Meanings of word in another language

Globally, English is one of the most spoken and popular languages. Many English speakers believe that other cultures will understand the English words they use, without realizing that some of the words in English have different connotations or meanings in different languages. Many of these English words are the same in spelling, for example in German, Dutch, Polish, Spanish, Sweden and many other languages, but they have different meanings.

Other words sound like English words with a slight difference in pronunciation, such as taxi, which in Korean is taek-si (pronounced taek-shi).

False friends

The words may be similar due to them coming from the same language family or due to loan words. In some cases they are ”false friends” meaning the words stand for something else from what you know.

1. In English “to use the voice,” means to say something “aloud.” In Dutch, aloud means “ancient”
2. The English word “angel” means a supernatural being often represented with wings. Angel in German translates to ”fishing rod” and ”sting” in Dutch.
3. You mean something not specific or whatever when you say “any.” But in Catalan, it is equivalent to “year” although others use the word “curs.”
4. The arm is an upper body extremity but for the Dutch it is the term used when they mean “bad.” But the English term ”bad” is equivalent to ”bath” in Dutch.
5. Bank could be an institution where people deposit their money, something or someone you trust or the sloping land close to a body of water. For the Dutch, ”bank” means cough.
6. An outlying building in a farm is called ”barn,” which is the term for ”children” in Dutch. On the other hand the English word ”bat” refers to a flying mammal or a club used to hit a ball. In Polish, the word means, ”whip.”
7. Beer in English means a ”bear” in Dutch, while they use the term ”big” to refer to a ”baby pig.”
8. “Car in a motorized vehicle, but for the French, it means ”because.” A chariot for the English speakers is a horse-drawn vehicle or a carriage, but the French use this term to mean something smaller, like a ”trolley.”
9. You use the term ”chips” when you mean ”French fries” while the French use ”Crisps” when they say chips.
10. Donkey in Spanish is ”burro” whereas for the Italian, it means ”butter.”
11. The English word ”gift” means ”poison” in German and Norwegian and ”married” in Swedish.
12. “Home” is where you live, but it means ”mold” in Finnish and ”man” in Catalan.
13. “Panna” is cream in English and in Italian, but means ”put” in Finnish. In Polish, they use the term it indicate “a single woman.”
14. The Spanish term for frog is “rana,” but rana means, ”wound” in Romanian and Bulgarian.
15. “Sugar” is something sweet and it’s a sweet term used by Romanians for a baby aged 0-12 months. But the speakers of Basque use the term to mean ”flame.”
16. Tuna is a large fish that is a Japanese favorite when making sashimi. The term means ”cactus” in Spanish or a ”ton” in Czech.
17. “Fart” is a vulgar English word that means expelling intestinal gas. But it means ”good luck” in Polish and ”speed” in Swedish. In French, though, ”pet” is the translation of ”fart” (yes, the foul-smelling variety).
18. Cake in Icelandic is ”kaka” but it is an ”older sister” in Bulgarian. “Kind” means ”child” in German but ”sheep” in Icelandic.
19. You’re likely to say ”prego” when you’re in Italy instead of the usual ”thank you” but it means something very mundane in Portuguese. In Portugal, it is the term they use for ”nail.”
20. ”Privet” is a type of evergreen shrub or small tree that you can use as a border wall. But in Russian, privet, which means ”greetings,” is informally used to say ”hello.”
21. Watercress is a salad green that is called ”berros” in Spanish. The Portuguese however has a very different meaning to berros. To them, it means scream.
22. When you hear the Swedes say ”bra,” they mean ”good,” instead of a type of women’s underwear.
23. “But” is a conjunction in English, whereas the Polish use the term to indicate ”shoe.”
24. This one is a bit similar. The term ”cap” is the Romanian word for ”head.” We say ”door” when we mean the opening to gain access into a room or the panel that opens and closes an entrance. Door in Dutch is almost similar, as it means ”through.”
25. ”Fast” in German means almost, while ”elf” means the number eleven. ”Grad” is the German term for ”degree” but means a ”city” in Bosnian.
26. Make sure you remember this. When is Spain, “largo” means ”long” but it means ”wide” in Portuguese.
27. The meaning of ”pasta” is very different in Polish and Italian. In Italian it is the term for ”noodles,” while in Polish, it means ”toothpaste.” When you’re in Norway, “sau” means sheep while in Germany, it means sow (female pig). “Pig” is ”gris” in Swedish while in Spanish, gris means ”gray.”
28. “Glass” is something shiny, hard and brittle in English, but it turns to soft, cold, sweet and gooey ”ice cream” when you’re in Sweden.
29. The Italians use the word ”vela” when they mean, ”sail.” In Spain though it means ”candle.”
30. The number six in Spanish is ”seis” and for the Finnish, they say this when they mean, ”stop!”
31. The big, blue ”sky” means ”gravy” in Swedish, while ”roof” means ”robbery” in Dutch.
32. When a Swedish says, ”kiss,” it means ”pee” instead of caressing with the lips.
33. “Carp” is a fish beloved in Japan and it is a type of freshwater fish found in Asia and Europe. But in Romanian, the carp is called ”crap.” Hmm…
34. Trombone is a musical instrument. It is the instrument of choice for some of the famous artists such as Joseph Alessi, J.J. Johnson, Glenn Miller, Tommy Dorsey and Frank Rosolino. But in French, it is something very ordinary – a paper clip.
35. “Awesome” in German is “hammer.”
36. “Barf” means ”snow” in Urdu, Hindi and Farsi.

Be careful with your words

Words can hurt other people if you are not careful. English speakers who love to travel should take time to learn the culture and read about the quirks and characteristics of the main language spoken in their destination. They should know that some words in a foreign language might sound like English but stand for something different in another language.

If you are in Wales, do not feel slighted when you hear a Welsh-speaking native say ”moron” while you’re in the market. The person might be trying to sell you some ”carrots.”

In English, you can say you ”won” something and feel proud or happy. In South Korea, it is their national currency. When a house is said to be ”won” in Polish, it means that it is ”nice smelling.” Russia has a different interpretation, however. In Russian, using the word ”won” means describing something that ”stinks.”

The Spanish term ”oficina” translates into ”office” in English. But for the Portuguese, an ”oficina” is only a ”workshop,” such as a mechanic’s shop.

The term ”schlimm” sounds like ”slim” in English. In the Netherlands, this stands for being smart or successful. But in Germany, which is 467.3 kilometers away from the Netherlands by car via A44, (roughly a five-hour drive), schlimm means ”unsuccessful and dim-witted!

English speakers understand that ”slut” is a derogatory word. But for the Swedish, this means ”finished” or the ”end,” something that you’d say when you want your relationship with your Swedish boyfriend or girlfriend is over. So when you’re in Sweden, you’ll see signs such as ”slutspurt” that means a final sale or ”slutstation” when you’ve reached a train line’s end.

If you’re an urbanite, it is difficult to enjoy fresh air unless you go to the countryside. “Air” in Malay (sounds like a-yah), which is an official language in Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Brunei, it means ”water.” When you mean the ”air” you breathe, you use the word ”udara.”

In English and in German, the word ”dick” is derogatory. It means ”fat” or ”thick” in German.

You might think that the Spanish appetizer ”tapas” is universally understood when you’re in South America because you are so used to seeing tapas bars in the U.S., UK, Canada, Mexico and Ireland (or their own version of it). However, in Brazil, where Portuguese is an official language, ”tapas” means ”slap” rather than a delicious snack. If you want to have tapas-like snacks to go with your beer, the right term to use is ”petiscos” or ”tira-gostos.” Now you know the right term to use when you’re in Brazil. If you go to Mexico, you can order ”botanas” and ask for some ”picada” in Argentina or ”cicchetti” if you happen to be in Venice. In South Korea, tapas-like appetizers are called ”anju.”

Sounds like…

In Portuguese, the word ”peidei” that sounds like ”payday” means, ”I farted.”

Salsa is a wonderful, graceful and thrilling dance style, but in South Korea, when you hear the word ”seolsa,” which sounds like ”salsa” it refers to ”diarrhea.”

Speaking of diarrhea, in Japanese, the term they use is ”geri,” which sounds like the name ”Gary.”

”Dai,” an Italian word, is pronounced like the English word ”die.” The literal translation of this is ”from” but it is colloquially used by the Italians to mean, ”Come on!”

The English term ”retard” could either mean delay or move slowly. It could also mean moron or imbecile. In French, ”retardé” translates to delay as well.

There is an English term called a ”smoking jacket” which is a mid-length jacket for men that is often made of quilted satin or velvet. The French however call a ”tuxedo,” which is a semi-formal evening suit, ”smoking.”

“Horny” is an English term that is mostly associated to feelings of being aroused or turned on. Literally, it means something with horn-like projections, many horns or made of horns, such as ”horny coral” or ”horny toad.” But ”horní” in Czech simply means ”upper.”

In Spanish, ”gato” means ”cat” but ”gateux” is ”cake” in French.

Eagle is a soaring bird. In Germany, the word ”igel” that has a similar pronunciation to ”eagle” actually means ”hedgehog.”

Something else

The term ”thongs” is usually associated with sexy swimwear or underwear. When you’re in Australia though, thongs refer to rubber flip-flops.

In Polish, the month of April is ”Kwiecień” while in Czech, the similarly sounding term, ”Květen” is for the month of May.

For English speakers a ”preservative” is a chemical compound that prevents decomposition of something. But be careful when you say the word while in France, as this means ”condom” for the French. It means the same thing in many different languages in Europe as well, such as:

• Prezervativ (Albanian)
• Preservative (Italian)
• Prezervatīvs (Latvian)
• Prezervatyvas (Lithuanian)
• Prezerwatywa (Polish)
• Preservative (Portuguese)
• Prezervativ (Romanian)
• Prezervativ (Russian)
• Prezervatyv (Ukranian)

‘In Spanish, ”si” means yes, but ”no” in Swahili. “No” is ”yes” in Czech (a shortened version of “ano.” “La” is ”no” in Arabic.

”Entrée” is a French term that translates to ”appetizer.” In American English though, term is used to indicate the ”main course.”

“Mama” in Russian and in several other different languages means ”mother.” However, in Georgian, ”mama” is the term for ”father.”

Languages are definitely fascinating and interesting, but there is enough reason to learn a few things about it to avoid a faux pas when you are in another country, because English words could mean differently. Ensure that your English documents are translated accurately in different languages by getting in touch with a translator from Day Translations, Inc. Our translators are not only native speakers; they are also subject matter experts. Give us a call at 1-800-969-6853 or send us an email at contact@daytranslations.com for a quick quote. Our translators are located world-wide and we are open every single day of the year. We can serve you any time, wherever you are located.

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The term you are looking for (depending on etymological link) is cognate, or false cognate:

False cognates are pairs of words that seem to be cognates because of similar sounds and meaning, but have different etymologies;

A famous example is the Mbabaram (extinct Australian Aboriginal language) word for dog, dog.

Some further examples are listed in the above Wikipedia page, e.g.:

• English cut; Hindi काट (kaṭ) «cutting»
• English ache; Ancient Greek ἄχος (ákhos) «pain, distress»
• English lake; French lac
• English island; Spanish isla
• English much; Spanish mucho
• Spanish usted; Arabic أستاذ (ʾustāḏ) «formal pronoun; teacher»
• Japanese 見る (miru); Spanish mirar «to watch»
• Japanese 秘伝 (hiden); English hidden
• Japanese 絵文字 (emoji); English emoticon
• Japanese ありがとう (arigatō); Portuguese (obrigado) «thank you»

Additionally, there is the term false friend:

False friends are words in two languages that look or sound similar, but differ significantly in meaning.

Which would cover cognates and false cognates which differ in (at least one of) their meanings.

Cognate false friends:

• English actual; Spanish actual «current»
• English preservative; Spanish preservativo «condom»
• English ice; Japanese アイス (aisu) «ice-cream»

Non-cognate false friends:

• English afraid; Russian ефрейтор (yefreitor) «corporal»
• Spanish afamada «famous»; Catalan afamada «hungry*

An amusing example is 手紙 (composed of the characters 手 — hand, and 紙 — paper) which in Japanese means tegami «written message» but in Chinese means shǒuzhǐ «toilet paper».

LEXICAL PROBLEMS in TRANSLATION 1. Types of meaning 2. Rendering of different types of meaning in translation 3. Translation of monosemantic words 4. Translation of polysemantic words 5. Translation of pseudo-international words 6. Rendering of Contextual Meanings 7. Translation of “non-equivalents” 8. Rendering of emotive and stylistic meanings

Types of meaning • The systems of meaning in different languages are different. «Meaning, in our view, is a property of a language. An S. L. (Source Language) text has an S. L. meaning, and a T. L. (Target Language) text has a T. L. meaning». (J. C. Catford A Linguistic Theory of Translation, L. -1965 p. 35) • The semantic structures of correlated words of the Source Language and the Target Language cannot be co-extensive, can never «cover each other». A careful analysis invariably shows that semantic relationship between correlated words, especially polysemantic words, is very complex.

Types of meaning • Three types of lexical meaning are distinguished and are to be rendered in translation: referential, emotive and stylistic. • Referential meaning (logical, denotative) has direct reference to things or phenomena of objective reality, naming abstract notions and processes as well. We can distinguish between primary and secondary referential meaning.

Types of meaning • Emotive meaning, unlike referential meaning, has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality but to the feelings and emotions, associated with them. • It is a connotative meaning created by connotations raised in the mind of the speaker and reader; • it is inherent in a definite group of words even when they are taken out of context.

Types of meaning • Stylistic meaning is based on stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary and is formed by stylistic connotations. • Stylistic and emotive meanings are closely connected. • Stylistically marked words possess a considerable element of emotive meaning. • E. g. the slang-words «mug», «phiz» are undoubtedly more expressive than their neutral counterpart «face» and have a pejorative emotive meaning. • In addition to the emotive and stylistic meanings, proper to the word as a linguistic unit, some emotive connotations may be acquired in the context. Both are to be rendered in translation.

Referential Meaning and its Rendering in Translation • Causes of lexical transformations in the rendering of referential meaning: 1. Different vision of objects of reality and different usage; 2. Different semantic structure of a word in the source language and the target-language; 3. Different valency or collocability.

1. Different vision and usage • One and the same object of reality can be seen by different languages in different aspects. This is reflected in different usage, • e. g. Hot milk with skin on it — Горячее молоко с пенкой. English singles out the outer covering and Russian the boiling form. • School-leavers — выпускники школы In English teenagers leave the school while in Russian the school «releases» them into the world.

Different vision and usage • The city is built on terraces rising from the lake (The Times, 1957) — Город построен на террасах, спускавшихся к озеру. • Не folded his arms across his chest, crossed his knees (Taylor Caldwell) — Он сложил руки на груди, положил ногу на ногу. • This factor presents less difficulty for the translator into Russian than for the translator into English. The difficulty arises when such words are used figuratively as part of some lexical stylistic device.

Different vision and usage • «Instant history, like instant coffee, can sometimes be remarkably palatable, at least it is in this memoir by a former White House aide who sees L. B. J. as «an extraordinary gifted President who was the wrong man from the wrong place at the wrong time under the wrong circumstance»(Time, 1969). • «Современная история, как и такой же современный продукт, как растворимый кофе, иногда бывает удивительно приятна, по крайней мере это так в рецензируемых мемуарах бывшего помощника президента, который характеризует Джонсона как «удивительно способного президента, который был неподходящим человеком, родом из неподходящего места, в неподходящее время, при неподходящих обстоятельствах» .

Different vision and usage • Sometimes, due to a different vision the meaning of a word in the source-language is wider and less differentiated and corresponds to two or more correlated words in the target language. E. g. «Blue» corresponds to two Russian words: синий, голубой. • The Russian equivalents of «purple» are «пурпурный, фиолетовый, синий» . The choice of the equivalent depends on the linguistic or extra-linguistic context: purple robes of Roman emperors — пурпурные одеяния римских императоров; purple ink фиолетовые чернила; purple shades — синие тени.

Divergences in the Semantic Structure • Divergence in the semantic structure is one of the primary causes of lexical transformations. • Divergences are connected with peculiar features of a word or a group of words. Even words, which seem to have the same meaning in S. L. and T. L. are not identical. • Primary meanings of such words coincide while their derivative meanings do not. • «Semantic correlation between two languages is not to be interpreted as semantic identity. Due to complexity of semantic structure «one-to-one» correspondence between the semantic structure of correlated polysemantic words in the S. L. and T. L. is scarcely possible.

Divergences in the Semantic Structure • Similar meanings of Russian and English words may differ in some components. This phenomenon is usually reflected in dictionaries where more than one Russian equivalent is listed under the same meaning of the English word. • E. g. , the primary and the secondary meanings of the adjective «gloomy» are rendered in English. Russian dictionaries by two Russian words: 1) тёмный, мрачный 2) мрачный, унылый. • The use of two Russian equivalents proves that the semantic volume of the English meaning is wider and requires two Russian words for an adequate rendering.

Divergences in the Semantic Structure • The analysis of the polysemantic word «mellow» shows that it can apply to a variety of objects and notions: fruit, wine, soil, voice, man. Each sphere of its application corresponds to a different derivative meaning and each meaning has two or more Russian equivalents. • 1. спелый, мягкий, сладкий, сочный (о фруктах); • 2. а. выдержанный, старый; б. приятный на вкус (о вине); • 3. подобревший, смягчившийся с возрастом (о человеке); • 4. мягкий, сочный, густой (о голосе и красках); • 5. а) рыхлый; б) плодородный, жирный (о почве); • 6. разгов. весёлый, подвыпивший. /БАРС/

Different Valency • The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. • The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. • Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, • e. g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar clichés, traditional collocations in the target-language: • грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь (снег).

Different Valency • The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language: • trains run — поезда ходят; • a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха; • It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D. W. ) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.

Different Valency • Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian • «Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения» .

Translation of Monosemantic Words • Monosemantic words are comparatively few in number. • There are the following lexical group of monosemantic words: 1) antroponyms, 2) geographic names, 3) names of institutions, organizations, periodicals, 4) scientific and technological terms. Monosemy is typical of numerals, names of months, days of the week, etc.

Rendering of Antroponyms • The function of antroponyms is purely nominative. They help to identify a person. There are two ways of rendering them: transcription and transliteration. • Transcription is now universally accepted. • Mary — Мэри, Jack — Джек, Hailey — Хейли , etc. • Tradition, however, still plays an important role. • George Bernard Show — Джордж Бернард Шоу (not Шо). King George is — король Георг, King Charles I — король Карл Первый. • Some «telling names» in fiction are translated: • Тяпкин-Ляпкин — Slap-Dash, Humpty-Dumpty Шалтай-Болтай.

Rendering of Geographical Names • Tradition is very strong in rendering this group of words. They are often rendered according to the usage of earlier days, e. g. Dover — Дувр, Texas Техас, Hull — Гулль, etc. • But in some cases the tradition has been abandoned in favour of transcription. So Virginia is now Вирджиния, not Виргиния, and Hull is often rendered as Халл. • Extended names are often translated: the Cape of Good Hope — Мыс Доброй Надежды.

Rendering of the Names of Institutions, Periodicals, Hotels, Streets, etc. • Transcription is now universally accepted. General Motors — Дженерал Моторс, Times – Таймc, Hotel Carlton — отель «Карлтон» , Bayswater Road Байсуотер Роуд. • “Telling names» of old inns and the names of streets in historical novels are translated; • The Red Lion — гостиница «Красный Лев» . • The «Economist» publishing office is in Threadneedle street — Редакция журнала «Экономист» помещается на Треднидл стрит, • but «tailors lived in Threadneedle street» — Портные жили на улице «Иголка с ниткой»

Translation of terms • Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science. • They are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic in a given branch of science and technology and therefore easily call forth the required concept: • E. g. calorie — калория, equator — экватор, polysemantic — многозначный, etc.

Translation of terms • One and the same term may have different meaning in different branches of science, • e. g. line 1) конвейер, поточная линия 2) трубопровод. • In some cases the recent terminological explosion has produced polysemy even within the same branch • e. g. , поджигающий электрод — in electronics may be keep-alive electrode or trigger electrode.

Translation of terms • A group of words of terminological nature: names of animals, birds, etc, • e. g. tiger-тигр, cat-кошка, swallow-ласточка. These words may acquire a figurative meaning in the source — language which has no equivalent in the target-language, • e. g. tiger had a transferred meaning (now rare) «smart-liveried small boy as groom» (Concise Oxford Dictionary) — маленький жокей, мальчик-жокей.

Translation of terms • Names of plants, e. g. oak — дуб, lily-of-the-valley — ландыш, • names of natural elements, names of the days of the week, of months and numerals: oxygen кислород, Thursday — четверг, July — июль, thousand — тысяча, million -миллион. • Despecialization of terms in news media may occasionally pose a translation problem, • e. g. the launching pad for his career — трамплин для его карьеры.

Translation of Polysemantic Words • Different meanings of polysemantic words are revealed in the context. • The term «context» is understood as the minimum stretch of speech diagnosing each individual meaning of the word. The context individualizes the meanings, brings them out. • The context reveals concrete or abstract meanings of a word, its direct or transferred meaning

Translation of Polysemantic Words • e. g. the word «truth» is used in its concrete everyday meaning in the phrase «Tell me the truth» — «Скажи мне всю правду» , • «To understand to know the reality, it is necessary to have a theory of knowledge corresponding to truth (R. Fox, Marxism and literature) — the word «truth» is used in its abstract philosophical meaning «истина» . – “Для того, чтобы постигнуть и понять действительность, необходимо иметь теорию познания, соответствующую истине”.

Translation of Polysemantic Words • The context reveals direct and transferred meanings of the word «to cripple». «Smith was crippled in the war» — «Смит был искалечен на войне» (direct meaning), «Reactionaries cripple the national movement in Africa» — «Реакционеры подрывают национально освободительное движение в Африке» (transferred meaning).

Translation of Polysemantic Words • The context also reveals a free or bound use of the word. • He made a pace or two forward, (free) — Он сделал шага два вперед. • Не kept pace with the times (bound) — Он не отставал от века. In this case the word «pace» forms part of a phraseological unity and is translated by a corresponding phraseological unity.

Translation of Polysemantic Words • Sometimes macro context ( a paragraph, a chapter or even a whole book) is necessary for a correct interpretation of the meaning. • E. g. , describing Becky Sharp Thackeray writes: «The wretched woman was in a brilliant full toilet». Knowing Thackeray’s negative attitude toward Becky, of the two meanings of the word «wretched» — (1) несчастная, (2) негодная, the latter should be used in the translation of this sentence: Негодная (коварная) женщина была в ослепительном туалете.

Translation of Pseudo-International Words • The so-called pseudo-international words constitute a special difficulty for the translator • The pseudo-international words differ in meaning from language to language either completely, • e. g. commutator- коллектор, complexion цвет лица, • or partially, e. g. elevator- 1) элеватор, 2) лифт.

Translation of Pseudo-International Words • They are known as the translator’s «false friends». Translators are often deceived by formal resemblance into making errors. • E. g. , There were attempts to sabotage key services in Santiago (the Economist, 1974) Делались попытки вывести из строя основные объекты коммунального обслуживания в Сантьяго.

Translation of Pseudo-International Words • The word «прогресс» is monosemantic and has positive connotations. The meaning of the English «progress» is neutral and can apply to any movement • E. g. , Hogarth‘s picture «Rake’s Progress» «Жизнь повесы» , • Her progress about London during that first week was one thrilling adventure (H. Walpole) Её знакомство с Лондоном в ту первую неделю было сплошным увлекательным приключением.

Translation of International Words • Sometimes the meaning of international words is identical in English and in Russian but the collocation pattern is different which prevents the use of the Russian word in translation. • E. g. , Never before in the history of the world have there been so many persons engaged in the translation of both secular and religious materials (E. Nida and Ch. Taber, Theory and Practice of Translation).

Translation of International Words • Although the meanings of the words «religious» — религиозный and “materials» материалы are identical, the collocation «религиозные материалы» is quite impossible in Russian. • An adequate translation would be: • Ещё никогда в истории человечества столько людей не занималось переводом как светской, так и духовной литературы.

Rendering of Contextual Meanings • A contextual meaning arises in the context. • It should not be regarded as part of the semantic structure of the word. • Every word possesses an enormous potentiality for generating new contextual meanings. These occasional contextual meanings are not arbitrary, but are always predetermined by the semantic structure of the word. It largely depends upon the semantic context. • A contextual meaning possible in one language is impossible in another.

Rendering of Contextual Meanings • In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages (D. W. ) — Первыми жертвами в атомной войне будут женщины и дети. • In this sentence the contextual meaning of the word «hostage» is the «victim». This contextual is evidently implicit in its dictionary meaning. A similar contextual meaning cannot be generated by the Russian word «заложник» . Thus the word «жертва» is the only possible equivalent.

Rendering of Contextual Meanings • Britain’s worldwide exploitation was shaken by colonial Liberation Movement. (D. W. ) • The contextual meaning of “exploitation” was formed metonymically: every colonial system is based on exploitation which is the foundation of colonial power. The Russian word «эксплуатация» can not generate similar contextual meaning. • A possible equivalent will also be formed metonymically: • Колониальное могущество Англии было потрясено до основания национальноосвободительным движением в колониях.

Rendering of Contextual Meanings • Contextual meanings often produce a strong effect, performing a stylistic function of «deceived expectancy». • The translator is confronted with a double difficulty: • he should avoid toning it down and must not violate the norms of the target-language.

Translation of «Non-equivalents» • “Non-equivalents» are the words of the sourcelanguage which either have no equivalents in the target language or no equivalent denotatum in the target culture. • 1) the so-called realia-words denoting things, objects, features of national life, customs, habits, etc. , e. g. House of Commons, thane, coroner, teach-in, drive-in, cricket, etc. • 2) words, which for some linguistic reason have no equivalent in the target language: conservationist, readership, glimpse, etc.

Ways of Rendering Non-Equivalents 1) direct borrowing (transliteration or transcription): impeachment — импичмент, thane — тан, mayor мэр, know-how — ноу-хау. 2) translation loans. House of Commons — Палата общин, backbencher — заднескамеечник, braindrain — утечка мозгов. 3) descriptive or interpreting translation. Landslide победа на выборах с огромным перевесом голосов, a stringer (Am. ) — частично занятый корреспондент, труд которого оплачивается из расчета количества слов, wishful thinking – принимание желаемого за действительное.

Ways of Rendering Non-Equivalents • The action of Congress and of North Carolina and Tennessee statesmen, aided by gifts of wise conservationists, have set this land aside as a Great Smoky National Park. (National Geographic, 1964). • Эта местность на берегу реки Смоуки-хилл была превращена в Национальный парк благодаря усилиям Конгресса и государственный деятелей штатов Северная Каролина и Теннеси, а также благодаря пожертвованиям любителей природы, понимающих важность ее сохранения.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • Translation of words with emotive meaning • Emotive meaning may be regarded as one of the objective semantic features proper to words as linguistic units and should not be confused with contextual emotive meaning that words may acquire in speech. • Emotive meaning varies in different word classes. In some of them, for example, in interjections, the emotive element prevails whereas in function words it is practically non-existent.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • The emotive meaning is based on connotations — positive, negative or neutral. Russian is rich in emotive suffixes whose meaning is rendered by using additional lexical items • e. g. домишко — small, wretched house • or different lexemes • cf. : дом — house, домишко -hovel.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • Some words may acquire a negative or positive connotation in different contexts. The noun «glamour» and the adjective «glamorous» may illustrate this point. • R. was captivated by the vulgar glamour and the shoddy brilliance of the scene before him. • P. был пленен вульгарным блеском и дешевой роскошью окружающего. • (As a matter of fact both collocations «vulgar glamour» and «shoddy brilliance» are synonymous):

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • . . . who were attracted for the moment by the glamour of the dancer or the blatant sensuality of the woman. -. . . которых на мгновение привлек романтический ореол танцовщицы или её откровенная чувственность. • Cf. : the following example from a newspaper review: • Hirsh’s Richard is not lacking in glamour. Facially he is a smiling fallen angel (The Observer Review, 1973). Ричард в исполнении Хирша не лишен обаяния. У него лицо улыбающегося падшего ангела.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • Sometimes differences in usage or valency do not allow the use of the Russian referential equivalent, and the translator is forced to resort to a lexical replacement with the emotive meaning preserved. • In the general strike, the fight against the depression, the antifascist struggle, and the struggle against Hitlerism the British Communist Party played a proud role (The Labour Monthly, 1970). • Во время всеобщей забастовки, в борьбе против кризиса, в антифашистской борьбе и борьбе против гитлеризма Коммунистическая партия Великобритании играла выдающуюся роль.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • The emotive meaning of some adjectives and adverbs is so strong that it suppresses the referential meaning (I. R. Galperin. Stylistics. M. , 1971, p. 60. ) and they are used merely as intensifies. They are rendered by Russian intensifies irrespective of their reference. • Even judged by Tory standards, the level of the debate on the devaluation of the pound yesterday was abysmally low (M. S. , 1973). • Даже с точки зрения консерваторов дебаты в Палате общин по вопросу о девальвации фунта происходили на чрезвычайно /невероятно/ низком уровне.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • The emotive meaning often determines the translator’s choice. • The English word «endless» is neutral in its connotations, while the Russian бесконечный has negative connotations — boring or tiresome (бесконечные разговоры). • «the endless resolutions received by the National Peace Committee” — the word «endless» should be translated by Russian adjective «бесчисленные» or «многочисленные». • Многочисленные резолюции, полученные Национальным комитетом защиты мира.

RENDERING OF EMOTIVE AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS • The Russian word «озарила» conveys positive connotations, • e. g. «Ее лицо озарила улыбка», • where as its English referential equivalent is evidently neutral. • Horror dawned in her face (Victoria Holt). — Её лицо выразило ужас.

Rendering of Stylistic Meaning in Translation • Every word is stylistically marked according to the layer of the vocabulary it belongs to. Stylistically words can be subdivided into literary and nonliterary. (See I. R. Galperin, op. cit. — p. 63. ) • The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on the inner qualities of each of the groups as on their interaction when opposed to one another. (l. R. Galperin, op. cit. — p. 68. ) • Care should be taken to render stylistic meaning

Rendering of Stylistic Meaning in Translation • “If you don’t keep your yap shut“…” (J. Salinger) — “Если ты не заткнёшься” (пер. Э. Медниковой) • Then he really let one go at me (ibid. ) — Тут он мне врезал по-настоящему. • It would be an error to translate a neutral or a literary word by a colloquial one.

Translation of Phraseological Units • According to academician Vinogradov phraseological units may be classified into three big groups: • phraseological fusions, • phraseological unities and • phraseological collocations.

Translation of Phraseological Units 1) Phraseological fusions are usually rendered by interpreting translation: • to show the white feather — быть трусом; to dine with Duke Humphrey — остаться без обеда. • Sometimes they have word-equivalents: red tape — волокита, to pull one’s leg — одурачивать, мистифицировать. • The meaning of a phraseological fusion may often be rendered by a series of alternative phrases, • e. g. to go the whole hog -делать что-либо основательно, доводить до конца, не останавливаться на полумерах, идти на всё (словарь А. Кунина).

Translation of Phraseological Units 2) According to the principles of their translation phraseological unities can be divided into four groups; • 1) Phraseological unities having Russian counterparts with the same meaning and similar images. They can often be traced to the same prototype: biblical, mythological, etc. • All that glitters is not gold. — He всё золото, что блестит. • As a man sows, so he shall reap. — Что посеешь, то и пожнёшь. • 2) Phraseological unities having the same meaning but expressing it through a-different image. • То buy a pig in a poke. — Купить кота в мешке.

Translation of Phraseological Units • Phraseological units of the source-language sometimes have synonymous equivalents in the target-language. The choice is open to the translator and is often determined by the context. • Between the devil and the deep sea — между двух огней, между молотом и наковальней; в безвыходном положении. • In the absence of a correlated phraseological unity the translator resorts to interpreting translation. • A skeleton in the closet (cupboard) — Семейная тайна, неприятность, скрываемая от посторонних.

Translation of Phraseological Units • Target-language equivalents having a local colour should be avoided. • «To carry coals to Newcastle» should not be translated by the Russian — ездить в Тулу со своим самоваром. • In this case two solutions are possible: • a) to preserve the image of the English phraseological unity — ездить в Ньюкасл со своим углём, • b) to resort to interpreting translation заниматься бесполезным делом.

Translation of Phraseological Units 3) Phraseological unities having no equivalents in Russian are rendered by interpreting translation. • Little pitches have long ears. — Дети любят слушать разговоры взрослых. 4) Phraseological unities having word equivalents: • shake a leg — отплясывать, • hang fire — мешкать, медлить, задерживаться.

Translation of Phraseological Units • Phraseological collocations are motivated but they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which accounts for a certain degree of stability in such word groups. • They may be translated by corresponding phraseological collocations of the targetlanguage: to take part — принимать участие, to throw a glance — бросить взгляд. • They may be also translated by a word (to take part — участвовать) or a free word group (to take one’s temperature — измерить температуру).

Languages
differ not only in their phonological and grammatical systems. Their
systems of meaning are also different. As J. С
Catford puts it, «Meanings, in our view, is a property of a
language. An S.L. (Source Language) text has an S.L. MEANING, and a
T.L.
(Target Language) text has a T.L. meaning». (J.C. Catford A
Linguistic Theory of Translation, L.-1965* p.35) Hence it follows
that semantic structures of correlated words of the Source Language
and the Target Language cannot be co-extensive, can never «cover
each
other». A careful analysis invariably shows that semantic
relationship between correlated words, especially polysemantic words,
is
very complex.

Therefore
it seems to be necessary first to consider here the three types of
lexical meaning which can be distinguished and are to be rendered
in translation: referential,
emotive
and stylistic.

Referential
meaning
(also called logical, denotative) has direct reference to things or
phenomena of objective reality, naming abstract notions
and processes as well. It is also necessary to distinguish between
primary and secondary referential meaning.

Emotive
meaning,
unlike referential meaning, has reference not directly to things or
phenomena of objective reality but to the feelings and
emotions, associated with them. It is a connotative meaning created
by connotations raised in the mind of the speaker and reader; it is
inherent in a definite group of words even when they are taken out of
context.

Stylistic
meaning
is based on stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary and is
formed by stylistic connotations. Stylistic and emotive
meanings are closely connected. As a rule, stylistically coloured
words, i.e., words belonging to certain stylistic strata, except the
neutral, possess a considerable element of emotive meaning. The
slang-words «mug», «phiz» are undoubtedly more
expressive than
their neutral counterpart «face» and have a pejorative
emotive meaning. In addition to the emotive and stylistic meanings,
proper to
the word as a linguistic unit, some emotive connotations may be
acquired in the context. Both are to be rendered in translation.

1. Referential Meaning and Its Rendering in Translation

Causes
of lexical transformations in the rendering of referential meaning

1. Different
   vision
   of objects of reality and different
   usage;

2. Different
   semantic structure
   of a word in the source language and the target-language;

3. Different
   valency
   or collocabilitv.

1. Different vision and usage

One and the same object of
reality can be seen by different languages in different aspects. This
is reflected in different usage, e.g.

Hot
milk with skin
on it — Горячее
молоко
с
пенкой.

English singles out the outer
covering and Russian the boiling form.

School-leavers
— выпускники
школы

In
English teenagers leave
the school while in Russian the school «releases» them into
the world.

The
city is built on terraces rising
from the lake (The Times, 1957) — Город
построен
на
террасах,
спускавшихся
к
озеру.
Не
folded his
arms across
his chest, crossed
his knees
(Taylor Caldwell) — Он
сложил
руки
на
груди,
положил
ногу
на
ногу.

This
factor presents less difficulty for the translator into Russian than
for the translator into English. The difficulty arises when such
words
are used figuratively as part of some lexical stylistic device.

«Instant
history, like instant coffee,
can sometimes be remarkably palatable, at least it is in this memoir
by a former White House aide who
sees L.B.J. as «an extraordinary gifted President who was the
wrong man from the wrong place at the wrong time under the wrong
circumstance», (Time, 1969). «Современная
история, как и такой же современный
продукт, как растворимый кофе, иногда
бывает удивительно приятна, по крайней
мере это так в рецензируемых мемуарах
бывшего помощника президента, который
характеризует Джонсона как «удивительно
способного президента, который был
неподходящим человеком, родом из
неподходящего места, в неподходящее
время, при неподходящих обстоятельствах».

То
render the simile the translator is forced to resort to an addition:
такой
современный
продукт,
как…

Sometimes,
due to a different vision the meaning of a word in the
source-language is wider and less differentiated and corresponds to
two or more correlated words in the target language. E.g. «Blue»
corresponds to two Russian words: синий,
голубой.

The
Russian equivalents of «purple» are «пурпурный,
фиолетовый,
синий».
The choice of the equivalent depends on the linguistic or
extra-linguistic context: purple robes of Roman emperors — пурпурные
одеяния
римских
императоров;
purple ink — фиолетовые
чернила;
purple shades — синие
тени.

2.
Divergences
in the Semantic Structure

Divergence
in the semantic structure is one of the primary causes of lexical
transformations. These divergences are connected with peculiar
features of a word or a group of words. Even words, which seem to
have the same meaning in the source language and the target
language are not identical. Most often primary meanings of such words
coincide while their derivative meanings do not. «Semantic
correlation between two languages is not to be interpreted as
semantic identity. Due to complexity of semantic structure
«one-to-one» correspondence between the semantic structure
of correlated polysemantic words in the S.L. and T.L. is scarcely
possible.

Not
infrequently similar meanings of Russian and English words differ in
some components. This phenomenon is usually reflected
in dictionaries where more than one Russian equivalent is listed
under the same meaning of the English word. For example, the
primary and the secondary meanings of the adjective «gloomy»
are rendered in English-Russian dictionaries by two Russian words: 1)
тёмный,
мрачный
2) мрачный,
унылый.
The use of two Russian equivalents proves that the semantic volume of
the English meaning is wider and requires two Russian words for an
adequate rendering.

The
analysis of the polysemantic word «mellow» shows that it
can apply to a variety of objects and notions: fruit, wine, soil,
voice, man.
Each sphere of its application corresponds to a different derivative
meaning and each meaning has two or more Russian equivalents.

1.
спелый, мягкий, сладкий, сочный /о
фруктах/; 2. а. выдержанный, старый; б.
приятный на вкус/о вине/; 3. подобревший,
смягчившийся
с возрастом /о человеке/; 4. мягкий, сочный,
густой /о голосе и красках/; 5. а) рыхлый;
б) плодородный, жирный /о
почве/; 6. разгов.
весёлый,
подвыпивший. /БАРС/

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