There are a
lot of definitions concerning the word-group. The most adequate one
seems to be the following: the word-group is a combination of at
least two notional words which do not constitute the sentence but are
syntactically connected. According to some other scholars (the
majority of Western scholars and professors B.Ilyish and V.Burlakova
– in Russia), a combination of a notional word with a function word
(may be treated as a word-group as well.
General characteristics of the
word-group are:
1) As a
naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of
constituents in a word-group corresponds to the number of different
denotates.
2) Each
component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without
destroying the identity of the whole unit.
3) A word-group is a dependent
syntactic unit, it is not a communicative unit and has no intonation
of its own.
Word-groups can be classified
on the basis of several principles.
1.
According to the type of syntagmatic relations word-groups
can be coordinative, subordinate, predicative (Fig.
99).
Coordinative
word-groupings are
based on the relations
of independence between
the constituents.
Coordination may be symmetric
and asymmetric. Symmetric coordination is characterized by complete
interchangeability of its elements. Asymmetric coordination occurs
when the position of elements is fixed.
According
to the presence or absence of connectors coordinative
word-groupings may be syndetic
when the connection is realised with the help of conjunctions and
asyndetic when the connection is realised without the help of
conjunctions (Fig.
100).
According
to the type of conjunctions
forms of connection within coordinative
word-groupings may be copulative, disjunctive and adversative (Fig.
101).
Fig. 99
Fig. 100
Fig. 101
Subordinate
word-groups are based on the relations of dependence between the
constituents. This presupposes the existence of a governing element
which is called the “head”,
“kernel”, “kernel element”, or “headword”
and
the dependent element which is called the “adjunct”,
“adjunct-word”, “expansion”.
Subordination
may be of three different kinds – adverbial, objective and
attributive (Fig.
99).
Forms
of subordination may also be different – agreement, government,
adjoinment and enclosure (Fig.
102).
According
to the type of the headword subordinate
word-groups fall into nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial,
statival (Fig.
103).
According
to the syntactic function of the adjunct subordinate
word-groups fall into attributive, object and adverbial
(Fig.
104).
Fig. 102
Fig. 103
Fig. 104
According
to the position of the adjunct subordinate
word-groupings are classed into word-groupings with prepositive
adjunct, with mitpositive adjunct, with postpositive adjunct and
frame structures (Fig.
105).
Fig. 105
Predicative
word combinations are distinguished on the basis of secondary
predication (Fig. 99). Like sentences, predicative word-groups are
binary in their structure but actually differ essentially in their
organization. The sentence is an independent communicative unit based
on primary predication while the predicative word-group is a
dependent syntactic unit that makes up a part of the sentence. The
predicative word-group consists of a nominal element (noun, pronoun)
and a non-finite form of the verb. There are Gerundial, Infinitive
and Participial word-groups (complexes) in the English language.
2.
According to
the number of the constituents
word-groups
can be binary and multiple (Fig.
106).
Fig. 106
-
According
to their structure
word-groups
are classed into simple (all elements are obligatory), expanded
(expanded
elements are equal in rank), extended (a word takes a dependent
element and this dependent element becomes the head for another word
(Fig. 107).
Fig. 107
4.
According to their nominative value one
should distinguish between syntagmatic groupings of notional words
alone, syntagmatic groupings of notional words with functional words,
and syntagmatic groupings of functional words alone (Fig.
108).
Fig. 108
Combinations
of a notional word with a functional word are equivalent to separate
words by their nominative function. These combinations are called
“formative”.
Syntagmatic
groupings of functional words are essentially analogous to separate
functional words. They are used as connectors and specifiers of
notional elements of various status. These combinations are called
“functional”.
Different
combinations of notional words are called “notional” phrases.
They have a clearly pronounced self-dependent nominative destination.
They denote complex phenomena and their properties in their
inter-connections, including dynamic interconnections
(semi-predicative combinations).
Groupings
of notional words fall into two opposite types by their grammatical
and semantic properties.
Groupings
of the first type are constituted by words related to one another on
an equal rank, so that, for a case of a two-word combination, neither
of them serves as a modifier of the other. Depending on this feature,
these combinations can be called “equipotent”.
Groupings
of the second type are formed by words which are syntactically
unequal in the sense that, for a case of a two-word combination, one
of them plays the role of a modifier of the other. Due to this
feature, combinations of the latter type can be called
“dominational”.
Equipotent
connection in groupings of notional words is realised either with the
help of conjunctions (syndetically), or without the help of
conjunctions (asyndetically). If the constituents of the combinations
form logically consecutive connections they are classed as
coordinative.
There
exist equipotent connections of a non-consecutive type, by which a
sequential element, although equal to the foregoing element by its
formal introduction is unequal to it as to the character of
nomination. The latter type of equipotent connections is classed as
“cumulative”. Cumulative connection in writing is usually
signalled by some intermediary punctuation stop, such as a comma or a
hyphen.
Dominational
connection is effected in such a way that one of the constituents of
the combination is principal (dominating) and the other is
subordinate (dominated).
The two basic types of
dominational connection are bilateral (reciprocal, two-way)
domination and monolateral (one-way) domination.
Bilateral
domination is realised in predicative connection of words, while
monolateral domination is realised in completive connection of words.
The predicative connection of
words, uniting the subject and the predicate, builds up the basis of
the sentence.
The
completive, one-way connection of words (monolateral domination) is
considered as subordinative on ground that the outer syntactic status
of the whole combination is determined by the head-word.
All
the completive connections fall into two main divisions: objective
connections and qualifying connections (Fig. 109).
Fig.
109
Objective connections reflect
the relation of the object to the process. By their form these
connections are subdivided into non-prepositional (word-order, the
objective form of the adjunct substantive) and prepositional, while
from the semantico-syntactic point of view they are classed as direct
(the immediate transition of the action to the object) and indirect
or oblique (the indirect relation of the object to the process).
Qualifying
completive connections are divided into attributive and adverbial.
Both are expressed in English by word-order and prepositions.
Attributive connection unites
a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective or a noun.
Adverbial
connection is subdivided into primary and secondary. The primary
adverbial connection is established between the verb and its
adverbial modifiers of various standings. The secondary adverbial
connection is established between the non-verbal kernel expressing a
quality and its adverbial modifiers of various standings
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MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY Problems of Collocability. Word-groups in English.
Problems for discussion The notion of “collocability” (valency); The notion of “word-group”; The role of lexical and grammatical valency in uniting words into word-groups; The norm of lexical and grammatical valency; Linguistic properties of word-groups: — structure; — meaning; — motivation;
Valency and word-group studies in Linguistics The problems of valency and collocability: С. Д. Кацнельсон Л. Теньер Г. Хельбиг The « word-group theory » : А. А. Шахматов Л. В. Щерба Ф. Ф. Фортунатов Н. С. Трубецкой Дж. Лайонз Ш. Балли В. В. Виноградов В. Г. Гак
What is collocability? Collocability (also valency, distributional characteristics, colligation, collocation ) is the ability of the units of the language — phonemes, morphemes, words — to form units of higher level.
В. Г. Гак: «Сочетаемость – свойство языковых единиц сочетаться при образовании единиц более высокого уровня; одно из фундаментальных свойств языковых единиц, отражающее синтагматические отношения между ними» [ БЭС «Языкознание» , стр. 483 ]
What is a word-group? A word group is the largest two facet lexical unit comprising more than one word. red tape beautiful girl to walk slowly
Words are united into word-groups thanks to the following linguistic factors Lexical valency (collocability) Grammatical valency (collocability)
Lexical valency is the ability of a word to appear in various combinations: vital pressing question urgent But not: sweet question green question
The norm of lexical valency The range (norm) of lexical valency is determined by the semantic agreement – the semes of the combining words should not disagree (violate the logical norms). For example, a verb, denoting an action characteristic of a living being agrees only with an animate noun.
Example 1: a dog barks Dog — an animal kept as a pet, for guarding buildings, or for hunting. to bark — to make the short loud sound that a dog makes
Example 2: a pen barks Pen — an object that you use for writing or drawing with ink Object — a thing that you can see and touch that is not alive and is usually solid an inanimate object can’t produce sounds.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (syntactic) structures.
The norm of grammatical valency is determined by the part of speech of the word: The property of the object Adj. + N a green apple
The structure of the word-group influences on its meaning: keen + N — keen sight, hearing «острый“ keen + on + N — keen on sports «увлеченный“ keen + inf. — keen to know «сильно желающий“.
Linguistic properties of the word-group structure meaning motivation lexical grammatical lexical structural
Structure of word-groups (1) the order of the components: • a verbal — nominal group : to sew a dress , to read a book ; • a verbal — prepositional — nominal group to look at something ;
Structure of word-groups (2) the criterion of distribution : ( distribution — the sum of contexts of the language unit): • endocentric — hav e one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group, while all other members of the group are subordinated to it : I saw a red flower – I saw a flower ; • exocentric — having no central member : become older, side by side ;
Structure of word-groups (3) according to the part of speech of the headword: • nominal ( beautiful garden ); • verbal ( to fly high ); • adjectival ( lucky from birth );
Structure of word-groups (4) according to the syntactic pattern: • predicative — have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence ( he went ); • non-predicative are subdivided according to the type of syntactic relations between the components into: (a) subordinative ( modern technology ); (b) coordinative (husband wife).
Meaning of word-groups T he meaning of a word group is derived (a) from the combined lexical meanings of its components – lexical meaning , (b) from the meaning of the pattern of their arrangement – grammaticalstructural meaning , (c) from the extra-linguistic situation in which word-groups are habitually used by native speakers
Lexical meaning The Lexical meaning of the word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Blind man Blind type
Grammatical meaning Grammatical structural meaning is conveyed by the order and arrangement of member words: grammar school grammar
The most frequent patterns of word-groups in English Adj. + N nice cap V + N to built houses V + N + V (Inf. ) to make somebody work V + Prep. + N to rely on somebody V + N +Prep. + N to hold something against somebody V + V (Inf. ) to get to know
Lexical motivation Word-groups are lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the groups is deducible from the meaning of their components : red flower tall boy beautiful carpet
Structural motivation Word-groups are structurally motivated if the meaning of the pattern is deducible from the order and arrangement of the member-words of the group The word-group : yellow bag The pattern : Adj + N The meaning: «quality — substance»
Degree of motivation Complete motivation : Black dress – dress of black colour Partial motivation : Black market – illegal market Non motivated : Black death — a disease that killed millions of people in Europe and Asia in the 14 th century. Its medical name is bubonic plague.
Non-motivated word-groups (set-expressions) Lexically non-motivated word-groups are word-groups in which the constituents do not possess any individual lexical meaning of their own: heavy father — serious or solemn part in a theatrical play.
1. The Word-Group Theory
The WordGroup Theory
Lecture 4. Part 2
2. Lecture outline
Lecture outline
Syntactic relations.
The definition and general characteristics.
Classification of word-groups.
3. The syntactic notions
The syntactic notions
Syntactic relations: the syntagmatic (linear)
relations between the syntactic units.
1)
Coordination
and
subordination
(traditionally);
2) + predication;
3) + accumulation (Burlakova et al.).
Barkhudarov: on the basis of equality/inequality
of the syntactic function of the whole group
and its IC (immediate constituents)
4. The syntactic relations
The syntactic relations
Coordination (independence):
word group, sentence, text;
the syntactic function of the whole group
coincides with the syntactic function of every
IC: pens and pencils were purchased (pens
were purchased, pencils were purchased);
symmetric and asymmetric (pens and pencils,
ladies and gentlemen);
copulative (you and me), disjunctive (you or
me), adversative (strict but just), causativeconsecutive (He didn’t come, because…).
5. The syntactic relations
The syntactic relations
Subordination (dependence, difference
linguistic rank):
word-group and sentence;
the syntactic function of the whole coincides
with the function of one of ICs: A tall boy came
in (A boy came in, * Tall came in);
adverbial (to run slowly), objective (to help a
friend); attributive (a new house) (Burlakova,
the functions in a sentences);
the head and the adjunct.
6. Syntactic relations
Syntactic relations
Predication (interdependence):
the syntactic function of the whole group is
different from the syntactic function of every
IC: The boy reads well (* the boy well, * reads
well);
primary (the subject and the predicate): men
worked;
secondary (non-finite forms of the verb and
nominal elements): his reading, for me to
know, the boy running, I saw him run;
Burlakova: the term is not very good (in not
consistent
with
coordination
and
subordination; interdependence – the relation
7. Syntactic relations
Syntactic relations
Accumulative
The relations b/w the constituents can be
identified only with regard to the word which
is not the part of the word combination:
(write) his friend a letter; these important
(decisions);
the positions of the components are fixed
(*important these);
and cannot be used (*these and important;
not coordinate).
8. The word-group. The definition.
The wordgroup. The definition.
the basic unit of syntax (as well as the
sentence);
2 components minimum;
grammatical structure.
No generally accepted definition; negative
approach (sth the word-group is not or does
not have);
Non-communicative (vs. the sentence).
9. The views on word-groups
The views on wordgroups
Broad (every syntactically organized group,
the relations do not matter);
Narrow (two notional words).
General characteristics:
As a naming unit it differs from a compound
word: two constituents = two denotates (a
blackbird, a black bird);
A
dependent
syntactic
unit;
noncommunicative, no intonation.
10. The broad view: syntagmatic groupings (by Blokh)
The broad view: syntagmatic groupings
(by Blokh)
Notional words (notional phrases): denote
complex phenomena and their properties in
their interconnection (a caring mother);
Notional word + functional word (formative
combinations): equivalent to separate words
in terms of their nominative function, can be
expanded (in a box = in an old box);
Functional words: used as connectors or
specifiers of notional elements of various
status: up to, must be able.
Burlakova supports the broad view.
11. The notional phrases (classification)
The notional phrases (classification)
Equipotent (words are related on equal rank);
Dominational (words are syntactically
unequal).
Equipotent syndetic and asyndetic (prose and
poetry vs. dark, gloomy);
Equipotent coordinative (quick and careless)
and cumulative (agreed, but reluctantly; quick
– and careless): equal formally, not in terms of
domination.
12. Dominational connection (Blokh)
Dominational connection (Blokh)
The principal (dominating) – kernel, kernel
element, head word – and the subordinate
constituents (adjunct, adjunct-word,
expansion).
Dominational consecutive (a careful
observer);
Domination cumulative (an observer,
seemingly careful).
13. Dominational connection (Blokh)
Dominational connection (Blokh)
Dominational bilateral (reciprocal, two-way):
predicative (complete and incomplete) – the
train arrived, the arrival of the train, the pupil
understanding his mistakes.
Dominational mono-lateral (completive): the
syntactic status of the whole element is
determined by the nature of the head-word.
14. Dominational connection (Blokh)
Dominational connection (Blokh)
Dominational completive connection:
objective and qualifying.
Objective: direct non-prepositional (saw me),
indirect non-prepositional (show me), indirect
prepositional (sympathised with the child).
Qualifying: attributive (the woman of strong
character; a beautiful ring); adverbial primary
(verb+ adverbial modifier = receive with
surprise); adverbial secondary (non-verbal
kernel + adverbial modifier+ strikingly alike).
15. The narrow view (Barkhudarov)
The narrow view (Barkhudarov)
Word-group (phrase) is a group of syntactically
related notional words, which is the component
of a sentence, but does not constitute a
sentence on its own.
According to syntactic relations: subordinate
(ready to go, politically active, cold water), coordinate (pens and pencils, strict but just),
predicative (for you to go).
According to the number of types of relations
expresses: elementary (three black dogs –
subordination); compound (red and blue
pencils – coordination and subordination).
16. The subordinate phrase
The subordinate phrase
Syntactically unequal;
The head and the adjunct.
Types:
The word class to which the head belongs:
noun phrases (wonderful weather), verb
phrases (run fast), adverb phrases (extremely
quickly),
pronoun
phrases
(nothing
interesting).
17. The subordinate phrase: types
The subordinate phrase: types
ICs represented with a word or a word phrase:
simple (cold water);
with the expanded head (saw him there, three
black dogs);
with the expanded adjunct (politically active
youth);
with the expanded head and adjunct (the
reception of the delegation by the President of
the republic).
18. The subordinate phrase: types
The subordinate phrase: types
ICs separated / non-separated from each other:
Continuous: nicely dressed;
Discontinuous: Slowly, Mr Johnson got out of
the chair; Of the threat she said nothing.
19. Noun Phrases
Noun Phrases
The place of the adjunct:
Noun phrases with pre-posed adjuncts: cold
water, her shoulders, thirty-five minutes,
slanting stroke, quoted material, Paul’s room,
consonant change.
Noun phrases with post-posed adjuncts: the
roof of the house, the people present, every
creature alive, a man hard to please, desire to
come, my life as an artist.
20. Verb Phrases
Verb Phrases
Verb
Verb
Verb
verb
According to the class of the verb:
phrases with transitive head;
phrases with the intransitive head;
phrases with the transitive or intransitive
head.
The adjuncts are divided accordingly:
Extensions (can be used with any head –
transitive or intransitive);
Complements (the distribution is limited, with
the verb of a particular class only).
21. Verb phrases
Verb phrases
Adjuncts (complements):
object complements (transitive head):
prepositional and non-prepositional (wait for John, insist
on doing vs. says not to worry, read a book, turn the
page).
!!! Prepositional complements vs. extensions !!!
the preposition is determined by the verb vs. the
preposition does not depend on the verb
He believes in God vs. He lives in Chicago.
!!! Non-preposition complements vs. extensions !!!
I came to speak with you vs. I wanted to speak with you
Extension can be substituted for ‘in order to’
22. Verb phrases
Verb phrases
Adjuncts (complements):
qualifying complements (intransitive head):
rise slowly: seemed quite the best plan, died
an old man, look severe, become proficient in.
23. Verb phrases
Verb phrases
According to the number and type of adjuncts:
simple (see a boy, walk slowly);
verb phrases with two extensions: He ran hastily
downstairs;
verb phrases with an extension and a compliments: I
watched her closely;
verb phrases with two non-prepositional object
complements: gave Tom a book;
verb
phrases with a propositional and nonprepositional object complements: explained the
whole affair to Mr Jones;
verb phrases with an object complement and a
qualifying complement: consider it a privilege.
24. Other types of phrases
Other types of phrases
Adjective phrases:
Politically active; rich in possible
modulations; larger units than the sentence;
loudest of all.
Adverb phrases:
Awfully quickly, rather sharply, high in the air.
Pronoun phrases:
Some of the workers, nothing to do,
something personal.
25. Coordinate phrases
Coordinate phrases
According to the means used to connect the
constituents:
Syndetic (with the conjunction): simple syndetic
phrases (with the continuous conjunction) – and,
but, yet, or, rather, than, as well as – and
correlative
syndetic
phrases
(with
the
discountinuous conjunction): both … and, either
… or, neither … not, from … to.
Harsh and loud, precious nut remote, structural
rather than historical.
Either a gerund or a participle, neither reading
nor writing.
26. Coordinate phrases
Coordinate phrases
According to the means used to connect the
constituents:
Asyndetic:
copulative
(the
co-ordinate
conjunction can be used) and appositive
(conjunction cannot be used).
Hot, dusty, tired…
Bill, the dean’s boy; you young people; the
young man Edgar.
27. Predicative phrases
Predicative phrases
The combinations of the subject and the predicate
are not included; The head is only NON-FINITE!
Infinitive predicative phrases (for John to go, for
her daughter to look at her);
Gerund predicative phrases (John’s going, John
being late);
Absolute
predicative
phrases:
all
things
considered; (with) his voice trembling.
Other opinions: predicative phrases of two times:
primary (the boy runs) and secondary (the boy’s
running).
28. Conclusion
The word-group is a combination of at least
two notional words (?) which do not constitute
the sentence but are syntactically connected.
The type of syntagmatic relations: coordinate,
subordinate, predicative.
The internal structure (simple, expanded – to
read and translate the text, extended – a very
beautiful flower).
Subordinate word-groups: the head and the
adjunct; noun, verb, adjective, adverb,
pronoun phrases.