Programming language one word

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE ONE WORDS

Define polymorphism?

Polymorphism
means one name, multiple forms. It allows us to have more than one function
with the same name in a program.It allows us to have overloading of operators
so that an operation can exhibit different behaviours in different instances.

What is encapsulation?

The
wrapping up of data and functions into a single unit (called class) is known as
encapsulation. Encapsulation containing and hiding information about an object,
such as internal data structures and code.

Define inheritance?

The
mechanism of deriving a new class (derived) from an old class (base class) is
called inheritance. It allows the extension and reuse of existing code without
having to rewrite the code from scratch. Inheritance is the process by which
objects of one class acquire properties of objects of another class.

What are the basic concepts of object oriented programming?

It is necessary to understand some of the
concepts used extensively in object oriented programming.These include

§  Objects
§  Classes
§  Data abstraction and encapsulation
§  Inheritance
§  Polymorphism
§  Dynamic Binding
§  Message passing

What is C++

C++
is created by Bjarne Stroustrup of AT&T Bell Labs as an extension of C, C++
is an object-oriented computer language used in the development of enterprise
and commercial applications. Microsoft’s Visual C++ became the premier language
of choice among developers and programmers.

What is the difference between Stack and
Queue? 

Stack is a Last In First Out (LIFO) data structure. 
Queue is a First In First Out (FIFO) data structure

Write a fucntion that will reverse a
string. 

char *strrev(char *s)
{
int i = 0, len = strlen(s);
char *str;
if ((str = (char *)malloc(len+1)) == NULL)
/*cannot allocate memory */
err_num = 2;
return (str);
}
while(len)
str[i++]=s[–len];
str[i] = NULL;
return (str);
}

What is the software Life-Cycle? 

The software Life-Cycle are
1) Analysis and specification of the task
2) Design of the algorithms and data structures
3) Implementation (coding)
4) Testing
5) Maintenance and evolution of the system
6) Obsolescence

What is the difference between a Java application
and a Java applet? 

The difference between a Java application and a Java applet
is that a Java application is a program that can be executed using the Java
interpeter, and a JAVA applet can be transfered to different networks and
executed by using a web browser (transferable to the WWW).

Name 7 layers of the OSI Reference Model? 

-Application layer
-Presentation layer
-Session layer
-Transport layer
-Network layer
-Data Link layer
-Physical layer

How can you tell what shell you are running on UNIX system?

You
can do the Echo $RANDOM. It will return a undefined variable if you are from
the C-Shell, just a return prompt if you are from the Bourne shell, and a 5
digit random numbers if you are from the Korn shell. You could also do a ps -l
and look for the shell with the highest PID.

What
is Boyce Codd Normal form? 

A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of
functional dependencies if for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form
a->b, where a and b is a subset of R, at least one of the following holds: 

* a->b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset
of a)
* a is a superkey for schema R

What
is pure virtual function? 

A class is made abstract by declaring one or more of its
virtual functions to be pure. A pure virtual function is one with an
initializer of = 0 in its declaration 

Write a Struct Time where integer m, h, s
are its members 

struct Time
{
int m;
int h;
int s;
};

How
do you traverse a Btree in Backward in-order? 

Process the node in the right subtree
Process the root
Process the node in the left subtree

What
is the two main roles of Operating System? 

As a resource manager
As a virtual machine

In
the derived class, which data member of the base class are visible? 

In the public and protected sections.

What is ASP?

• Active Server Pages (ASP), also known as Classic ASP, is
  a Microsoft’s server-side technology, which helps in creating dynamic and
  user-friendly Web pages. 
• It uses different scripting languages to create
  dynamic Web pages, which can be run on any type of browser. 
• The Web pages are
  built by using either VBScript or JavaScript and these Web pages have access to
  the same services as Windows application, including ADO (ActiveX Data Objects)
  for database access, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for e-mail, and the
  entire COM (Component Object Model) structure used in the Windows environment. 
• ASP is implemented through a dynamic-link library (asp.dll) that is called by
  the IIS server when a Web page is requested from the server.

What is ASP.NET?

• ASP.NET is a specification developed by Microsoft to
  create dynamic Web applications, Web sites, and Web services. 
• It is a part of
  .NET Framework. You can create ASP.NET applications in most of the .NET
  compatible languages, such as Visual Basic, C#, and J#. 
• The ASP.NET compiles
  the Web pages and provides much better performance than scripting languages,
  such as VBScript. 
• The Web Forms support to create powerful forms-based Web
  pages. 
• You can use ASP.NET Web server controls to create interactive Web applications. 
• With the help of Web server controls, you can easily create a Web application.

What is the basic difference between ASP
and ASP.NET?

• The basic difference between ASP and ASP.NET is that ASP
  is interpreted; whereas, ASP.NET is compiled. 
• This implies that since ASP uses
  VBScript; therefore, when an ASP page is executed, it is interpreted. On the
  other hand, ASP.NET uses .NET languages, such as C# and VB.NET, which are
  compiled to Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL).

In which event are the controls fully
loaded?

• Page load event guarantees that all controls are fully
  loaded. 
• Controls are also accessed in Page_Init events but you will see that view state
  is not fully loaded during this event

How can we identify that the Page is
Post Back?

Page object has an «IsPostBack» property, which can be checked to know that is the page
posted back.

What is the lifespan for items stored in
ViewState?

The items stored in ViewState live until the lifetime of the current
page expires including the postbacks to the same page.

How information about the user’s locale can
be accessed?

The information regarding a user’s locale
can be accessed by using the System.Web.UI.Page.Cultureproperty.

What is the difference between SQL
notification and SQL invalidation?

The SQL cache notification generates
notifications when the data of a database changes, on which your cache item
depends. The SQL cache invalidation makes a cached item invalid when the data
stored in a SQL server database changes.

Which is the parent class of the Web server
control?

The System.Web.Ul.Control class is the parent
class for all Web server controls.

Can you set which type of comparison you
want to perform by the CompareValidator control?

Yes, by setting the Operator property of the CompareValidator control.

A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs.^[1] Most programming languages are text-based formal languages, but they may also be graphical. They are a kind of computer language.

The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning), which are usually defined by a formal language. Some languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the C programming language is specified by an ISO Standard) while other languages (such as Perl) have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the basic language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common.

Programming language theory is the subfield of computer science that studies the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages.

Definitions[edit]

There are many considerations when defining what constitutes a programming language.

Computer languages vs programming languages[edit]

The term computer language is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language.^[2] However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages.^[3] Similarly, languages used in computing that have a different goal than expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming.^[4]
One way of classifying computer languages is by the computations they are capable of expressing, as described by the theory of computation. The majority of practical programming languages are Turing complete,^[5] and all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet are often called programming languages.^[6][7] However, some authors restrict the term «programming language» to Turing complete languages.^[1][8]

Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming abstract machines and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.^[9] John C. Reynolds emphasizes that formal specification languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.^[10]

Domain and target[edit]

In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently, programming languages are usually defined and studied this way.^[11] Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.

The domain of the language is also worth consideration. Markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages.^[12][13][14] Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete language entirely using XML syntax.^[15][16][17] Moreover, LaTeX, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.^[18][19]

Abstractions[edit]

Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. The practical necessity that a programming language support adequate abstractions is expressed by the abstraction principle.^[20] This principle is sometimes formulated as a recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.^[21]

History[edit]

Early developments[edit]

Very early computers, such as Colossus, were programmed without the help of a stored program, by modifying their circuitry or setting banks of physical controls.

Slightly later, programs could be written in machine language, where the programmer writes each instruction in a numeric form the hardware can execute directly. For example, the instruction to add the value in two memory locations might consist of 3 numbers: an «opcode» that selects the «add» operation, and two memory locations. The programs, in decimal or binary form, were read in from punched cards, paper tape, magnetic tape or toggled in on switches on the front panel of the computer. Machine languages were later termed first-generation programming languages (1GL).

The next step was the development of the so-called second-generation programming languages (2GL) or assembly languages, which were still closely tied to the instruction set architecture of the specific computer. These served to make the program much more human-readable and relieved the programmer of tedious and error-prone address calculations.

The first high-level programming languages, or third-generation programming languages (3GL), were written in the 1950s. An early high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.^[22]

John Mauchly’s Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic computer.^[23] Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in an understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.

At the University of Manchester, Alick Glennie developed Autocode in the early 1950s. As a programming language, it used a compiler to automatically convert the language into machine code. The first code and compiler was developed in 1952 for the Mark 1 computer at the University of Manchester and is considered to be the first compiled high-level programming language.^[24][25]

The second auto code was developed for the Mark 1 by R. A. Brooker in 1954 and was called the «Mark 1 Autocode». Brooker also developed an auto code for the Ferranti Mercury in the 1950s in conjunction with the University of Manchester. The version for the EDSAC 2 was devised by D. F. Hartley of University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in 1961. Known as EDSAC 2 Autocode, it was a straight development from Mercury Autocode adapted for local circumstances and was noted for its object code optimization and source-language diagnostics which were advanced for the time. A contemporary but separate thread of development, Atlas Autocode was developed for the University of Manchester Atlas 1 machine.

In 1954, FORTRAN was invented at IBM by John Backus. It was the first widely used high-level general-purpose programming language to have a functional implementation, as opposed to just a design on paper.^[26][27] It is still a popular language for high-performance computing^[28] and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world’s fastest supercomputers.^[29]

Another early programming language was devised by Grace Hopper in the US, called FLOW-MATIC. It was developed for the UNIVAC I at Remington Rand during the period from 1955 until 1959. Hopper found that business data processing customers were uncomfortable with mathematical notation, and in early 1955, she and her team wrote a specification for an English programming language and implemented a prototype.^[30] The FLOW-MATIC compiler became publicly available in early 1958 and was substantially complete in 1959.^[31] FLOW-MATIC was a major influence in the design of COBOL, since only it and its direct descendant AIMACO were in actual use at the time.^[32]

Refinement[edit]

The increased use of high-level languages introduced a requirement for low-level programming languages or system programming languages. These languages, to varying degrees, provide facilities between assembly languages and high-level languages. They can be used to perform tasks that require direct access to hardware facilities but still provide higher-level control structures and error-checking.

The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use:

• APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming.^[33]
• ALGOL refined both structured procedural programming and the discipline of language specification; the «Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60» became a model for how later language specifications were written.
• Lisp, implemented in 1958, was the first dynamically-typed functional programming language.
• In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first «purely» object-oriented language.
• C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a system programming language for the Unix operating system and remains popular.^[34]
• Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language.
• In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically-typed functional programming languages.

Each of these languages spawned descendants, and most modern programming languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.

The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.^[35] Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that Goto statements should be eliminated from all «higher-level» programming languages.^[36]

Consolidation and growth[edit]

The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language derived from Pascal and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating the so-called «fifth-generation» languages that incorporated logic programming constructs.^[37] The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decades.

One important trend in language design for programming large-scale systems during the 1980s was an increased focus on the use of modules or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, which were often wedded to generic programming constructs.^[38]

The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic websites. Java came to be used for server-side programming, and bytecode virtual machines became popular again in commercial settings with their promise of «Write once, run anywhere» (UCSD Pascal had been popular for a time in the early 1980s). These developments were not fundamentally novel; rather, they were refinements of many existing languages and paradigms (although their syntax was often based on the C family of programming languages).

Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft’s LINQ.

Fourth-generation programming languages (4GL) are computer programming languages that aim to provide a higher level of abstraction of the internal computer hardware details than 3GLs. Fifth-generation programming languages (5GL) are programming languages based on solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer.

Elements[edit]

All programming languages have some primitive building blocks for the description of data and the processes or transformations applied to them (like the addition of two numbers or the selection of an item from a collection). These primitives are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and meaning respectively.

Syntax[edit]

A programming language’s surface form is known as its syntax. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, some programming languages are more graphical in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.

The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard-coded in a reference implementation). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.

The programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus–Naur form (for grammatical structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp:

expression ::= atom | list
atom       ::= number | symbol
number     ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+
symbol     ::= ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].*
list       ::= '(' expression* ')'

This grammar specifies the following:

• an expression is either an atom or a list;
• an atom is either a number or a symbol;
• a number is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;
• a symbol is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and
• a list is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more expressions inside it.

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: 12345, () and (a b c232 (1)).

Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language’s rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:

• «Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.» is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning.
• «John is a married bachelor.» is grammatically well-formed but expresses a meaning that cannot be true.

The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation *p >> 4 has no meaning for a value having a complex type and p->im is not defined because the value of p is the null pointer):

complex *p = NULL;
complex abs_p = sqrt(*p >> 4 + p->im);

If the type declaration on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on the undefined variable p during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information.

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the Chomsky hierarchy. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are context-free grammars.^[39] Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an undecidable problem, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution.^[40] In contrast to Lisp’s macro system and Perl’s BEGIN blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution.^[41]

Semantics[edit]

The term semantics refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (syntax).

Static semantics[edit]

A static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms.^{[1][failed verification]} For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every identifier is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a case statement are distinct.^[42] Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that subroutine calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a logic called a type system. Other forms of static analyses like data flow analysis may also be part of static semantics. Newer programming languages like Java and C# have definite assignment analysis, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their static semantics.

Dynamic semantics[edit]

Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the strategy by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which control structures conditionally execute statements. The dynamic semantics (also known as execution semantics) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research went into formal semantics of programming languages, which allows execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia.

Type system[edit]

A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into types, how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. The goal of a type system is to verify and usually enforce a certain level of correctness in programs written in that language by detecting certain incorrect operations. Any decidable type system involves a trade-off: while it rejects many incorrect programs, it can also prohibit some correct, albeit unusual programs. In order to bypass this downside, a number of languages have type loopholes, usually unchecked casts that may be used by the programmer to explicitly allow a normally disallowed operation between different types. In most typed languages, the type system is used only to type check programs, but a number of languages, usually functional ones, infer types, relieving the programmer from the need to write type annotations. The formal design and study of type systems is known as type theory.

Typed versus untyped languages[edit]

A language is typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable.^[43] For example, the data represented by "this text between the quotes" is a string, and in many programming languages dividing a number by a string has no meaning and will not be executed. The invalid operation may be detected when the program is compiled («static» type checking) and will be rejected by the compiler with a compilation error message, or it may be detected while the program is running («dynamic» type checking), resulting in a run-time exception. Many languages allow a function called an exception handler to handle this exception and, for example, always return «-1» as the result.

A special case of typed languages is the single-typed languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as REXX or SGML, and have only one data type^{[dubious – discuss]}–—most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.

In contrast, an untyped language, such as most assembly languages, allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths.^[43] High-level untyped languages include BCPL, Tcl, and some varieties of Forth.

In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the type theory (verifying or rejecting all operations), most modern languages offer a degree of typing.^[43] Many production languages provide means to bypass or subvert the type system, trading type safety for finer control over the program’s execution (see casting).

Static vis-à-vis dynamic typing[edit]

In static typing, all expressions have their types determined prior to when the program is executed, typically at compile-time. For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.^[43]

Statically-typed languages can be either manifestly typed or type-inferred. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable declarations). In the second case, the compiler infers the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstream statically-typed languages, such as C++, C# and Java, are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with functional languages such as Haskell and ML.^[44] However, many manifestly-typed languages support partial type inference; for example, C++, Java, and C# all infer types in certain limited cases.^[45] Additionally, some programming languages allow for some types to be automatically converted to other types; for example, an int can be used where the program expects a float.

Dynamic typing, also called latent typing, determines the type-safety of operations at run time; in other words, types are associated with run-time values rather than textual expressions.^[43] As with type-inferred languages, dynamically-typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, potentially making debugging more difficult. Lisp, Smalltalk, Perl, Python, JavaScript, and Ruby are all examples of dynamically-typed languages.

Weak and strong typing[edit]

Weak typing allows a value of one type to be treated as another, for example treating a string as a number.^[43] This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at compile time and even at run time.

Strong typing prevents these program faults. An attempt to perform an operation on the wrong type of value raises an error.^[43] Strongly-typed languages are often termed type-safe or safe.

An alternative definition for «weakly typed» refers to languages, such as Perl and JavaScript, which permit a large number of implicit type conversions. In JavaScript, for example, the expression 2 * x implicitly converts x to a number, and this conversion succeeds even if x is null, undefined, an Array, or a string of letters. Such implicit conversions are often useful, but they can mask programming errors. Strong and static are now generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term strongly typed to mean strongly, statically typed, or, even more confusingly, to mean simply statically typed. Thus C has been called both strongly typed and weakly, statically typed.^[46][47]

It may seem odd to some professional programmers that C could be «weakly, statically typed». However, the use of the generic pointer, the void* pointer, does allow casting pointers to other pointers without needing to do an explicit cast. This is extremely similar to somehow casting an array of bytes to any kind of datatype in C without using an explicit cast, such as (int) or (char).

Standard library and run-time system[edit]

Most programming languages have an associated core library (sometimes known as the «standard library», especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.

The line between a language and its core library differs from language to language. In some cases, the language designers may treat the library as a separate entity from the language. However, a language’s core library is often treated as part of the language by its users, and some language specifications even require that this library be made available in all implementations. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the meanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in Java, a string literal is defined as an instance of the java.lang.String class; similarly, in Smalltalk, an anonymous function expression (a «block») constructs an instance of the library’s BlockContext class. Conversely, Scheme contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library.

Design and implementation[edit]

Programming languages share properties with natural languages related to their purpose as vehicles for communication, having a syntactic form separate from its semantics, and showing language families of related languages branching one from another.^[48][49] But as artificial constructs, they also differ in fundamental ways from languages that have evolved through usage. A significant difference is that a programming language can be fully described and studied in its entirety since it has a precise and finite definition.^[50] By contrast, natural languages have changing meanings given by their users in different communities. While constructed languages are also artificial languages designed from the ground up with a specific purpose, they lack the precise and complete semantic definition that a programming language has.

Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one «universal» programming language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role.^[51] The need for diverse programming languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:

• Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of programmers.
• Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity.
• Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers to supercomputers.
• Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo continual modification.
• Programmers may simply differ in their tastes: they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language.

One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more functionality per time unit.^[52]

Natural-language programming has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger W. Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed natural-language programming as «foolish».^[53] Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idea.^[54] Hybrid approaches have been taken in Structured English and SQL.

A language’s designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language specification and implementation.

Specification[edit]

The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language users and the implementors can use to agree upon whether a piece of source code is a valid program in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

• An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in natural language (e.g., as in the C language), or a formal semantics (e.g., as in Standard ML^[55] and Scheme^[56] specifications).
• A description of the behavior of a translator for the language (e.g., the C++ and Fortran specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or formal language.
• A reference or model implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., Prolog or ANSI REXX^[57]). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.

Implementation[edit]

An implementation of a programming language provides a way to write programs in that language and execute them on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: compilation and interpretation. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.

The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach, there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of BASIC compile and then execute the source one line at a time.

Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run much faster than those that are interpreted in software.^{[58][better source needed]}

One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just-in-time compilation. Here the virtual machine, just before execution, translates the blocks of bytecode which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware.

Proprietary languages[edit]

Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly domain-specific languages or internal scripting languages for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.

Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example, Oracle Corporation asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the Java programming language,^[59] and Microsoft’s C# programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has Common Language Runtime (CLR) as a closed environment.^[60]

Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include MATLAB, VBScript, and Wolfram Language. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, Erlang was originally Ericsson’s internal programming language.^[61]

Use[edit]

Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field.^[62]
Individual software projects commonly use five programming languages or more.^[63]

Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers «do exactly what they are told to do», and cannot «understand» what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program’s inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using pseudocode, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language.

A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A programmer uses the abstractions present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called primitives).^[64] Programming is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.

Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process without human interaction, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the «commands» are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a Unix shell or other command-line interface), without compiling, it is called a scripting language.^[65]

Measuring language usage[edit]

Determining which is the most widely used programming language is difficult since the definition of usage varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one has more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes;^[66][67] Fortran in scientific and engineering applications; Ada in aerospace, transportation, military, real-time, and embedded applications; and C in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:

• counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language^[68]
• the number of books sold that teach or describe the language^[69]
• estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language – which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches^[70]
• counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.

Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, stackify.com reported the ten most popular programming languages (in descending order by overall popularity): Java, C, C++, Python, C#, JavaScript, VB .NET, R, PHP, and MATLAB.^[71]

Dialects, flavors and implementations[edit]

A dialect of a programming language or a data exchange language is a (relatively small) variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as Scheme and Forth, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate, or illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new dialect. In other cases, a dialect is created for use in a domain-specific language, often a subset. In the Lisp world, most languages that use basic S-expression syntax and Lisp-like semantics are considered Lisp dialects, although they vary wildly, as do, say, Racket and Clojure. As it is common for one language to have several dialects, it can become quite difficult for an inexperienced programmer to find the right documentation. The BASIC programming language has many dialects.

Taxonomies[edit]

There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family.

The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel). Python is an object-oriented scripting language.^[72]

In broad strokes, programming languages are classified by programming paradigm and intended domain of use, with general-purpose programming languages distinguished from domain-specific programming languages. Traditionally, programming languages have been regarded as describing computation in terms of imperative sentences, i.e. issuing commands. These are generally called imperative programming languages. A great deal of research in programming languages has been aimed at blurring the distinction between a program as a set of instructions and a program as an assertion about the desired answer, which is the main feature of declarative programming.^[73] More refined paradigms include procedural programming, object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).^[74] Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.^[75]

A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to the programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being deliberately esoteric or not.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

List of programming languages ​​named by one letter.

BUT

A + programming language is a descendant of APL, like the other languages ​​on this page, because the APL community loves single letter names. Arthur Whitney (creator of many APL dialects) created A, then Morgan Stanley expanded it to A +.

B

Programming language B is the predecessor of C and is no longer used these days.

C

No need to introduce C. If you are interested in this article, then you know C. We can also read C ++ and C # since non-alphabetic and non-numeric characters are allowed.

D

D Is an improved C ++. It is currently my favorite language, so things will be very biased. If you have a choice of languages, consider it a recommendation to check out D!

E

E programming language Is a rather unique language. It focuses on distributed programming as well as security.

There is also Amiga Eoften referred to simply as E. Wouter van Oortmerssen conceived of it as a scripting language for games and describes it as “a huge success, becoming one of the most popular programming languages ​​for the amiga.” It is available as free program…

F

F # relatively well known. Essentially, O’Caml has been ported to .NET.

There is also Fwhich is a subset of Fortran. It should be easier to learn, use, and debug than full Fortran.

F * Is a functional programming language such as ML, designed to test programs. The main current use case for F * is to create a tried and true replacement for the entire HTTPS stack.

G

G-code also called the G programming language, so it fits. It is a numerical control programming language that is mainly used for programming CNC machine tools. It looks like assemblers.

Inside LabView there is real G programming language… It is a graphical data flow language.

H

H Is a weakly typed text language. Not much is known about him.

there is another Hwhich is equally useful.

One of the things I want to do with computers is create art for art’s sake. H is one such project. H is not a productive tool. You can’t create anything useful with H. This is an exercise in building a compiler and runtime from scratch, based on my past experiences with Lojban parsing, server-side WebAssembly, and the frustrating marketing of programming tools. I wanted to create something that intentionally brings out all the common ways of advertising programming languages ​​and tools.

I

I is the languageinspired by J who wants to expand the focus from arrays to more data structures.

J

J is another descendant of APL and probably the most popular. For example, in Rosetta Code J – one of the most popular languages…

K

K is one of the main descendants APL by Arthur Whitney. It is a commercial product used by banks for financing and trading.

L

L was the tonguewhich gave the C syntax for TCL.

L is the brother of E by HP Labs.

L is a subset of Common Lisp.

L is a theoretical language in Computability, Complexity, and Languages: Foundations of Theoretical Computer Science.

M

Language M was invented by the French Office of Public Finance (DGFiP), the equivalent of the IRS, to convert tax codes into machine-readable instructions. It is a small domain-specific language based on variable declarations and arithmetic operations. Compiler reverse engineering available here…

M # focused on business applications and .NET websites.

MUMPS programming language also called “M”.

Microsoft Power Query contains language of formulas M…

N

Of posted publication 1989:

Expecting widespread use of neural network algorithms in the near future, our goal is to have a complete software development environment for programming and testing new applications. We intend to create a high-level language for the specification of neural networks as part of such an environment. The language we propose is highly modular, based on parameterizable data structures with functions in the form of update methods attached to them. The rules for constructing structures and methods allow you to build more complex structures from the smaller ones defined earlier, step by step. Objects are considered as standalone modules connected by stubs for communication. We especially took care of the parallelization of methods running simultaneously on different network objects. The syntax is very similar to the syntax of the C and C ++ languages.

I’m not sure if this will ever work, as the article is more like a blueprint with suggestions like “A full C simulator is expected to launch in the early 1990s.”

ABOUT

O is a stack language with one-letter commands. For example, “io” reads input line (i) and then outputs it (o).

P

P programming language intended for event-driven asynchronous programming. It was used to implement and validate the USB device driver stack that ships with Microsoft Windows 8 and Windows Phone.

P ′ ′ Is a primitive formal language since 1964. It was the first language without a GOTO, fully Turing validated. Brainfuck is P ′ ′ plus IO.

P # Is a Prolog interpreter for .NET.

Q

Q is the shell around K and the kdb + database to make it more readable.

Another language Q Is a functional programming language based on the rewriting of terms. He was replaced Pure…

There is also Q #, “A domain-specific programming language used to express quantum algorithms. It should be used to write subroutines that run on an additional quantum processor under the control of a classical main program and a computer. “

R

R is a well-known language statistical programming. It counts on par with commercial tools like SAS.

S

S is the language statistical programming, and R is considered an implementation. Most of the S code works in R.

T

T – dialect Scheme or Lisp. The last release was in 1984, so it can be considered dead.

U

U programming language – a personal project of Rob Upcraft. He wanted a simple C-like language to write his own operating system.

V

The 1985 summary mentions programming language V…

Newer V with huge ambitions in alpha.

W

W was created by Victor Toth in 2001 to program two vintage computers from HP. It is a very simple language, described as C, without keywords, types, and standard library.

X

X # Is a low-level programming language, somewhere between x86 and C. It is developed within Cosmos, an open source operating system toolkit.

X ++ Is a programming language used in one of Microsoft’s enterprise resource planning software products. It derives from C ++ and adds garbage collector and SQL query syntax.

Y

Y Programming Language and Y…

Z

Z-notation Is a formal specification language standardized as ISO / IEC13568: 2002.

Another Z Is a tiny, strict, impure, curried, partially applied programming language with a rather peculiar syntax.

Conclusion

If you’re looking for a free name, there isn’t one. However, you can probably rewrite H, I, T, V, or W.

On the other hand, why give a language a name that Google can’t?

A programming language is a notation for writing

programs

, which are specifications of a computation or

algorithm

.

[2]

Some authors restrict the term «programming language» to those languages that can express all possible algorithms.

[2]

​

[3]

Traits often considered important for what constitutes a programming language include:Function and targetA computer programming language is a

language

used to write

computer programs

, which involves a

computer

performing some kind of computation

[4]

or

algorithm

and possibly control external devices such as

printers

,

disk drives

,

robots

,

[5]

and so on. For example,

PostScript

programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a programming language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract, machine. It is generally accepted that a complete specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized, of a machine or processor for that language.

[6]

In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently, programming languages are usually defined and studied this way.

[7]

Programming languages differ from

natural languages

in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.AbstractionsProgramming languages usually contain

abstractions

for defining and manipulating

data structures

or controlling the

flow of execution

. The practical necessity that a programming language support adequate abstractions is expressed by the

abstraction principle

.

[8]

This principle is sometimes formulated as a recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.

[9]

Expressive powerThe

theory of computation

classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All

Turing-complete

languages can implement the same set of

algorithms

.

ANSI/ISO SQL-92

and

Charity

are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet are often called programming languages.

[10]

​

[11]

​

Programming
Languages

 by Ian Speer, Steven
Mercier, Mark Roesner, and Adam Seiwart

Introduction

    A programming language is
defined as “an artificial language designed to express computations that can be
performed by a machine, particularly a computer” according to Wikipedia. While
that may be an accurate description, it is not the only definition of a
programming language. There are thousands upon thousands of programming
languages in our ever advancing world and there are more being created every
day. Programming languages range from the very basic binary language or
“machine code” all the way up to the highest level languages such as Ruby,
Python, and J with every shade in between. So why are there so many languages?
Well there are many answers to that question. For one Computer Science is still
an ever advancing field and people often find better ways to do things than
those before them. Then there is the fact that some people prefer certain ­languages
and some languages are better suited for the task at hand. However most modern
programming languages do contain common elements and are Turing Complete.
 Over the next few sections in this chapter, some key points will be
reviewed such as:

• Some
  key programming languages
•  Programming
  Paradigms
•  Compiled
  vs. Interpreted languages

By the end of this chapter one should have a
keen knowledge of the fundamentals and background of programming languages.

 Programming Paradigms

A programming paradigm is a
logical view of code within the computer language to be implemented or
understood. The word paradigm is defined as “a set of forms which contain a
certain element that is based on a certain base or theme.” Summarized, it means
that a paradigm is a specific pattern that is used within a greater foundation
of pattern. A programming paradigm is the pattern used by a computing language
as the basis to make computer programs. Although there are many types of
programming paradigms, there are four main types of paradigms. These main types
are: imperative, functional, logic, and object-oriented paradigms.

Imperative
Paradigm

           
The imperative paradigm is the oldest of the paradigms. This
paradigm was formed after Jon Von Neuman’s principles of Computer Architecture.
The imperative paradigm works by taking a given list of commands to be executed
in order to carry out the operation. Basic, C, and Algol are languages that use
the imperative paradigm.

Functional
Paradigm

            Although
not as old as imperative, the functional paradigm came shortly after. The
functional paradigm follows the algebraic formula and its theory of functions
making it easier to follow than the imperative paradigm. The paradigm evaluates
the sub-functions of the main function to reach its result. The functional
paradigm uses languages like Lisp, Planner, and scheme.

            Derived from the name, the logic paradigm is based from the idea of logic formula. Logic formula uses a set of facts and rules called axioms, to logically prove the theorem at hand. The logic paradigm differs significantly from other paradigms. It fits better in obtaining basic facts and rules than the other paradigms but has a hard time with the math side of computing. Prolog is a programming language that purely uses logic paradigms.

Logic
Paradigm

Object-Oriented
Paradigm

            The
object-oriented paradigm is the newest and most popular paradigm used today.
The reason for its popularity is that it is common for it to combine with other
paradigms which create more in-depth programming languages. The object-oriented
paradigm takes a collection of classes and sends messages between all the
classes within to get to the final result that the classes lead up to. There
are quite a few programming languages that use object-oriented paradigms
because of its ability to combine with the other paradigms. C++ and Java are
used for imperative object-oriented paradigms, Functional object-oriented uses
Clos, and logic object-oriented paradigms use object prolog as its programming
language.

Programming Languages

Programming languages are
created to control the behavior of a computer or machine and must conform to a
set of rules for syntax so that communication between machine and man is
succinct. There are thousands of programming languages; however, for purposes
of brevity, we will only discuss the five most popular languages of 2012 in
this section with the exception of Assembly. Programming languages are
classified into “levels”: low level programming languages communicate more
directly with the computer as opposed to high level programming languages. The
top high level languages of 2012 are listed in their respective order from most
popular to least: C, Java, Objective-C, C++, and C #. Assembly will be briefly
discussed.

Assembly

    Assembly
is a low level language that is designed for any programmable device, most
notably computers and microcontrollers. A characteristic of a low level
programming language is that they are generally unique to a computer
architecture making them difficult, if not impossible, to use on separate
architectures. A program language that is written in assembly consists of “a
series of (mnemonic) processor instructions and meta-statements, comments and
data.”  As modern technology advances assembly grows more outdated,
leading to a large portion of tasks that have been previously coded in assembly
to be rendered into more user-friendly          
                     
                 

languages such as C. There are, however, key
situations in which assembly language is considered more efficient than other
programming languages. A few of these scenarios include “programs that need to
use processor-specific instructions not implemented in a compiler” and
“programs that rely on precise timing”. The software on graphing calculators is
often programmed in assembly.

C

The programming language
“C” was created by Dennis Ritchie between the years 1969 and 1973. It is
considered a general-purpose programming language meaning that it can be used
for a variety of purposes ranging from microcontrollers to operating system. C
is considered one of the most popular programming languages as it has been
commonly used for over two decades. As a result of its popularity, nearly all
computer architectures support C. C is an object-oriented programming language
and is also considered an imperative language, which is a programming paradigm
whose computation is described in terms of statements.  C was originally
useful for many applications or machines that had originally been programmed in
assembly language.

Java

The programming language
Java was developed at Sun Microsystems by James Gosling prior to its release in
1995. Java is considered a high-level programming language due to the fact that
it can run on any computer that has the Java virtual platform installed,
regardless of the computer’s architecture. Java relies heavily on C and C++
from which it derives most of its syntax. Java is used frequently for
client-server web applications with over 10 million users.  Perhaps one of
the key characteristics of Java that make it increasingly popular is its
portability. Compared to C, Java requires more memory and is reputably slower.
The newest Java, Java 7, is one and a half times slower than C.

“class HelloWorldApp {

  public static void main(String[] args) {

    System.out.println(«Hello
World!»); // Display the string.

  }

}

Objective-C

Objective-C was developed
in the 1980s by Brad Cox and Tom Love at their company known as Stepstone.
Objective-C was originally used for the NeXTSTEP operating system, but was
later incorporated as an integral part of the OS X and iOS operating systems used
by Apple explaining much of the languages popularity. It is considered a
high-level, general-purpose, and object oriented programming language similar
to the C language on which it is based. Objective-C is an increasingly popular
programming language since it was ranked 6^th in 2011 as
compared to the 3^rd place ranking it currently holds as of
September 1^st, 2012.

C++

            The
programming language C++ is a “statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm,
compiled, general-purpose programming language.” If you understood all of that
give yourself a pat on the back and feel free to skip the next couple lines, if
not, then please continue reading. Static typing is essentially the equivalent
of a spell check for programming syntax. In other words if you make a mistake
while typing the code, the program will highlight the error you made. Free-form
means that the position of the characters on the page is relatively
insignificant. The text in the program does not need to be in specific
columns such as on older punched card systems. Compiled implies that the
program is implemented by transforming source code (or any programming
language) into machine code (or another language), that may then serve as an
input.  Multi-paradigm is rather self-explanatory, it supports more than
one of the programming paradigms which were discussed earlier in this
section.  Lastly general-purpose signifies that the language can be used
for a variety of purposes; in this case it is used in “system software,
application software, device drivers, embedded software, high-performance
server and client applications, and video games.” Many other popular programming
languages have been influenced from C++, including C# and Java.

 C#

           
C# is considered friendlier than C or C++, allowing beginners to more quickly
become proficient in C#. One of the features that it implements to make itself
more user-friendly is the garbage collection — the concept that the program
will automatically erase memory that it no longer needs. C# is considered a
good choice for both individuals and large or small teams. C# is also known for
rapid application development, and strong typing, which will prevent users from
breaking operation perimeters.

Interpreted and Compiled
Languages

In the world of computer
programming there are two types of languages that help to break down high level
processing so that it can be easily understood in our technological world. The
difference however is how they both accomplish this goal. In a Compiled program,
languages are translated from a high level program into a lower level program.
Because high level languages can be very difficult to understand, it is crucial
that we use a compiler to translate these languages into low level machine
codes (usually binary code). These codes are then stored in a file for later
execution so that the machine can run. Many of the compilers used today are
either run by C or C++, and even sometimes by FORTRAN, which
is considered to be years older. In our second language, known as the Interpreted Language,
we learn that programs such as Action script, JavaScript, Java,
and C# help run the system. Interpreted language tends to run
at a slower speed than the Compiled program because they make sure that every
line is executed and analyzed perfectly. This in turn allows them to not need
to be recompiled after changes. Some of the pros and cons with interpreted is
that they have limited access to the underlying operating system and hardware,
but they also are easy to program and are more forgiving in coding
errors. 

The P-code Language:

           
The P code is a type of hybrid established between the compiled language and
the interpreted language. Examples of the P-code are Python, REXX/Object REXX,
and Java. In the P-code, programming speed is still slower than compiled but is
faster than interpreted. Unlike the interpreted, which translates to binary
each time, the P-code does not. It only does this function once, because once
the language runs the first time, the pseudo-code version then takes over and
executes each additional time. Also unlike the compiled, storing binary into
machine language, the P-codes pseudo version stores the binary into an
executable binary file. 

Which
is better?

            Really
there is no way to compare the two to see which one is better, it really comes
down to what you are trying to accomplish and how fast you want it done. But
with the compilers of today some can compile and execute in memory making, just
like an interpreted language.  However with both languages you are still
going to need a text editor, which basically lets you enter in your own
instructions. Many of the modern compilers come with complete and integrated
editors optimized for working with certain types of languages. So it all comes
down to preference.

Conclusion

Programming languages have
changed remarkably since the very first programmer Ada Byron who lived over 150
years ago. In her time and for decades to follow, programming a computer
required hours of work and their computational machines were mechanical not
electronic. But even after computers became digital, programming them was still
a difficult task with binary being the only way to program. Guess how long that
would take?
01000001      
                                                              (A)

01001100    
01001111     01001110    
01000111     
(L.O.N.G.)                             

01010100    
01001001     01001101
    01000101       (T.I.M.E.)

     Out of the necessity of
time-efficient programming needs, todays modern languages were born. And while
there are many variations, modern languages are beginning to share common
traits. So now that you have read this chapter, hopefully you have a better
understanding of the world of programming. However, as stated before, computer
science is still growing and progressing in a never ending process. It is only
a matter of time before this textbook, teaching modern information and
techniques, turns into a history book.

Works Cited

Elena I. Bolshakova. (n.d.). Programming
paradigms in computer science education. Retrieved from http://www.foibg.com/ijita/vol12/ijita12-3-p13.pdf

What is a programming
paradigm?. (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-programming-paradigm.htm

Overview of the four main
programming paradigms. (July 7, 2010). Retrieved
from http://people.cs.aau.dk/~normark/prog3-03/html/notes/paradigms_themes-paradigm-overview-section.html

 (2012,
August 21). Comparison of programming languages. Retrieved from 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages

Marshall Brain (2012). The simplest C program:
What’s happening?. Retrieved from

http://www.howstuffworks.com/c.htm

Bjarne Stroustrup (2012). Welcome to Bjarne
Stoustrup’s homepage!. Retrieved from

http://www.stroustrup.com/

Oracle corporation (2012). JSR 241: The Groovy Programming
Language.

http://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=241

(2012, September 2). Assembly.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language

Java^TM (2012). About Java. http://www.java.com/en/about/

(2012, September 5). Java (programming
language).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)

(2012, September 4). C (programming language).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)

(1999, December 7). The C programming Language.

http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/c/c.html

(2012, September 4). C++. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B

(2012, September 5). C Sharp (programming
language).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)

            Bertino,
E., (2000), ‘ECOOP 2000—object-oriented programming’, 14the European
Conference Sophia Antipolis and Cannes, France. Springer. pp. 362-363.

Brookshear, J.G., (2008).
‘Computer Science: An Overview 10th ed.’, Addison Wesley. pp. 296-311.

Spell, B., (2000),
‘Professional Java Programming 1st ed.’, Peer Information, pp. 1-21.

Vinoski, S., (2006), ‘The
language divide’, Internet Computing, IEEE , vol.10, no.2, pp. 82- 84,
March-April 2006.

Warren, M. R., (2009), ‘C#
versus C++ versus Java performance comparison’, C# Architect [Online].
Available from: http://www.csharp-architect.com/ (Accessed: 2 April 2010).

            Bih,
N. (n.d.). I-gloss/linux dictionary v 0.16. Retrieved from http://www.tldp.org/LDP/Linux-Dictionary/html/index.html

Artcle by: Juergen Haas

            Eric,
R. (n.d.). The unix and internet fundamental howto. Retrieved from
http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Unix-and-Internet-Fundamentals-HOWTO/

            david
, B. (n.d.). Comparing popular programming languages. Retrieved from
http://cplus.about.com/od/introductiontoprogramming/a/comparelangs.htm

Experience: Studied
Computer Science and graduated as Bachelor of Science in 1981