One word more analysis

This is an analysis of the poem One Word More that begins with:

TO E.B.B.
I… full text

Elements of the verse: questions and answers

The information we provided is prepared by means of a special computer program. Use the criteria sheet to understand greatest poems or improve your poetry analysis essay.

• Rhyme scheme: X a bcde X fghXgigfejklf X gchXXbmh X ghcjXc a hXcnXnmchfnkheXiXX a hje X dfhXd X dcJXcldkjgdfJce X cdghckdhXXjXoXccdglnXhX f cfcc a lXXhdcdnf X klacaikp X fcjgqjhdXdfi X bjfglkljbmfbcel X ofXdcXXdncfdq X jhjXhXfcbhbdXlldbXcdXXe X idfblXd
• Stanza lengths (in strings): 1,1,4,1,13,1,8,1,6,1,18,1,3,1,5,1,15,1,23,1,4,1,9,1,8,1,12,1,15,1,13,1,23,1,7,1,11,1,4,
• Closest metre: trochaic pentameter
• Сlosest rhyme: alternate rhyme
• Сlosest stanza type: sonnet
• Guessed form: unknown form
• Metre: 01 1 1111101110 1010101010 1010111010 1011101110 1 10110100010 1110001010 1000101010 1110101100 1011111010 1111111011 0111101011 0110100010 1110101010 1010101010 1011101110 1011101010 1010111010 1 1111101110 1000101010 11101010101 1111101100 0110110100 0110100010 0110100010 1111101010 1 1110101110 1010101110 1010101110 1010101010 11011110100 1001110010 1 1010101110 101110100 1111101010 1000001010 1110111111 10111011010 1110111010 1000111110 1110101010 1011100110 1011101110 1010011010 1010100010 0110100010 11101001000 1110101010 1001111001 1010111110 1 1111101110 1010100010 1111101010 1 1110101110 111111100 11101001110 0111101000 111101010 1 1010101010 0110111111 1110111110 1010101010 1111101010 1010111010 1011111010 1010101010 1110101010 1111111010 1111111010 10111000010 1110111110 1000111010 1011101010 1 10010111010 11100111010 1011101011 1010011010 1011100001 0011001010 11101111010 1110101010 1111111011 1111111010 1111111110 1011111110 111001010010 1010100100 1010101011 101000110011 1001100010 1111101011 11101110010 11111010011 1110111111 1010101010 1011101110 1 1011101010 1011101010 111110010010 1010111010 1 0111101010 01101011100 011010010 1110111010 1000101010 1010110010 1000100010 1010101010 1110101010 1 1110000010 1110111111 1110111011 1011111010 0010111011 1110111011 1010101110 1010101111 1 1010010101 1110111110 1111100110 1110111011 1110101011 101001010010 1010101010 1011011010 10101010100 1111111110 1010101010 1111111111 1 1111101110 1111101110 1011111110 10100101010 1011111110 1110110010 1111101011 101101010 1110101110 1110101110 1010101010 1111111110 1111101010 1111111110 1010111111 1 1111111011 1010101010 11101011000 1010110010 101010111 1111100011 1110101000 1010100110 01101000010 1010011010 1011100011 1001001010 1100001010 1 1110001110 1101111010 1011101010 1010101110 1110110010 1010101010 101001010 1010101010 1010101110 1010001110 1111101010 1010111110 1111100110 1010101010 1001101010 11101100100 1110111010 1010101100 1110101010 10101100100 1010100010 10101000111 1111111110 1 1011111001 1000101010 1011111010 1010101010 1010100010 1111101010 1010101110 1 0110111011 0011011010 1110111010 1111111111 1011100111 1011111010 1010111010 10111010011 1110101010 1010111010 1111111010 1 11101001100 1110001010 1111011110 1110111110
• Amount of stanzas: 39
• Average number of symbols per stanza: 222
• Average number of words per stanza: 41
• Amount of lines: 239
• Average number of symbols per line: 35 (medium-length strings)
• Average number of words per line: 7

• Mood of the speaker:

  The punctuation marks are various. Neither mark predominates.

• The author used lexical repetitions to emphasize a significant image; in, and, he, would, to, you, my, of are repeated.

  The poet used anaphora at the beginnings of some neighboring lines. The same words did, her, while, does, when, thus, were, this, oh are repeated.

  There is a poetic device epiphora at the end of some neighboring lines ‘, you are repeated).

  The literary device anadiplosis is detected in two or more neighboring lines. The word/phrase hated connects the lines.

If you write a school or university poetry essay, you should Include in your explanation of the poem:

• summary of One Word More;
• central theme;
• idea of the verse;
• history of its creation;
• critical appreciation.

Good luck in your poetry interpretation practice!

More information about poems by Robert Browning

• Analysis of The Confessional
• Analysis of Holy-Cross Day
• Analysis of Master Hugues Of Saxe-Gotha

In
most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and
individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The
segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the
method of Immediate
and Ultimate
Constituents. This
method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the
procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into.
At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate
Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of
analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The
analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of
further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate
Constituents.

A
synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by
the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs
are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The
method is based on the fact that a word characterized by
morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural
correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level
only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the
analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English
vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the
constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following
formula:

un+
{ [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking
a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the
structural order of the constituents.

A
diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

un-
/ gentlemanly

un-
/ gentleman / — ly

un-
/ gentle / — man / — ly

un-
/ gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A
similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the
morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on
which it is built.

The
analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the
stage of Ultimate Constituents.
For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs:
[frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking
and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number of nouns, such
as unhappiness,
blackness, sameness,
etc. the IC [-nıs]
is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into
any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any
further division of –ness
would
give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The
IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which
are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic
analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out
on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle
and affix principle.

According
to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent
morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of
words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er
leads to the
segmentation of words singer,
teacher, swimmer into
the derivational morpheme –
er
and the roots
teach- , sing-,
drive-.

According
to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the
identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example
the identification of the root-morpheme agree-
in the words
agreeable,
agreement, disagree.

As
a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the
morphemic segmentation of words.

However,
the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such
analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the
cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words
into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as
morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification
of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive,
conceive, perceive
the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on
the other hand,
they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically
identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize,
de-organize, de-code.
Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın]
or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own.
Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning
because [rı-] distinguishes retain
from detain
and [-teın] distinguishes retain
from receive.

It
follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a
certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to
the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand
-tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional
meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these
sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of
their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and
are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo-
morphemes of the same kind are also encountered in words like
rusty-fusty.

Derivational
level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The
morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes,
determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the
hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum
totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very
complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain
rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and
particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme
arrangement underlies the classification of words into different
types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the
language. These relations within the word and the interrelations
between different types and classes of words are known as derivative
or word- formation relations.

The
analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation
between different types and the structural patterns words are built
on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The
stem
is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged
throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm
(to) ask
( ), asks,
asked, asking is
ask-;
thestem
of the word singer
(
), singer’s,
singers, singers’ is
singer-.
It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the
word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The
structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis,
which at this level aims at establishing
the
patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the
derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There
are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple
stems are
semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy
with which new stems may be modeled.
Simple
stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the
root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always
coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves
that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant
at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound
morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the
derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of
double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such
words as retain,
receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc.
should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived
stems are
built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated,
i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis of the derivative
relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived
stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results
only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily
a derivational affix.

Derived
stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound
stems are
made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for
example match-box,
driving-suit, pen-holder,
etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the
other derived.

In
more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels
sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The
derivational types of words
are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple,
derived
and compound
words.

Derived
words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more
derivational morpheme.

Compound
words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of
derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational
compound is
a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and
derivational.

Compound
words
proper
are
formed by joining together stems of word already available in the
language.

6.
Derivative
Structure

The
analysis of the morphemic composition of words defines the ultimate
meaningful constituents (UCs), their typical sequence and
arrangement, but it does not reveal the hierarchy of morphemes making
up the word, neither does it reveal the way a word is constructed,
nor how a new word of similar structure should be understood. The
morphemic analysis does not aim at finding out the nature and
arrangement of ICs which underlie the structural and the semantic
type of the word, e.g. words unmanly and discouragement morphemically
are referred to the same type as both are segmented into three UCs
representing one root, one prefixational and one suffixational
morpheme. However the arrangement and the nature of ICs and hence the
relationship of morphemes in these words is different
— in
unmanly the prefixational morpheme makes one of the ICs, the other IC
is represented by a sequence of the root and the suffixational
morpheme and thus the meaning of the word is derived from the
relations between the ICs un- and manly- (‘not manly’), whereas
discouragement rests on the relations of the IC discourage- made up
by the combination of the. prefixational and the root-morphemes and
the suffixational morpheme -ment for its second IC (‘smth that
discourages’). Hence we may infer that these three-morpheme words
should be referred to different derivational types: unmanly to a
prefixational and discouragement to a suffixational derivative.

The
nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word are known as its
derivative structure. Though the derivative structure of the word is
closely connected with its morphemic or morphological structure and
often coincides with it, it differs from it in principle.

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Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
1. Morphology
1.1. How to do morphological analysis (or any other kind of linguistic
analysis)
Morphology is the study of word formation – how words are built up from smaller
pieces. When we do morphological analysis, then, we’re asking questions like, what
pieces does this word have? What does each of them mean? How are they
combined?
In general, when you’re asked to do any sort of linguistic analysis, you’ll be given a
set of data – words or sentences from some language that generally isn’t, but
occasionally is, English – and asked to find patterns in it.
Cree (Algonquian)
t∫i:ma:n
canoe
nit∫i:ma:n my canoe
so:niya
money
niso:niya my money
wiya: ∫
meat
niwiya: ∫
my meat
How to do morphological analysis?
When you don’t know anything about the language:
• Find a pair of words whose English translations differ only in a single way that’s
relevant to the task at hand.
• Find the corresponding difference in the non-English words – often some letters
will be added, or the word will be changed in some systematic other way. Making
this change in the non-English word therefore produces the relevant change in the
English meaning.
• Check your theory: find another pair of foreign words whose English translations
also differ only in this relevant way, and make sure this pair of foreign words
change in the same way as the last.
We’ll encounter kinds of morphology that are more complex than this, but this
basic method of looking for forms with minimal differences and figuring out how to
describe that difference is always a good approach.
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Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
1.2. Types of morphemes
Morpheme
A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning we have –
that is, the smallest piece of a word that contributes meaning to a word.
Example
The word trainings has 3 morphemes in it: train-ing-s.
To break a word into morphemes, try starting at the beginning of the word and
seeing how far into the word you need to go to find a sub-part of the word that has
some meaning. For example, in the word unbreakable, the first two letters un- are
independently meaningful in a way that just the first letter, u-, is not – un- means
something like ‘not (whatever)’, and changes the meaning of the word it attaches to
in a predictable way; sub-parts of un-, like u- or –n-, don’t have this property. This
means that un- is a morpheme.
Once you’ve found the first morpheme, ask yourself whether there’s another
meaningful sub-part of the word after that first morpheme. Again, -break- is
independently meaningful; so is the last part of the word, -able. So unbreakable has
three morphemes: un-break-able. Some words just have one morpheme, of course –
you can’t break down the word love into any meaningful sub-parts, for example.
We define different kinds of morphemes based on various properties like where they
show up in words. All morphemes are either free or bound.
Free A free morpheme is one that can stand on its own – that is, it’s an
entire word.
Examples the, cat, run, pretty, trapezoid
Free morphemes may appear with other bound morphemes attached
to them; crucially, though, they don’t need to have other morphemes on them.
Bound
A bound morpheme cannot stand on its own, but rather must
be attached to a free morpheme whenever you say it.
Examples re-, un-, -est, -er, -fer (see below)
Some morphemes are roots; others are affixes.
Root The primary piece of meaning in a word, to which affixes can be
added. In English, a root is often a word itself.
Examples cat, pretty, -fer
Affix A morpheme which attaches to roots (or stems), changing their
meaning in regular ways.
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Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
Examples re-, un-, -est, -er, ing, -s
Affixes are generally either prefixes or suffixes.
Prefix
An affix that goes before a root.
Examples re-, un- (re-read, un-loved)
Suffix
An affix that goes after a root.
Examples -est, -er, -s (quick-est, quick-er, read-s, book-s)
! Null morpheme:
In morpheme-based morphology, a null morpheme is a morpheme that is realized
by a phonologically null affix (an empty string of phonological segments). In simpler
terms, a null morpheme is an "invisible" affix. It's also called zero morpheme.
The null morpheme is represented as either the figure zero (0), the empty set
symbol Ø.
Example:
The existence of a null morpheme in a word can also be theorized by contrast with
other forms of the same word showing alternate morphemes. For example, the
singular number of English nouns is shown by a null morpheme that contrasts with
the plural morpheme -s.
cat = cat + -Ø = ROOT ("cat") + SINGULAR
cats = cat + -s = ROOT ("cat") + PLURAL
1.3 Finding morphemes in other languages
Linguists study languages they don’t speak. We are going to study how to do
morphology in other languages, i.e. how to decompose a word into morpheme.
You got already an idea from the example in Cree we saw above. Let’s do more.
Ex 1: French. How is the noun formed from the Adjective?
[kõform] conforme (adj.) ‘conform’
[kõformite] conformité (noun) ‘conformity’
[legal] légal (adj.) ‘legal’
[leʒitim] légitime (adj.) ‘legitimate’
[legalite] légalité (noun) ‘legality’
[leʒitimite] légitimité (noun) ‘legitimacy’
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Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
Ex 2: Michoacan Aztec: find every single morpheme in the data below.
1. nokali
2. nokalimes
3. mokali
4. ikali
5. kali
6. kalimes
7. nopelo
8. mopelo
‘my house’
‘my houses’
‘your house’
‘his house’
‘house’
‘houses’
‘my dog’
‘your dog’
9. mopelomes
‘your dogs’
10. ipelo
‘his dog’
11. pelo
‘dog’
12. nokwahmili ‘my cornfield’
13. mokwahmili ‘your cornfield’
14. ikwahmili
‘his cornfield’
15. ikwahmilimes ‘his cornfields’
16. kwahmili
‘cornfield’
How to proceed:
• Find a pair of words whose English translations differ only in a single way
that’s relevant to the task at hand.
• Find the corresponding difference in the non-English words – often
some letters will be added, or the word will be changed in some systematic other
way. Making this change in the non-English word therefore produces the relevant
change in the English meaning.
• Check your theory: find another pair of foreign words whose English
translations also differ only in this relevant way, and make sure this pair of foreign
words change in the same way as the last.
Ex 3: Isleta
Consider the following data from Isleta (a Native American language spoken in
New Mexico), and then answer the questions that follow:
a. temiban I went.
d. mimiay He was going.
b. amiban You went.
e. tewanban I came.
c. temiwe I am going.
f. tewanhi I will come.
I. List the Isleta morphemes corresponding to the following English translations:
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Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
(a) I _____ (d) come ______ (h) future _____
(b) he _____ (e) go _____
(i) past ______
(c) you _____ (f) present progressive (is ... -ing) ______
g) past progressive (was ... -ing) ______
II. What is the order of morphemes in Isleta?
III. Write a rule that produces in Isleta the second person singular subject ( “You
___ “).
IV. Translate each of the following sentences in to Isleta:
(a) He went.
(b) I will go.
(c) You were coming.
1.4 Word formation process in English
The affixes we just talk about are distinctive in one more way.
They are acting in a particular way when attached to the base.
Either they are giving grammatical information or they are creating a new word.
INFLECTION = the process by which affixes combine with roots to indicate basic
grammatical categories such as tense or plurality (e.g. in 'cat-s', 'talk-ed', '-s' an d'-ed'
are inflectional suffixes). Inflection is viewed as the process of adding very general
meanings to existing words, not as the creation of new words.
DERIVATION = the process by which affixes combine with roots to create new
words (e.g. in 'modern-ize', 'read-er', '-ize' and '-er' are derivational suffixes).
Derivation is viewed as using existing words to make new words.
5
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
Table 1: Inflectional categories and affixes of English
Word class to which
inflection applies
Nouns
Inflectional category
.
Possessive
Verbs
3rd person singular present
.
.
past tense
perfect aspect
progressive or
continuous aspect
Adjectives
comparative
(comparing two items)
.
superlative (comparing
+2 items)
Number
Regular affix used to
express category
-s, -es: book/books,
bush/bushes
-'s, -': the cat's tail, Charles'
toe
-s, -es: it rains, Karen writes,
the water sloshes
-ed: paint/painted
-ed: paint/painted ('has
painted) (past participle)
-ing: fall/falling, write/writing
(present participle)
er: tall/taller
est: tall/tallest
Ex 4: Morpheme zero in French versus English
Je mange [ʒәmɑ̃ʒ] 1ere pers sg
Nous mangeons [numɑ̃ʒõ] 1ere pers pl
Tu manges [tymɑ̃ʒ] 2e pers sg
Vous mangez [vumɑ̃ʒe] 2e pers pl
Il mange [ilmɑ̃ʒ] 3e pers sg
Ils mangent [ilmɑ̃ʒ]
3e pers pl
What about English? Can you draw a comparison?
There is another way to create new words:
COMPOUND WORD: a word that is formed from two or more simple or
complex words (e.g. landlord, red-hot, window cleaner).
It is probably the most common one in today's English because it is so productively
used in technical languages. Compounding is a process whereby two or more
individual words are combined as one word. Here are a few examples: beginning
intersect point, exit light fixture symbol, column centerline grid, default Project Architect support
directory, and delete project menu. The last example even has a verb (delete) in it.
1.5 Morphological rules
When you’re doing morphological analysis, you’ll be asked to report your results in
various ways. Sometimes you’ll be asked to tell whether various morphemes are free
or bound, roots or affixes, prefixes or suffixes, etc. Other times, you’ll be asked to
write rules that explain how words are built out of morphemes.
The point of writing a rule is to describe exactly what’s going on morphologically in
6
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
such a way that someone could use your rule to build new words. A good test for
whether your rule is right is to try to use it and make sure it gives you the right
result. This will become clearer soon.
Morphology rules are sentences that tell you these three (or four) things:
(1) What kind of morphological category you’re expressing (noun, verb…)
(2) What change takes place in the root to express this category.
(3) Where in the stem this change takes place.
(4) Special conditions, if any, on this change (e.g. it might only occur in certain
circumstances, on certain kinds of words, etc.).
We can look at a simple example rule that makes the English plural form of a noun
(i.e. that takes the root cat and adds an –s to the end to make cats).
The rule looks like this:
To make the plural form of a noun, add –s to the end of the noun.
We can break down this rule to show super-explicitly which parts of it are doing
which of the four necessary things, like this:
(1) To make the plural form of a noun,
(2)
(3)
add –s
to the end of the noun.
Note that in this case (well, for the purposes of our discussion, anyway), the plural is
always formed by adding –s, so we don’t need any special conditions – that is, no
part (4).
When I talked about testing your rule, here’s what I meant: you’ll write rules based
on data – here, the data is the pair of words cat and cats. You can then take the rule
and the data and make sure the rule produces the data – so here, you can take the
singular form cat and ‘do’ the rule to it – that is, ‘add –s to the end of the noun.’
This produces cats, as it should. This is such a simple, familiar example that testing
it seems dumb, but in more complex examples, testing is a great way to make sure
you’ve done everything right.
Sometimes it will be harder to write a very simple description of the morpheme
being added to the root, because the morpheme might be making a pretty
complicated change; even when the thing that happens to the root is complicated, just
make sure to explain exactly what happens and your rule will work.
7
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
1.6 Parts of Speech
You’ve probably heard definitions for parts of speech like this: “A noun is a person,
place, thing, or idea” or “A verb is an action word.” That’s lovely, but they’re
slippery definitions – we generally agree that a word like appetite is a noun, but it’s
not really a person, place, thing, or idea; similarly, seem is a verb, but it’s not really
an action word. So instead of these meaning- based definitions of parts of speech, in
this class we’ll use structural definitions – that is, definitions based on the structure
of a word, and/or its position in a sentence structure.
8
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
There are a few other English parts of speech that we’ll talk about:
Determiner
Syntactic position
Before a noun (and adjective, if one precedes the noun); only one determiner can
precede a single noun (*the a car).
The cat sat on my favorite chair.
Examples the, a, my, your, his, her, its, our, their, this, that, those, some, all, every, one, two,
three…
Auxiliary
Syntactic position
Before a verb; no more than three auxiliaries may appear before a single verb.
I could have been lying on the beach right now.
Examples be (is/am/are/were/being…), have (has/had/having…), can, could, may, might,
will, would, shall, should, must
Pronoun
Syntactic position
In a position normally occupied by an entire noun phrase
I want you to go to him and get it tomorrow.
Examples I, me, mine, we, us, ours, you, yours he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, them,
theirs, one…
Preposition
Syntactic position
Before a noun phrase; usually only one preposition can precede a single noun
phrase (*on above the desk).
Before the ice age, dinosaurs wandered across the earth.
Examples about, above, across, after, against, among, around, ago, as, at, before, behind, below,
beside, between, but, by, despite, down, during, for, from, in, inside, into, off, on, out, over, past,
since, than, through, to, toward, under, until, up, with, without…
9
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
1.7 A few other word formations
a. Reduplication
Schm- reduplication is a form of reduplication in which the original word or its first
syllable (the base) is repeated with the copy (the reduplicant) beginning with schm-,
IPA [ʃm]. The construction is generally used to indicate irony, derision or
scepticism with respect to comments about the discussed object:
He's just a baby!
Baby-schmaby. He's already 5 years old!
Exercise 1:
Indonesian
rumah
ibu
lalat
1.
rumahrumah
ibuibu
lalatlalat
‘houses’
‘mothers’
‘flies’
What is the Indonesian rule for forming plurals?
bili
kain
pasok
2.
‘house’
‘mother’
‘fly’
‘buy’
‘eat’
‘enter’
bibili
kakain
papasok
‘will buy’
‘will eat’
‘will enter’
What is the Indonesian rule for forming the future tense?
Exercise 2: English
1.
Which of the following words does it sound natural to apply schmreduplication to? (If you don’t use or hear these expressions yourself, ask someone
who does.)
revenge
poster
dance
apple
2.
pirouette
Alabama
banana
map
ballerina
bartender
police
table
indiscretion
butterfly
complaint
survey
What do the words that take schm- easily have in common?
10
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
3.
What is the rule for creating schm- forms? Give your answer in the form of
instructions that would enable someone who didn’t know this construction to
correctly produce it.
b. Scattered morpheme or infix
An infix is an affix inserted inside a stem (an existing word).
Examples in yurok : sepolah
segepolah
‘field'
‘fields'
 se-…-polah
scattered morpheme ‘field'
-geplural infix
Exercice 1:
Bontoc, Philippines
1. fikas ‘strong’
2. kilad ‘red’
3. bato ‘rock’
4. fusul ‘enemy’
5. fumikas
6. kumilad
7. bumato
8. fumusul
‘he is becoming strong'
‘he is becoming red'
‘he is becoming rock'
‘he is becoming an enemy'
a) What are the different morphemes?
b) What does pumusi mean if pusi means poor ?
c) How to say 'white', when 'he is becoming white' is pumukaw?
d) How to say ' 'he is becoming dark" when 'dark' is nitad?
Exercise 2: English
For this exercise, you will need an informant who is a native speaker of
English. (“Informant” or “consultant” are terms used by linguists for native
speakers of a language.) The informant should not be yourself. The informant’s
job, under your instruction, is to construct novel words by the process of expletive
infixation. Some examples of expletive infixation are these:
fan-fuckin-tastic
un-fuckin-believable
Ala-fuckin-bama
Cali-fuckin-fornia
kanga-fuckin-roo
11
Ling 201
Fall 2009
Professor Oiry
Other expletives may be substituted if you and/or the informant are offended by
this one (flippin' and friggin' are popular substitutes).
Once you’ve established that your informant is familiar with this process, you
should elicit some data. Random selection of words is unlikely to yield much
insight. Instead, you need to proceed systematically. For example, go through the
following list of words with the informant, and ask whether the result is good or not
when the expletive is placed in each of the spots indicated by a hyphen:
fan-ta-stic
a-bra-ca-da-bra
A-la-ba-ma
ca-ta-ma-ran
se-ren-di-pi-ty
a-po-stro-phe
can-teen
Ask the informant to grade his/her judgments on a 1-2-3 scale, where 1=”fine”,
3=”horrible”, and 2 is somewhere in between. Report your results as follows:
a-bracadabra
3 (i.e., the informant thinks “a-fuckin-bracadabra” is
horrible)
abra-cadabra
1 (i.e., the informant thinks “abra-fuckin-cadabra” is fine)
Be sure the informant says the word aloud before passing judgment. Also, make
sure that the informant is familiar with the uninfixed word and how it is
pronounced.
Now comes the hard and interesting part. What’s the generalization? Look over the
cases that all have a 1. Do they have anything in common? What about the cases
that all have a 3? Do they have anything in common? When searching for
commonalities, be sure to consider the syllables that immediately precede and
immediately follow the expletive.
12

WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH

  I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.

II.   Structural types of words.

III.   Principles of morphemic analysis.

  IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.

I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.

Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.

Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.

Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.

 Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes  pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.

It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.

The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.

Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.

Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.

Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.

Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.

II. Structural types of words.

The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.

According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.

These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.

But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.

III. Principles of morphemic analysis.

In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.

A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:

un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.

A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

1. un- / gentlemanly

2.   un- / gentleman / — ly

3.   un- / gentle / — man / — ly

4.   un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.

The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number  of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.

According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.

According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree-  in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.

As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or  receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes  re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.

It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.

IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.

The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.

Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.

In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.

Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.

Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.

Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.

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