No change to base word

Nation (2001:268)^[1] lists the most useful affixes (prefixes and suffixes) in terms of learnability, divided into five stages according to the following criteria:# frequency, from high to low word frequency

1. regularity, i.e., the degree of change in the base morpheme, in spelling or pronunciation (e.g., the sound changes in admire – admiration, nation – national — nationality)
2. productivity, i.e., how often and readily it combines with other words; how often it is used as a morpheme to create new words
3. predictablility – how predictable the meaning is from the word base / stem and its affixes

These include grammatical suffixes (verb and noun endings for tense and plural markers), and derivational affixes, used for forming new words from other words (like -able, -ment, pre-, etc.).

1 Stage 0. Standard grammatical morphemes (morphemes for grammatical markings)

-s (noun & verb ending)

dogs and cats it comes and goes

-ed -ing

clipped morphing

2 Stage 1. Frequent affixes — productive (taking novel base words), no change to base word (in writing or speech)

-able -er -ish -less -ly

commendable fisher fiendish feckless verbally

-ness -th -y non- un-

lugubriousness thirteenth brawny non-native unconditional

3 Stage 2. Frequent somewhat productive often impose change on base word

-al -ation -ess -ful -ism -ist

communal alliteration finess stressful naturalism hedonist

-ity -ize -ment -ous in-

parity polarize puzzlement nervous innoculate

4 Stage 3. Less frequent; low productivity; rarely imposes change on base word

-age -al -ally -an -ance -ant -ary -atory -dom -eer -en -en -ence -ent -ery -ese

leakage arrival idiotically Alaskan clearance consultant revolutionary confirmatory kingdom marketeer wooden widen emergence absorbent trickery officialese

-esque -ette -hood -i -ian -ite -let -ling -ly -most -ory -ship -ward -ways -wise

picturesque usherette childhood Israeli phonetician parasite coverlet duckling leisurely topmost contradictory studentship homeward crossways endwise

anti- ante- arch- bi- circum- counter- en- ex- fore- hyper- inter- mid- mis- neo- post- pro- semi- sub- un-

anti-inflation anteroom archbishop biplane circumnavigate counter-attack enslave ex-president forename hyperactive interweave mid-week misfit neo-colonialism post-date pro-British semi-automatic subterranean untie

5 Stage 4. Less frequent.

-able / -ible -ee -ic -ify -ion -ist

cabable, edible employee acidic reify redaction pianist

-ition -ive -th -y pre- re-

contrition conducive thirteenth brawny precondition reverberate

6 Stage 5. Less frequent.

-ar -ate -et -some -ure …ab- ad- com-

circular compassionate, electorate packet troublesome departure … abject adjoin commence

de- dis- ex- (out) in- (in) ob- per- pro- (in front of) trans-

declassify disproportionate exhale inhale obstruct pertinent pro-active transition

7 See also

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Presentation on theme: «Word Formation in English. Conversion Conversion is a main type of word- formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form.»— Presentation transcript:

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Word Formation in English

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Conversion Conversion is a main type of word- formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. For example, the verb release is converted to the noun release.

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In the English language conversion is unusually prominent as a word-formation process.

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There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion. Full conversion is conversion of an adjective into a noun which has all features of a noun.

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Partial conversion is conversion, where a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class.

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Conversion to noun: There are two types of conversion to noun. 1) De-verbal This type includes the following kinds. The de-verbal nouns may be used:

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1)to denote the state of mind or sensation. Desire: v. To long for, to wish n. strong longing, earnest wish dismay: v. To fill with dismay n. strong feeling of fear and hopelessness

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b) to denote an event or activity: attempt v: to try, to make a start at doing something n. effort to do something. Fall: v. To come or go down freely n. act of falling

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Release: v. To allow to go, to set free. n. releasing or being released. Search: v. To examine, to look carefully at. n. act of searching

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swim: v. To move the body through water by using arms, legs, fins, the tail, etc. n. act or period of swimming The deverbal nouns of this kind are used dynamically.

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c) as object of the given verb: Catch: Her husband was a good catch ( that which is caught). They say he’s got a fortune in the bank.

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d) as subject of the given verb: bore: He became a bore( one that causes boredom) at last. cheat: A cheat is a person who cheats.

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e) as instrument of the given verb: cover: put the cover ( something with which to cover things) on the kettle and the water will boil.

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Wrench: where is your wrench (spanner)?

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f) as manner of the given verb: walk: I can know him at once by his walk ( manner of walking).

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lie: the lie ( the way or position in which something lies) of the land.

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g) as place of the given verb: divide: a period marking the divide. (something that divides, especially watershed between two eras of American history.)

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rise: He sat at the top of a small rise ( an upward slope; small hill). turn: Take a turn to the right, please. A path full of twists and turns ( a place at which something turns, turns off or turns back.

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2) De-adjectival: This conversion can be explained in terms of a fixed adjective plus noun phrase from which the noun has been ellipted.

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Typical examples are: I’d like two pints of bitter, please. ( type of beer) They ‘re running in the final. ( the final race) As a foot-baller, he is a natural. ( a naturally skilled player)

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Daily( daily newspaper) Comic (comic actor) Regular ( regular customer) Roast( roast beef) Young marrieds ( married people)

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Annual ( annual book or magazine) Bimonthly ( bimonthly magazine) Biweekly ( biweekly magazine) Weekly ( weekly magazine) Monthly ( monthly magazine) Perennial ( perennial plant)

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Conversion to verb: There are two types of conversion to verb. 1)Denominal: This type has seven kinds. A) to put in N: Bottle: to put into a bottle Corner: to put into a difficult position

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B) to give N or to provide with N… coat: to give a coat to commission: to give a commission to mask: to give a mask to

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C) to deprive of N: core: to remove the core from skin: to take the skin off peel: to take the skin off fruit, vegetables etc.

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D) to do with N; knife: to cut or stab with a knife brake: to stop by means of a brake finger: to touch with the fingers

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E) to be or act as N with respect: father: to act as a father to nurse: to act as a nurse to pilot: to act as a pilot to

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F) to make or change…into N: cash: to change into cash group: to make into a group

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G) to send or go by N: mail: to send by mail telegraph: to send news, etc. by telegraph bicycle: to go by bicycle boat: to travel by motor-car

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canoe: to travel by canoe Most of the verbs in this type are transitive verbs, with the exception of a few words.

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a)(transitive verb) to make adj. or to make more adj. Calm: to make calm Dirty: to make or become dirty 2) De-adjectival: This type has two kinds:

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Don’t dirty your hands. White shoes dirty very easily This type can be used as transitive verbs and intransitive verbs:

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b)(intransitive verb) to become adj. Dry: to become dry Empty: to become empty Narrow: to become narrow Yellow: to become yellow

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Grey: to become grey Blue: to become blue This kind can also be used as transitive verbs and intransitive verbs: Dry your wet hands.

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Sometimes a phrasal verb is derived from an adjective by the addition of a particle: Smooth out: to make smooth

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Calm down: to become calm Sober up: to become sober

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Sometimes a verb is derived from an adjective plus a suffix: Blacken: to become black Black: to make black

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C. Conversion to adjective: This category has only one type. Denominal: A brick garage: The garage is brick.

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Minor categories of conversion: There are three less minor categories of conversion, chiefly used informally. 1)Conversion to nouns: This type has three kinds.

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A) conversion from closed-system words to nouns. There are two postulated major word classes in the English language: open class and closed class. An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited, whereas a closed class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.

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New items are constantly being added to the open class, as new ideas, inventions, etc, appear. Nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs are open-class items. New items are not regularly added to the closed class as they are in the case of open-class items. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-system words.

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Examples are: But(i.e. the word but) contains three letters. His speech contains too many ifs and buts. It tells you about the how and the why of flight.

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B)Conversion from affixes to nouns: Very occasionally, an affix may be converted to nouns, e.g. This is the age of isms

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C) Conversion from phrases to nouns: Phrases or combinations of more than one word, may sometimes be reduced to noun status by conversion, e.g. Whenever I gamble, my horse is one of the also-rans. ( one of the horses which also ran but was not among the winners.)

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2)Conversion to verbs This conversion is conversion from closed-class words and non- lexical items to verbs. It is chiefly used informally: They downed tools in protest.

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3)Conversion to adjectives: This conversion is the conversion from phrases to adjectives. An up-in-the-air feeling: I feel very up in the air ( with reference to cheerful spirits)

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Conversion may be reclassified into three types according to the same word- classes; the change of secondary word class—nouns, the change of secondary word class—verbs and the change of secondary word class—adjectives.

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The change of secondary word class— nouns: This type has four kinds. 1) noncount nouns-  count nouns: a) a unit of N: Two coffees ( two cups of coffee) Two sugars ( two lumps of sugar)

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b)a kind of N: Some paints are more lasting than others. This is a better bread than the one I baked yesterday.

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c) an instance of N: ( with abstract nouns) May I ask a favour of you? The difficulties of English grammar; A home truth ( a fact about someone which is unpleasant for him but true.) Small kindnesses A miserable failure A great injustice