
• hope
• increase
• visit
• cover

Adjective to Verb:

• brown
• black
• slow

Adjective to Noun:

• crazy
• nasty

Back-formation

Back-formation is a morphological process in which new word is created by extracting affixes from another word. In this way, it is the reverse of affixation, in which affixes are added. Back-formation is also different from clipping since it brings a change in the parts of speech or the word’s meaning. For example: the noun insertion has been back-formed into verb insert by removing the suffix ion.

Clipping

As the name suggests, clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced to a shorter form. With a sharp contrast to back-formation, clipping keeps the original word meaning intact. These words are very common in everyday speech. For instance: lab is the clipped form of laboratory. . There are four types of clippings:

1. Back clipping: (also called final clipping; apocope) it involves the truncation of end of a word as in ad from advertisement.
2. Fore-clipping: (also called initial clipping; apheresis) it is the removal of the beginning of a word as in phone from telephone.
3. Middle clipping: (also medial clipping; syncope) it is the extraction of the beginning and end of a word as in flu from influenza.
4. Complex clipping: is removing multiple parts from multiple words as in cablegram from cabletelegram.

Compounding

Also called composition, by this process two or more than two words are combined together to create a single word, having a single idea and function. In English, there are compound nouns, compound adjectives, and compound verbs. Customarily compound words are spelt as a single word, or as two or more hyphenated words, and even as two or more separate words. For example:

• life + style → lifestyle
• mother + in + law → mother-in-law
• shopping + mall → shopping mall

There are no specific rules for hyphenated compounds. Generally, some new and original compound nouns are hyphenated, but the hyphen is ignored when they become more familiar. However, there are some compound adjectives that are always hyphenated. For instance: state-of-the-art. The hyphen is often retained when two vowels come together, such as: Co-operation. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things, for example: 10-year-old. The general rule is that words are combined with hyphens to avoid confusion.

Borrowing

This refers to the words adopted from other languages. There are two types of borrowings:

1. Loan-word: By this process, a word is borrowed from another language without translating it into the target language. For example: the phrase tour-de-force is borrowed directly from French, which means a masterly or brilliant feat.
2. Loan-translation: Also known as calque, a morphological process wherein a word or phrase from another language is borrowed by literally translating it into the target language. For example: the phrase point of view has been translated into English from the French phrase point de vue.

Coinage

Also called invention, is a morphological process by which new words are invented. Sometimes popular trademark names of various products are adopted by people so extensively that they ultimately become the everyday words of language. For example:

• Heroin
• Aspirin
• Escalator
• Xerox
• Kerosene
• Nylon
• Band-Aid
• Vaseline
• Margarine
• Videotape

Again, some words are being invented due to rapid cultural changes and the spread of information technology, mass media, internet, etc. For example:

• Google
• Blog
• Hotspot
• Netbook
• Tablet
• Tweet
• Emoticon
• Smartphone

Blending

Blending (also called portmanteau) is a morphological process in which the parts of two or more words are combined together to form a new word. Usually, the parts consist of the beginning of one word and the end of the other word(s). Typically, the meaning of the blended word reverberates with the meanings of the original words. For example:

• breakfast + lunch → brunch
• motor+hotel → motel

However, blending should not be confused with compounding, which combines two words without truncation of parts of the roots of the blended words.

Acronyms

These words are formed with the initial letters or each of the major parts of a word or a longer phrase. With a few exceptions, acronyms are usually capitalized. Some linguists confuse acronyms with initialisms, which are also abbreviations formed in the similar manner as the former. In essence, there is a sharp difference between the two. In language, an acronym is pronounced as a single word rather than just a sequence of individual letters, which is characteristic of initialisms. For example:
Acronyms:

• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization → UNESCO
• Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation → Laser
• International Criminal Police Organization → Interpol

Initialisms:

• Personal Computer → PC
• Asian Development Bank → ADB
• Liquid Crystal Display → LCD

Reduplication

Reduplication (also called cloning; doubling; duplication; repetition; tautonym) is a word formation process in which a new word is created by repeating all or part of a root or a stem, often with a change of vowel or initial consonant. Reduplication is not a major means of creating lexemes in English, but it is perhaps the most unusual one. Based on their usage, the techniques of reduplication could be classified in the following manner:

1. Repetition without Change: bye-bye, tick-tick
2. Rhyming Reduplication: ding-dong, super-duper, bow-wow
3. Repetition with Change of Vowel: tiptop, chitchat, flip-flop, ping-pong, dilly-dally, wishy-washy
4. Repetition with Change of Initial Consonant: teeny-weeny

 

 

 

References

“English Word Formation Processes.” Really Learn English. 2016. Really-Learn-English.com.

14 July 2016 <http://www.really-learn-english.com/word-formation-processes.html>.

 “Inflection.” Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 July 2016

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection>.

“Morphological Derivation.” Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 July 2016

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_derivation>.

Yule, George. The Study of Language. 2^nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

“Word Formation.” Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 July 2016

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation>.

Word formation

Nowadays, the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new vocabulary units. There are numerous word formation processes.

Clipping

Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (Marchand: 1969). Clippings are, also, known as “shortenings.”Clipping mainly consists of the following types:

1. Back clipping b. Fore-clipping c. Middle clipping d. Complex clipping

Back clipping

Back clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. For example: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc(doctor), exam (examination), gas (gasoline), math (mathematics), memo(memorandum), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium) mutt (muttonhead), pub(public house), pop (popular concert), trad (traditional jazz), fax(facsimile).

Fore-clipping

Fore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. For Example: phone(telephone), varsity (university), chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator(alligator), pike (turnpike).

Middle clipping

In middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. For Example: flu (influenza), tec (detective), polly (apollinaris), jams (pyjamas), shrink (head-shrinker).

Complex clipping

Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. For examples are: cablegram (cabletelegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man)

Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear.

Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or shortened without changing the meaning of the word. Clipping differs from back-formation in that the new word retains the meaning of the original word. For example:

• advertisement – ad
• alligator – gator
• examination – exam
• gasoline – gas
• gymnasium – gym
• influenza – flu
• laboratory – lab
• mathematics – math
• memorandum – memo
• photograph – photo
• public house – pub
• raccoon – coon
• reputation – rep
• situation comedy – sitcom
• telephone – phone

Types of clipping

There are four types of clipping:

Back clipping

In this type the beginning is retained:

Examples:

ad = advertisement

cable = cablegram

doc = doctor

exam = examination

fax = facsimile

gas = gasoline

gym = gymnastics, gymnasium

memo = memorandum

pub = public house

pop = popular music

Fore-clipping

The final part is retained:

Examples:

chute = parachute

coon = raccoon

gator = alligator

phone = telephone

Middle clipping

The middle part is retained.

Example:

flu = influenza

fridge = refrigerator

Complex clipping

Clipping may also occur in compounds. In complex clipping, one part of the original compound most often remains intact. But sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped:

Examples:

cablegram= cable telegram

op art = optical art

org-man= organization man

linocut = linoleum cut

navicert = navigation certificate

sitcom = situation comedy

When both halves are clipped, as in navicert, it becomes confusing whether to consider the resultant formation as clipping or as blending.

Clipped forms, shortened abbreviations of words, have a checkered history. Some are acceptable in formal writing, and others aren’t. When writing in academic contexts, in business writing, or another formal environment, take note of the status of these common clipped forms:

1. Burger: If ever a reference to this fast food staple makes its way into formal writing, the short form of hamburgeris just as likely to appear as the long form.
2. Bus: Omnibus(Latin for “all”), a word for a horse-drawn public-transportation conveyance, gave the right of way to its short form around the time such vehicles became motorized.
3. Copter: The full form, helicopter, is best for formal writing.
4. Deli: Though this word has been in use for at least a half century, delicatessen, from the German word for “delicacies,” is best for formal usage.
5. Exam: Examinationwas clipped back in the late 1800s and has long since been used even in formal writing.
6. Flu: The short form of influenza(Italian for “influence,” from the medieval supposition that illness was the result of celestial perturbations) is several hundred years old and has long been acceptable even in formal medical texts.
7. Fridge: This term, unusual not only in that the full form, refrigerator, has been clipped at both ends but also in that the spelling has been altered to reflect the pronunciation, is suitable for informal writing only.
8. Gas: Gasolineis much more likely to appear in formal writing than its clipped form.
9. Gator: This clipped form of alligator, in spite of its nearly 200-year-old tenure in the English language, is considered slang.
10. Gym: Most formal references to a school building for athletic activities will use the full form, gymnasium,
11. Memo: So pervasive is this clipped form of memorandumthat many people may not even know its origins. (The full word ultimately derives from the Latin for “memory.”)
12. Movie: Even more taken for granted than memo is this diminutive form of “moving picture,” which, if you step back from it, may appear silly looking and juvenile. Formal writing often refers to the medium as film or cinema, but movieis also acceptable.
13. Phone: The original term, telephone, is still often used in formal writing, but the clipped form is just as likely to be used.
14. Plane: Plane has become as acceptable as airplanein formal writing.
15. Pro: Professional, the full form, is the preferred usage in formal contexts.
16. Quake: This clipped form of earthquakeis, despite long usage, still considered informal.
17. Tie: The full form, necktie, is all but obsolete. (Perhaps the clothing accessory will be, too, before long.)
18. Typo: This slang for “typographical error” is over a century old but is still considered substandard usage.

Some more examples:

auto – automobile	mike – microphone
bike – bicycle	mum – chrysanthemum
burger – hamburger	pen – penitentiary
co-op – cooperative	champ – champion
con – convict	pike – turnpike
cuke – cucumber	rev – revolution
dorm – dormitory	rhino – rhinoceros
ref – referee	specs – spectacles; specifications
stats – statistics	stereo – stereophonics
lunch – luncheon	sub – submarine
grad – graduate	taxi – taxicab
tux – tuxedo	teen – teenager
hippo – hippopotamus	van – caravan
limo – limousine	vet – veteran; veterinarian
alum – alumni	bro – brother
mart market

Clipped Words Used in Sentences

advertisement	ad
All company’s spend a lot of money on ads

hamburger	burger
Burger does not suit old people

omnibus	bus
The tourist bus broke down near Paris

helicopter	copter
The copter forces landed in the disturbed areas to stem the communal violence

demonstration	demo
BPL company conducted a demo at Paris corner of easy washing

ampere	amp
It is an 40 amp bulb

motor bike	bike
Ajith had just brought a very expensive bike.

suitcase	case
There are bundles of currency notes inside the case.

pressure cooker	cooker
Cookers are now available for even $20/-

discotheque	disco
Disco is not a part of Italian culture

diskette	disc
I saved all the word documents in a Compact disc

gasoline	gas
Gas has become an expensive fuel for low income group families.

bridegroom	groom
Groom is wanted for a 22 year old Cristian community girl drawing $8000/-PM in an MNC.

gymnasium	gym
My uncle goes to the gym early morning.

killogram	kilo
Get me a kilo of mangoes.

memorandum	memo
The managing director issued a memo to the head clerk.

micro phone	mic
This mic doesn’t work properly.

non-vegetarian	non-veg
He is a non-veg.

spectacles	specs
She cannot read without specs.

storehouse	store
Jems works in a store.

fountain pen	pen
Pen is mightier than sward

perambulator	param
The mother took the child out in a param.

university	varsity
London varsity has renovated its auditorium

vegetarian	veg
She regularly eats her dinner in a veg mess.

veterinary surgeon	vet
I took my cat to the vet.

fascimile	Fax
I got a fax copy of the conference notice yesterday.

handkerchief	karchief
I have lost my karchief yesterday.

aeroplane	plane
Sarah was excited as she was to travel by plane for the first time.

laboratory	lab
This college has five labs.

refrigerator	fridge
Having firdge is not a luxury but a necessity.

pantaloons	pants
The clown at the circus wore a very loose pants.

tubelight	tube
The tube of our hall didn’t work from yesterday.

mathematics	maths
She is our maths teacher.

centum	cent
We have been living in the 21st cent.

bicycle	cycle
David presented a cycle to John on his birthday.

alchemist	chemist
We have a chemist on the corner of our street.

influenza	flu
I was suffering from flu.

examination	exam
She is preparing for her exam.

luncheon	lunch
I invited my close friends for lunch.

photograph	photo
My friend got my photo to keep it with herself.

signature	sign
Akbar’s sign is totally illegible.

newscast	news
Every day I watch news in the TV.

telephone	phone
I contacted him over phone.

mummy	mum
Where is your mum?

daddy	dad
Where does your dad work?

identity	ID
Please, show me your ID.

curiosity	curio
We visited a curio shop.

demarcate	mark
They marked the boundaries.

tram car	tram
We travelled in a tram in London.

public house	pub
The couple were found in a local pub.

fanatic	fan
He is a fan of Arnold Schwarzenegger.

telephone	phone
Our Principal contacted the chief guest over the phone.

taxicab	taxi
I hired a taxi to go home.

topbrass	brass
The meeting was attended by diplomats and the top military brass.

newsflash	flash
We interrupt this programme to bring you a flash.

okay	ok
Did the head office ok the proposal?

rehabilitate	rehab
Lora saved all her money in order to send her husband for a rehab programme.

popmusic	pop
Michael Jackson is the king of pop.

pathway	path
The tourist chose the wrong path when they went for sight-seeing.

hitchhike	hitch
Can you give me a hitch till Mount Road?

zoological park	zoo
The little children love to visit a zoo.

Clip Word	Original Word	Clip Word	Original Word
wig	periwig	margarine	oleomargarine
lube	lubricate	mend	amend
miss	mistress	pants	pantaloons
mod	modern	bust	burst
caf	cafeteria	pen	penitentiary
calc	calculus	pep	pepper
canter	Canterbury gallop	perk	percolate
cent	centum	perk	perquisite
chem	chemistry	photo	photograph
chemist	alchemist	pike	turnpike
clerk	cleric	pop	popular
coed	coeducational student	prof	professor
curio	curiosity	prom	promenade
deb	debutante	cab	cabriolet
deli	delicatessen	doc	doctor
drape	drapery	rev	revolution
exam	examination	scram	scramble
fan	fanatic	sport	disport
gab	gabble	still	distill
tails	coattails	sub	submarine
hack	hackney	trig	trigonometry
iron	flatiron	trump	triumph
jet	jet aircraft	varsity	university
pianoforte	piano	public house	pub

Acronyms

Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations, such as NATO, LASER, and IBM that are formed using the initial letters of words or word parts in a phrase or name. Acronyms and initialisms are usually pronounced in a way that is distinct from that of the full forms for which they stand: as the names of the individual letters (as in IBM), as a word (as in NATO), or as a combination (as in IUPAC). Another term, alphabetism, is sometimes used to describe abbreviations pronounced as the names of letters.

Categories of acronyms

• Pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters: FNMA: (Fannie Mae) Federal National Mortgage Association, NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
• Pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters: Amphetamine: Alpha-methyl-phenethylamine ,Gestapo: GeheimeStaatspolizei (“secret state police”)
• pronounced only as the names of letters: BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation, DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
• shortcut incorporated into name: W3C: (double-u three cee)- World Wide Web Consortium, W3M: (three em) originally Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company
• Recursive acronyms, in which the abbreviation itself is the expansion of one initial (particularly enjoyed by the open-source community): VISA: VISA International Service Association, GNU: GNU’s Not Unix!
• pseudo-acronyms are used because, when pronounced as intended, they resemble the sounds of other words: ICQ: “I seek you” , IOU: “I owe you“
• multi-layered acronyms: GAIM: GTK+ AOL Instant Messenger, i.e. GIMP Tool Kit America OnLine Instant Messenger, i.e. GNU Image Manipulation Program Tool Kit America OnLine Instant Messenger, i.e. GNU’s Not Unix Image Manipulation Program Tool Kit America OnLine Instant Messenger, VHDL: VHSIC Hardware Description Language, i.e. Very High Speed Integrated Circuits Hardware Description Language

What Is the Difference Between an Abbreviation and an Acronym?

Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or phrases. An abbreviation is typically a shortened form of words used to represent the whole (such as Dr. or Prof.) while an acronym contains a set of initial letters from a phrase that usually form another word (such as radar or scuba).

Abbreviations and acronyms are often interchanged, yet the two are quite distinct. The main point of reference is that abbreviations are merely a series of letters while acronyms form new words.

Each one allows writers to make large blocks of text easier to read. Beware that both abbreviations and acronyms are typically considered informal and should be carefully considered before including them in more formal writings.

Abbreviations or Acronyms

There’s a great deal of overlap between abbreviations and acronyms. It’s worth pointing out that an acronym is a type of abbreviation because acronyms are shortened forms of words and phrases.

Abbreviations

Let’s take a closer look at abbreviations. As we know, an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase, such as Mr. for Mister, or hr. for hour that is still said as the full word or words.

There are millions of common abbreviations used every day. Let’s take a look at some of the popular ones we see and/or use almost daily.

• When you write your address, you likely write “St.” or “Ave.” instead of “Street” or “Avenue”.
• When you record the date, you likely abbreviate both the days of the week (Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat., and Sun.) and the months of the year (Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.).
• Often, we use the abbreviation “Ex.” for the word “example”.
• Measurements are commonly reduced to abbreviations such as “cm” for “centimeters” or “in.” for “inch”.
• How about “vs.”? That’s another popular abbreviation, shortened from the word “versus”.

Tightening “December” to “Dec.” is an abbreviation because “Dec.”is simply a written shorthand for the full word. It’s not an acronym since “Dec.” isn’t said as a word.

You may have wondered why some abbreviations, like those for ounce (oz) and pound (lb) use letters that aren’t part of the original word. In these cases the abbreviations are based on older forms of the word.

Acronyms

An acronym, technically, must spell out another word. This is a good point of reference to help you distinguish between abbreviations and acronyms. Another good way to differentiate them is that acronyms don’t just shorten words, they often simplify a long organization name, scientific term or idea.

Some acronyms create new words that are so commonly used, we forget they’re actually a series of letters from a longer word or phrase. For example, when we go scuba diving, we rarely consider the fact that scuba is an acronym of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.

Then there are initialisms which cause some confusion. Would you consider “VIP” to be an acronym? Technically, it’s an initialism. Initialisms are a series of initial letters of words or a phrase that form an abbreviation but aren’t pronounced as a word. We enunciate each letter.

NBA is another initialism. How about when you text “rofl”? That’s another initialism, as is “BLT”. Many consider initialisms to be a subset of acronyms-therefore whether you pronounce ASAP as a word or enunciate each letter, it’s still an acronym-but be aware that others say it is another form of abbreviation.

Like abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms are used daily and most people can interpret the meaning of common acronyms without much thought.

Let’s test our knowledge with a few more examples:

Acronyms (form new words)	Initialisms (pronounce each letter)
radar (radio detection and ranging)	ATM (automated teller machine)
scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)	NFL (National Football League)
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)	FAQ (frequently asked questions)
laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)	brb (be right back)
POTUS (President of the United States)	idk (I don’t know)
gif (graphics interchange format)	a/c (air conditioning)
SIM card (subscriber identification module)	aka (also known as)
ZIP code (zone improvement plan)	fyi (for your information)
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)	lcd (liquid crystal display)
taser (Thomas A. Swift’s Electric Rifle)	ufo (unidentified flying object)

Keep it Short

Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened versions of words and phrases that help speed up our communication. Initialisms act in the same way. Before you use any type of abbreviation consider your audience; are you writing something formal or informal? Will everyone understand the meaning of your abbreviated word or letters? If you need to explain the abbreviation, write out the word or phrase in full first followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.

Blending:

A blend is a word formed from parts of two other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes. A blend is different from a portmanteau word in that a portmanteau refers strictly to a blending of two function words, similar to a contraction.

Formation of Blendings: Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:

1. The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other. For Example: brunch (breakfast and lunch).
2. The beginnings of two words are combined. For Example: cyborg (cybernetic and organism)
3. One complete word is combined with part of another word. For Example: guesstimate (guess and estimate)
4. Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For Example: Californication (from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend of California and fornication)
5. Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving the sounds’ order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds of blends. This method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of Carroll’s verbal wit. For Example: slithy (lithe and slimy).

Blending is the word formation process in which parts of two or more words combine to create a new word whose meaning is often a combination of the original words. For example:

• advertisement + entertainment → advertainment
• biographical + picture → biopic
• breakfast + lunch → brunch
• chuckle + snort → chortle
• cybernetic + organism → cyborg
• guess + estimate → guesstimate
• hazardous + material → hazmat
• motor + hotel → motel
• prim + sissy → prissy
• simultaneous + broadcast → simulcast
• smoke + fog → smog
• Spanish + English → Spanglish
• spoon + fork → spork
• telephone + marathon → telethon
• web + seminar → webinar
• afterthoughtful (afterthought + thoughtful)

• agitprop (agitation + propaganda)
• alcopop (alcohol + pop)
• bash (bat + mash)
• Breathalyzer (breath + analyzer)
• camcorder (camera + recorder)
• clash (clap + crash)
• docudrama (documentary + drama)
• electrocute (electricity + execute)
• emoticon (emote + icon)
• faction (fact + fiction)
• fanzine {fan + magazine)
• flare (flame + glare)
• flirtationship (flirting + relationship)
• glimmer (gleam + shimmer)
• guitarthritis (guitar + arthritis)
• infotainment (information + entertainment)
• Jazzercize (jazz + exercise)
• moped (motor + pedal)
• motorcade (motor + cavalcade)
• palimony (pal + alimony)
• pulsar (pulse + quasar)
• slanguage (slang + language)
• smash (smack + mash)
• splatter (splash + spatter)
• sportscast (sports + broadcast)
• squiggle (squirm + wriggle)
• stagflation (stagnation + inflation)
• staycation (stay home + vacation)
• telegenic (television + photogenic)
• textpectation (text message + expectation)
• transistor (transfer + resistor)
• twirl (twist + whirl)
• workaholic (work + alcoholic)
• simulcast (simultaneous + broadcast)
• smog (smoke + fog)
• ginormous (giant + enormous)
• internet (international + network)
• because (by + cause)
• emoticon (emotion + icon)
• spanglish (spanish + english)
• smassy (smart + sassy)
• malware (malicious + software)
• pixel (picture + element)
• bash (bang + smash)
• oxbridge (oxford + cambridge)
• cellophane (cellulose + diaphane)
• televangelist (television + evangelist)
• slithy (lithe + slimy)
• email (electronic + mail)
• bionic (biology + electronic)

Borrowing

Borrowing is just taking a word from another language. The borrowed words are called loan words. A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort. Loanwords can also be called “borrowings”.

Great number of English words have been borrowed from other languages. These are sometimes referred to as loanwords.

Examples: algebra – Arabic, bagel – Yiddish,  cherub – Hebrew, chow mein – Chinese, fjord – Norwegian, galore – Irish, haiku – Japanese, kielbasa – Polish, murder – French, near – Sanskrit, paprika – Hungarian, pizza – Italian, smorgasbord – Swedish, tamale – Spanish, yo-yo – Tagalog

Loanwords

English has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerized survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:

• French, including Old French and early Anglo-French: 28.3%
• Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%
• Germanic languages, including Old and Middle English: 25%
• Greek: 5.32% •No etymology given or unknown: 4.03%
• Derived from proper names: 3.28%
• All other languages contributed less than 1%

However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and Middle English occupy the vast majority. Examples: Biology, boxer, ozone from German Jacket, yoghurt, kiosh from Turkish Pistol, robot from Czech

Coinage

Coinage is the invention of totally new words. The typical process of coinage usually involves the extension of a product name from a specific reference to a more general one. For example: Kleenex, Xerox, and Kodak. These started as names of specific products, but now they are used as the generic names for different brands of these types of products.

Coinages are words invented by accident or intentionally mainly from no evident source. It should be pointed out that many coinages have come into existence by using brand names instead of the object being referred to. It is common that coinages are regularly called neologisms.
Example: aspirin, escalator, heroin, band-aid, factoid, Frisbee, Google, kerosene, Kleenex, Laundromat, linoleum, muggle, nylon, psychedelic, quark, Xerox, zipper, coalgate

Derivation

In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word. Example: happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine.  Derivation is the process of forming a new words by means of Affixation (Prefix, Infix and Suffix)

A derivational suffix usually applies to words of one syntactic category and changes them into words of another syntactic category. For example: the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow → slowly). Examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes: adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness) adjective-to-verb: -ise (modern → modernise) in British English or – ize (archaic → archaicize) in American English and Oxford spelling adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish) adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally) noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational) noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify) verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable) verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance) verb-to-noun (concrete): -er (write → writer)

Compounding

A compound is a lexeme (a word) that consists of more than one other lexeme. It can be categorized in to two i.e. endocentric and exocentric.

An endocentric compound consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifiers, which restrict this meaning. For example: The English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier, is understood as a house intended for a dog. Endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech (word class) as their head, as in the case of doghouse.

Exocentric compounds do not have a head, and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For example: The English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing. In an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example: a must-have is not a verb but a noun.

English language allows several types of combinations of different word classes: N + N — lipstick , teapot, A + N — fast food, soft drink ,V + N — breakfast, sky-dive,  N + V — sunshine, babysit,  N + A –capital-intensive, waterproof,  A + A —deaf-mute, bitter-sweet.

Creative respelling:

Creative Respelling is a word formation that employs the strategy of altering letter(s) of a word. The word formed so is an example of Creative respelling. It is a deliberate attempt creating misspelled word.  Examples are nite (night), thanx (thanks), lite (light) etc.

Change of spelling is often used in commercials and slogans. For example Kleenex tissues, Mortal Kombat (game), Qwikster (movie-by-mail service). Misspelling quite often gives rise to brand names.

Sometimes words are formed by simply changing the spelling of a word that the speaker wants to relate to the new word. Brand or Product names often involve creative respelling, such as Mr. Kleen or Krunch.

Exercise: PROCESSES OF WORD FORMATION

1.Compounding

 Compounding is simply the joining of two or more words into a single word, as in hang glider, airstrip, cornflakes, busybody, downpour, cutoff, skywarn, alongside, breakfast, long-haired, devil-may-care, high school.

2. Derivation

 Derivation is the forming of new words by combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words, as in disadvise, emplane, deplane, teleplay, ecosystem, coachdom, counsellorship, re-ask.

 I. Indicate by the first letter the process of formation represented by each of the words below.

Compounding                   derivation

1. roughneck                   _                                  6. pop              _
2. codgerhood                 _                                  7. cream puff   _
3. clink (of glasses)         _                                  8. wheeze        _
4. doodad                                    _                                  9. weirdoism   _
5. dacron                         _                                  10. exflux        _

3. Clipping

 Clipping means cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand for the whole: lab, dorm, prof, exam, gym, prom, math, psych, mike…

 II         Give the original words from which these clipped words were formed.

1. curio    __________
2. disco    __________                            10. memo        __________
3. taxi      __________                            11. Fred           __________
4. cab       __________                            12. Al              __________
5. deli      __________                            13. Tom           __________
6. vibes    __________                            14. Joe             __________
7. gin       __________                            15. Phil            __________
8. hype    __________

III        Give the original words from which these clipped words were formed.

1. sport (game)    __________                6. wig              __________
2. pike (road)       __________                7. cute             __________
3. bus                   __________                8. Gene            __________
4. van                  __________                9. Beth            __________
5. chute               __________                10. Tony          __________

Clipped words are formed not only from individual words but from grammatical units, such as modifier plus noun. Paratrooper, for example, is a clipped form of parachutist trooper.

 IV        Give the originals of these clipped words.

1. Amerindian     ____________________
2. maître d’          ____________________
3. contrail            ____________________
4. taxicab             ____________________
5. moped             ____________________
6. comsat             ____________________
7. agribusiness     ____________________

 4. Acronym

 Acronym is the process whereby a word is formed from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words. In some cases the initials are pronounced, as in MP (military police, or Member of Parliament). In others the initials and/or beginning segments are pronounced as the spelled word would be. For example, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and radar (radio detecting and ranging).

V         Pronounce these acronyms and give their originals.

1. RV                  ____________________
2. NOW              ____________________
3. UNESCO        ____________________
4. OK                  ____________________
5. scuba               ____________________
6. OPEC              ____________________
7. WASP             ____________________
8. ICBM              ____________________
9. jeep                  ____________________
10. laser                 ____________________

5. Blending

 Blending is the fusion of two words into one, usually the first part of one word with the last part of another, as in gasohol, from gasoline and alcohol.

 VI        Give the originals of these blends:

1. flunk                _________________
2. happenstance   _________________
3. stagflation       _________________
4. simulcast         _________________
5. gelignite          _________________
6. smog                _________________
7. dumbfound     _________________
8. telecast                        _________________
9. dandle             _________________
10. splatter            _________________

VII      Give the blends that result from fusing these words.

1. transfer            + resistor         = _________________
2. automobile      + omnibus       = _________________
3. escalade           + elevator        = _________________
4. blare or blow   + spurt             = _________________
5. squall               + squeak          = _________________

Exercise -1: Identify the process of word formation responsible for each of the following words. Try to determine the process before you consult a dictionary, though it may be necessary for you to do so.

a. curio	h. margarine	o. (the) hereafter	v. boojum
b. (to) laze	i. dystopia	p. amphetamine	w. gaffe-slack
c. (to) network	j. serendipity	q. (a) construct	x. psycho
d. (to) cohere	k. diesel	r. (the) chunnel	y. walkie-talkie
e. (a) sitcom	l. (a) ha-ha	s. guestimate	z. bonfire
f. (the) muppets	m. (to) make up	t. canary	v. boojum
g. (a) what-not	n. (to) total	u. brain-gain	w. gaffe-slack

 Exercise -2: The words in column A have been created from the corresponding words in column B. Indicate the word formation process responsible for the creation of each word in column A.

	Column A	Column B
a.	stagflation	stagnation + inflation
b.	nostril	nosu + thyrl ‘hole’ (in Old English)
c.	bookie	bookmaker
d.	van	caravan
e.	Amerindian	American Indian
f.	CD	compact disc
g.	RAM	random access memory
h.	televise	television
i.	xerox	xeroxography
j.	telathon	television + marathon
k.	sci-fi	science fiction
l.	elect	election
m.	deli	delicatessen
n.	scuba	self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
o.	scavenge	scavenger
p.	hazmat	hazardous material

Exercise- 3: Identify the syntactic pattern in each of the following compounds and express it in a lexical rule. Example: gravedigger N + V + -er > N

a. hovercraft	g. setback	m. dugout	s. badmouth	y. lukewarm
b. dairyman	h. meltdown	n. hardhearted	t. redhead	z. law-abiding
c. bath-towel	i. blackout	o. homesick	u. birth control	aa. far-reaching
d. goldfish	j. stand-in	p. proofread	v. breakfast	bb. homemade
e. inroads	k. turnout	q. overqualified	w. thoroughgoing	cc. clean-cut
f. bystander	l. money-hungry	r. overachieve	x. quick-change	dd. fighter-bomber
ee. earthenware	ff. snowplow	gg. baking powder	hh. drip-coffee	ii. wisecrack

Exercise- 4: The following words are compounds which also include derivational affixes. Analyze the words, identifying the roots and their parts of speech, as well all the affixes and their function as nominalizer, verbalizer, adjectivalizer, or adverbializer.Example: housekeeper

house (root – noun) + keep (root – verb) + -er (nominalizer)

a. flightworthiness	e. handicraft	i. antiaircraft
b. chatterbox	f. broken-hearted	j. machine-readable
c. owner-occupied	g. safety-tested	k. chartered accountant
d. freedom-loving	h. worldly-wise	i. antiaircraft

Exercise- 5: Analyze the following words into morphs using the model given below:

Word	Prefix(es)	Root	Suffix(es)
inequality	in-	equal	-ity

a. hospitalization	e. transcontinental	i. unforgettable	m. postcolonial	q. hypersensitivity
b. invisibly	f. ungrammatical	j. impropriety	n. unlikelihood	r. unfriendliness
c. uninteresting	g. reinforcement	k. disfunctional	o. relationship	s. interdependence
d. undercooked	h. prototypical	l. inconsiderate	p. asymmetrical	t. monotheism

Exercise- 6: Underline examples of COMPOUNDING and AFFIXATION:

1. Headhunters are invading university campuses in search of fresh talents among undergraduates.
2. The price of oil reached its all-time-high yesterday.
3. Joblessness rallies as the economy slows down.
4. Governments have responded to tax-flight in many different ways.
5. New mega-mergers are expected in the media-world.
6. Consumers everywhere have been merrily spending with their credit cards.

Exercise- 7: CLIPPING: give the entire word of the following clipped forms and translate them:

lab ……………………………………………………………………

Dems ……………………………………………………………………..

flu ……………………………………………………………………

ads ………………………………………………………………………

Inc. ……………………………………………………………………

rev ………………………………………………………………………

The Fed …………………………………………………………………..

Feds ………………………………………………………………………

Exercise- 8: BLENDING: give the two words forming the following blends and translate them:

Sci-fi ……………………………

e-tailing ………………………

hi-fi ……………………………

stagflation …………………

brunch ………………………

AMEX ………………………

medicare ……………………

econometric ………………

Exercise- 9: ACRONYMS: give the extended phrase and the Italian/English equivalents of the following abbreviations:

OECD ………………………………………………………………………………………………

POW …………………………………………………………………………………………………

GDP ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

MEPs ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

IVA ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

OMC ………………………………………………………………………………………….

Exercise- 10: Write the original words against the clipped words.

Clipped Word	Original Word	Clipped Word	Original Word	Clipped Word	Original Word
ad (marketing)		groom		pub (bar)
bro		hippo		ref (library)
butt		lab (dog)		sci-fi
cig		lunch		script (medicine)
con (prison)		math		spec (detail)
copter		pants		still (alcohol)
dorm		perk (benefit)		van (vehicle)
gas (fuel)		piano		vet (military)
abs		doc (movies)		phone
amp (music)		fan (sports)		quad (campus)
app (technology)		gator		rehab
cab (taxi)		hack (taxi)		rep (status)
chemist		lab (science)		scram
clerk		limo		sub (nautical)
coke (drug)		narc		trump (cards)
demo (construction)		perk (coffee)		uni (school)
ammo		congrats		mag
blog		deb		meth
bop (music)		deke (sports)		mum (flower)
bot		exam		photo
		fab (awesomeness)		sax
cab (wine)		Fed		trig
bye		bye		razz (sound)
calc (math)		calc (math)		repo
canter		canter		rev (engine)
champ		champ		rhino
comp (theatre)		comp (theatre)		sitcom
dis		dis		super (apartment)
gab		gab		ump
grad (student)		grad (student)		ute (truck)
bronc		intercom		reb (US Civil War)
cab (train)		lav (bathroom)		reverb
chute		lude		sub (teaching)
cop (police)		mod (trendy)		tec (police)
fax		Net (technology)		varsity
fess		pop (music)		vet (medicine)
hood (location)		quack (medicine)		wig
improv		quake		za