Match a word with its definition circuit loop

Другие языки

Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«Комсомольский-на-Амуре государственный технический университет»
Н. С. Кутузова
ENGLISH FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS
Утверждено в качестве учебного пособия
Учёным советом Федерального государственного бюджетного
образовательного учреждения высшего профессионального образования
«Комсомольский-на-Амуре государственный технический университет»
Комсомольск-на-Амуре
2014
УДК 811.111(07)
ББК 81.2Англ-9
К953
Рецензенты:
Кафедра второго иностранного языка и китаеведения
ФГБОУ ВПО «Амурский гуманитарно-педагогический государственный университет»,
заведующая кафедрой кандидат исторических наук, доцент Н. Н. Французова;
В. В. Тарасенко, кандидат филологических наук, старший преподаватель
кафедры первого иностранного языка и переводоведения
ФГБОУ ВПО «Амурский гуманитарно-педагогический государственный университет»
К953
Кутузова, Н. С.
English for electrical and electronics engineers : учеб. пособие /
Н. С. Кутузова. – Комсомольск-на-Амуре : ФГБОУ ВПО «КнАГТУ», 2014. – 80 с.
ISBN 978-5-7765-1078-6
Цель пособия – развитие у обучаемых умений и навыков читать литературу по
специальности и извлекать из нее необходимую информацию, делать сообщения с использованием специальной терминологии. Текстовой материал подобран из оригинальных английских источников. Материалы пособия развивают и закрепляют у студентов
знания по грамматике изучаемого языка, формируют и развивают умения и навыки
применения разных видов чтения с извлечением информации из научной, научнопопулярной, а также профессионально-ориентированной литературы.
Данное учебное пособие предназначено для студентов направлений 210100.62 –
«Электроника и наноэлектроника», 140400.62 – «Электроэнергетика и электротехника»
всех форм обучения.
УДК 811.111(07)
ББК 81.2Англ-9
ISBN 978-5-7765-1078-6
 ФГБОУ ВПО «Комсомольский-на-Амуре
государственный технический
университет», 2014
2
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 4
MODULE 1. ELECTRICAL CURRENT .................................................................................. 4
MODULE 2. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT .......................................................................................... 8
Unit 2.1. Fundamentals ........................................................................................ 8
Unit 2.2. Ohm’s Law.......................................................................................... 12
MODULE 3. RESISTORS ....................................................................................................... 13
Unit 3.1. Fundamentals ...................................................................................... 13
Unit 3.2. Fixed Resistors .................................................................................... 17
Unit 3.3. Variable Resistors ............................................................................... 21
MODULE 4. CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS ............................................................. 27
MODULE 5. CAPACITORS ................................................................................................... 30
MODULE 6. INDUCTORS ..................................................................................................... 33
Unit 6.1. Fundamentals ...................................................................................... 33
Unit 6.2. Coil Inductance ................................................................................... 36
MODULE 7. P-N JUNCTION ................................................................................................. 38
MODULE 8. DIODES ............................................................................................................. 43
Unit 8.1. Fundamentals ...................................................................................... 43
Unit 8.2. V-I characteristic ................................................................................. 45
MODULE 9. FROM THE HISTORY OF TRANSISTORS ................................................... 48
MODULE 10. JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS .............................................. 49
MODULE 11. JUNCTION BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (BJT) .............................................. 53
MODULE 12. SUPPLEMENTARY READING..................................................................... 59
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 65
APPENDIX 1. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS ..................................................................................... 65
APPENDIX 2. ARITHMETIC SYMBOLS............................................................................. 74
APPENDIX 3. DIODES AND ISOLATORS APPLICATION............................................... 77
APPENDIX 4. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................... 79 3
The author is grateful to the instructors
of the Electrical engineering faculty and
Dr. Sergei G. Maruschenko personally
for contribution in writing the book.
INTRODUCTION
What Electrical and Electronics Engineers do
Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacturing of electrical equipment such as electric motors, radar and navigation systems, communications systems, and power generation equipment. Electronics engineers design and develop electronic
equipment, such as broadcast and communications systems – from portable music players to
global positioning systems (GPS).
Work Environment
Electrical and electronics engineers work primarily in industries that conduct research
and development, for engineering services firms, in manufacturing, and in the federal government. They generally work indoors in offices. However, they may have to visit sites to observe a problem or a piece of complex equipment.
How to become an Electrical or Electronics Engineer
Electrical and electronics engineers must have a bachelor’s degree. Employers also
value practical experience, so graduates of cooperative engineering programs, in which students earn academic credit for structured work experience, are valuable as well.
MODULE 1. ELECTRICAL CURRENT
The Ancient Greeks noted that the amber buttons could attract light
objects such as hair, and that if they rubbed the amber for long enough,
they could even get a spark to jump. This is the origin of the word “electricity”, from the Greek ēlektron = “amber”, which came from an old root
ēlek- = “shine”.
Ex. 1. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms and match the
words from the table with their translation below the table. Check up your answers. At
home memorize the terms.
magnitude
flow
skin effect
rectifier
current
the same
vary (v)
conventional charge
carrier
supply (v)
unit
direction
prior to
density
alternating
output
measure (v) power
propagation
cell
pulsating
cross-sectional direct
area
occur (v) circular
4
conductor
instantaneous
wireless
1) амплитуда; 2) носитель заряда; 3) до/раньше/перед; 4) направление; 5) переменный; 6) единица; 7) ток; 8) мощность/выходная мощность; 9) элемент; 10) выпрямитель, диод; 11) энергия, электроэнергия; 12) постоянный; 13) одинаковый; 14) снабжать; 15) меняться; 16) измерять; 17) происходить; 18) площадь поперечного сечения;
19) поток; 20) плотность; 21) циркулярный/кольцевой/круговой; 22) проводник;
23) распространение; 24) мгновенный; 25) пульсирующий; 26) условный; 27) эффект
вытеснения тока (поверхностный эффект); 28) беспроводной.
Ex. 2. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Electrical, cycle, magnetic, electron, standard, atom, ampere, symbol, coulomb, second, physicist, positive, magnetic field, negative, situation, frequency, hertz, electrochemical,
electronic, component, active, characteristically, electromagnetic, conductor, signal.
Ex. 3. Choose two terms from Ex. 1 and explain them to your group mates so
that they could guess them.
Ex. 4. Word formation.
Electric…, electro…, electrical…, electro…, electro…, electric…., electrici…
-al/ -ly/ -acupunture/ - ty/ -ian/ -cardiogram/ -car
Ex. 5. Read and translate the following words:
Convention – conventional – conventionalize;
to measure – measurement – measurer – measured – measureless;
to produce – producer – production – product – productive – productivity;
to occur – occurring – occurrence;
vary – various – variety;
to pay – payable – paying – payment – paid;
wire – wireless.
Ex. 6. Match a word from the box with its definition:
flow / direct / supply (v) / alternating / density / measure (v) / current / wireless / frequency
the rate per second of a vibration constituting a wave, either in a material
(as in sound waves), or in an electromagnetic field (as in radio waves
and light)
move steadily and continuously in a current or stream
make (something needed or wanted) available to someone; provide
a flow of electricity which results from the ordered directional movement of electrically charged particles; a quantity representing the rate of
flow of electric charge, usually measured in amperes
ascertain the size, amount, or degree of (something) by using an instrument or device marked in standard units
an electric current that reverses its direction many times a second at regular intervals, typically used in power supplies
5
using radio, microwaves, etc. (as opposed to wires or cables) to transmit
signals
extending or moving from one place to another without changing direction or stopping
the degree of compactness of a substance
A little about electrical history…
Electricity was not invented. It occurs naturally in our world.
People, however, have invented ways to measure it and to control it
for our use. Ben Franklin started working with electricity in 1740's. He
believed that lightning was a flow of electricity taking place in nature.
He performed his famous kite experiment in 1752 which proved that
electricity and lightning were the same thing.
Thomas Alva Edison is another name important in the history of
electricity. In the late 1800's he developed 1,093 inventions, but his
most famous is the incandescent light bulb. He wanted to bring light
into homes and factories. Up until then people used candles or whale
oil lamps for light.
Ex. 7. Answer the following questions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
What does symbol A stand for?
What does symbol I stand for?
What do symbols AC/DC stand for?
What does abbreviation FET mean?
What is a coulomb?
How many coulombs are there in one ampere?
What do you know about a) Franklin current; b) skin effect?
What is frequency measured in?
Ex. 8. Look for the right answers to the above questions in the text.
Ex. 9. Translate the following sentence:
The greater the current in a conductor, the higher the current density.
Ex. 10. Read and translate the text.
Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or electron-deficient
atoms. The common symbol for current is the uppercase letter I. The standard unit is the
ampere, symbolized by A. One ampere of current represents one coulomb of electrical charge
(6.24  1018 charge carriers) moving past a specific point in one second. Physicists consider
current to flow from relatively positive points to relatively negative points; this is called conventional current or Franklin current. Electrons, the most common charge carriers, are negatively charged. They flow from relatively negative points to relatively positive points.
Electric current can be either direct or alternating. Direct current (DC) flows in the
same direction at all points in time, although the instantaneous magnitude of the current might
6
vary. In an alternating current (AC), the flow of charge carriers reverses direction periodically. The number of complete AC cycles per second is the frequency, which is measured in
hertz. An example of pure DC is the current produced by an electrochemical cell. The output
of a power-supply rectifier, prior to filtering, is an example of pulsating DC. The output of
common utility outlets is AC.
Current per unit cross-sectional area is known as current density. It is expressed in
amperes per square meter, amperes per square centimeter, or amperes per square millimeter.
Current density can also be expressed in amperes per circular mil. In general, the greater the
current in a conductor, the higher the current density. However, in some situations, current
density varies in different parts of an electrical conductor. A classic example is the so-called
skin effect, in which current density is high near the outer surface of a conductor, and low near
the center. This effect occurs with alternating currents at high frequencies. Another example is
the current inside an active electronic component such as a field-effect transistor (FET).
An electric current always produces a magnetic field. The stronger the current, the
more intense the magnetic field. A pulsating DC, or an AC, characteristically produces an
electromagnetic field. This is the principle by which wireless signal propagation occurs.
Ex. 11. Answer the questions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
What is called conventional or Franklin current?
What types of current do you know?
In what can current density be expressed?
What is the frequency?
What does an electric current always produce?
Explain what skin effect is.
Ex. 12. Define the type of current:
Scheme A
Scheme B
Ex. 13. Make a plan of the text and be ready to speak on the topic.
Ex. 14. Translate from Russian into English.
Текст А.
Вся материя состоит из очень маленьких частиц, называемых атомами. Эти атомы состоят из еще более маленьких частиц, называемых электронами. Электроны вращаются вокруг центрального ядра, состоящего из одного или более протонов и нейтронов. Электроны являются отрицательно заряженными частицами, протоны – положительно заряженными, а нейтроны – нейтрально заряженными.
Текст Б.
Электрический ток – это упорядоченное движение свободных электрически заряженных частиц, например, под воздействием электрического поля. Такими частицами могут являться: в проводниках – электроны, в электролитах – ионы (катионы и ани-
7
оны), в газах – ионы и электроны, в вакууме при определенных условиях – электроны, в
полупроводниках – электроны и дырки. Электрический ток широко используется в
энергетике для передачи энергии на расстоянии, а в телекоммуникациях – для передачи
информации на расстоянии. В медицине электрический ток используют в реанимации.
Ex. 15. At home prepare the topic on “Current”.
Ex. 16. Fill in the blanks with a word from the box below.
frequency / direct current / three-phrase / positive polarity / alternating current / Current distribution / negative polarity
Current Distribution Symbols
_____________ uses the “~” symbol to signify the relationship between ___________
m-phases and frequency. The term “1~50 Hz”, for example, signifies a single-phase alternating current with a ____________ of 50 hertz. The term “3~50 Hz” states a ____________
alternating current with a frequency of 50 hertz.
A long, straight line signifies _______________ . For example, the term “110 V ---110 V” states a direct current relationship between two 110-volt sources. A “+” symbol shows
______________ while “-” shows _______________ .
MODULE 2. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Unit 2.1. Fundamentals
Be Safe!
Are you ready for this? Your brain and muscles need electricity in a
very tiny amount to work. Because of this, large amounts of electricity are
very dangerous to you. The electricity flowing through a light bulb is
enough to stop your breathing.
Ex. 1. Find the proper Russian equivalents for the following English terms:
convert (v)
bulb
load
device
wire
in order to
in parallel
in series
fuse
terminal
source
consume (v)
mend (v)
circuit
switch
1) клемма; 2) нагрузка; 3) последовательно; 4) источник; 5) лампочка; 6) переключатель; 7) ремонтировать; 8) потреблять; 9) цепь, контур, схема (syn. loop);
10) параллельно; 11) чтобы; 12) устройство; 13) преобразовывать; 14) пробка/предохранитель; 15) провод/проволока.
8
Ex. 2. Read the following words and define their part of speech where it is possible:
Switch
Switch + ed
Switch + ing
Drive
Driv + en
Driv + ing
Driv + er
Convert
Convert + er
Convert + ibili + ty
Convert + ible
Consume
Consum + ed
Consum + er
Consum + ing
Consum + able
Ex. 3. Choose two terms from Ex. 1 and explain them to your group mates so
that they could guess them.
Ex. 4. Read and guess the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
A closed loop, power source, negative terminal, a light bulb, a complete circuit, a safety device, the amount of electricity, the same distance, flexible thread, a strip of wire.
Some Facts about Electricity:
1) Electricity travels at the speed of light – more than 186,000
miles per second!
2) A spark of static electricity can measure up to three thousand (3,000) volts.
3) A bolt of lightning can measure up to three million
(3,000,000) volts, and it lasts less than one second!
4) Electricity always tries to find the easiest path to the ground.
5) Electricity can be made from wind, water, the sun and even animal poop.
6) A 600 megawatt natural gas plant can power 220,000 homes.
7) The first power plant – owned by Thomas Edison – opened in New York
City in 1882.
8) Thomas Edison invented more than 2,000 new products, including almost
everything needed for us to use electricity in our homes: switches, fuses, sockets
and meters.
9) Benjamin Franklin didn't discover electricity, but he did prove that lightning is a form of electrical energy.
Ex. 5. Speaking:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
What is an electrical circuit?
What is a load?
Provide the examples of a load.
What symbols used in electrical circuits do you know?
How many types of electrical connections do you know?
Draw some examples of electrical circuits.
9
Ex. 6. Match a word with its definition:
Word
Definition
1) Circuit
A) A point of connection for closing an electric circuit
2) Loop
5) Fuse
B) A safety device consisting of a strip of wire that melts and breaks an
electric circuit if the current exceeds a safe level
C) An impedance or circuit that receives or develops the output of a
transistor or other device
D) Electrical circuits or components arranged so that the current passes
through each successively
E) A complete circuit for an electric current
6) Switch
F) To change or adapt the form, character, or function of; transform
7) Load
G) A device for making and breaking the connection in an electric circuit
H) A complete route which an electric current can flow around.
3) Series
4) Mend
8) Source
9) Parallel
10) Convert
11) Device
12) Wire
13) Terminal
I) A place, person, or thing from which something originates or can be
obtained
J) A thing made or adapted for a particular purpose, especially a piece
of mechanical or electronic equipment
K) Repair (something that is broken or damaged)
L) Side by side and having the same distance continuously between
them
M) Metal drawn out into the form of a thin flexible thread or rod
Ex. 7. Look for the right answers to the above questions in the text.
Ex. 8. Translate the following sentence:
Electric circuits can be drawn in diagrams using symbols. Any device that consumes
the energy flowing through a circuit and converts that energy into work is called a load.
Ex. 9. Read and translate the text.
An electrical circuit is a closed loop formed by a power
source, wires, a fuse, a load, and a switch. When the switch is
turned on, the electrical circuit is complete and current flows from
the negative terminal of the power source, through the wire to the
load, to the positive terminal. Any device that consumes the energy flowing through a circuit and converts that energy into work is
called a load. A light bulb is one example of a load; it consumes
the electricity from a circuit and converts it into work – heat and
light.
Electric circuits can be drawn in diagrams using symbols.
There are agreed ways of drawing these symbols so that circuit
10
diagrams can be read by lots of different people in order to make electrical devices or to mend
them.
There are three types of circuits: series circuits, parallel circuits, and series-parallel
circuits. A series circuit is the simplest because it has only one possible path that the electrical
current may flow. If the electrical circuit is broken, none of the load devices will work. A parallel circuit has more than one path, so if one of the paths is broken, the other paths will continue to work.
A series-parallel circuit attaches some of the loads to a series
circuit and others to parallel circuits. If the series circuit breaks, none
of the loads will function. If one of the parallel circuits breaks, however, that parallel circuit and the series circuit will stop working, but
the other parallel circuits will continue to work.
Ex. 10. Answer the questions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
What does an electrical circuit consist of?
What is a load?
Provide the examples of a load.
What are the symbols of electrical circuit used for?
How many types of electrical circuits are there?
How do they differ? What will a trouble result in?
Ex. 11. Read the schemes (see Appendix 1).
Mini-quiz to check your understanding
1) Why do they call it a DC circuit?
a) The electricity flows from the source around and back to the source in a circuit.
b) Because most have a circuit breaker installed.
c) To warn people of possible shocks.
2) What happens when a light burns out in a series circuit?
a) The other lights remain lit.
b) The voltage increases dramatically.
c) The circuit is broken and all lights go out.
3) How could you turn off a parallel circuit?
a) You can't turn off a parallel circuit.
b) Put a switch before the parallel configuration, like near the battery.
c) Unscrew one light bulb.
11
Unit 2.2. Ohm’s Law
1826 George Simon Ohm (1787–1854) wanted to measure the
motive force of electrical currents. He found that some conductors
worked better than others and quantified the differences. He waited
quite some time to announce "Ohm's Law" because his theory was
not accepted by his peers. The unit for resistance is named after him.
Ex. 1. Consult a dictionary and find out if there is any difference
between a battery and a cell.
Ex. 2. What can you tell about Ohm's Law?
Ex. 3. Translate the following sentence and word combinations:
Resistance is the opposition of an object to having current pass through it; directly proportional, inversely proportional.
Ex. 4.
Fill in the blanks with a word from the box below and translate the text.
inversely proportional / resistance / current / directly proportional / Ohm's Law / voltage /
Source voltage
Many “laws” apply to electrical circuits, but _____________ is probably the most
well-known. To understand Ohm's Law, it's important to understand the concepts of current,
voltage, and resistance. ____________ is the flow of an electric charge. _____________, or
electrical potential difference, is the force that drives the current in one direction.
____________ is the opposition of an object to having current pass through it.
Ohm's Law states that an electrical circuit's current is _____________ to its voltage
and _____________ to its resistance. So, if voltage increases, for example, the current will
also increase, and if resistance increases, current decreases. The formula for Ohm's Law is
E = I  R, where E = voltage in volts, I = current in amperes, and R = resistance in ohms.
____________ is another important concept in electrical circuits. It refers to the
amount of voltage that is applied to the circuit and is produced by the power source. Source
voltage is affected by the amount of resistance within the electrical circuit and affects the
amount of current. The current is affected by both voltage and resistance. Resistance is not
affected by voltage or current, but it affects both voltage and current.
Ex. 5. Translate from Russian into English.
1) Электрическая схема – это чертеж, на котором показано упрощенное и
наглядное изображение связи между отдельными элементами электрической цепи,
выполненное с применением условных графических обозначений, позволяющий
понять принцип действия устройства.
2) Любая электрическая цепь состоит из источников энергии и ее потребителей.
3) Кроме того, в электрическую цепь входят аппараты для включения и отключения всей цепи или отдельных ее участков и потребителей, измерительные приборы,
устройства защиты и другие аппараты.
12
4) Графические обозначения элементов устройства и соединяющие их линии
располагают на схеме таким образом, чтобы обеспечить наилучшее представление о
структуре изделия и взаимодействии его составных частей.
5) Общие требования устанавливают виды и типы схем изделий всех отраслей
промышленности и подразделяют схемы на электрические, пневматические и кинематические.
6) В зависимости от назначения электрические схемы разделяют на следующие:
структурные, функциональные, принципиальные (полные), соединений (монтажные),
расположения и некоторые другие.
MODULE 3. RESISTORS
Unit 3.1. Fundamentals
Ex. 1. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Primary, constant, harmonic, critical, project, agency, agent, style, logic, analysis, diagram, element, processor, argument, formula, method.
Ex. 2. Read the following words and define their part of speech where it is possible:
Resist
resist + or
resistive + ty
resist + ance
Value
value + tion
valu + able
valu + ed
Indicate
indicat + ed
indica + tion
indicat + ive
Oppose
oppose + tion
oppos + ing
oppos + ed
indicat + ing
Generate
Ex. 3. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms and match. Check
up your answers. At home memorize the terms.
property
inversely proportional indicate (v) voltage drop opposition controlling gain
subject to directly proportional
in terms of value (v, n)
inherent
flow (v)
1) указывать; 2) противопоставление; 3) при условии; 4) исходя из, на основе;
5) программируемое усиление; 6) свойство; 7) обратно пропорционально; 8) прямо
пропорционально; 9) врожденный; 10) падение напряжения; 11) течь; 12) значение,
величина, оценивать, ценить.
Ex. 4. Find 7 words:
PROPERTYSUBJECTINDICATECONTROLLINGINHERENTGAINOPPOSITION
13
Ex. 5. Choose two terms from ex. 3 and explain them to your group mates so that
they could guess them.
Ex. 6. Circle 22 terms from modules 1, 2, 3.
C
O
N
V
E
N
T
I
O
N
A
L
O
U
A
N
L
G
O
U
N
L
E
S
O
U
R
C
E
E
M
F
I
M
P
U
O
A
W
A
O
U
E
O
V
A
L
T
E
R
N
A
T
I
N
G
A
I
M
O
G
O
T
N
O
A
D
E
T
A
U
I
O
I
L
N
W
Z
D
P
U
E
A
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
I
Q
A
A
A
A
C
M
H
Q
O
I
Q
P
A
T
S
D
E
G
M
U
M
H
O
P
N
M
R
G
U
N
I
T
A
E
R
O
M
F
A
D
Q
O
E
D
V
R
A
T
O
R
E
C
U
H
I
H
P
D
E
H
E
W
I
R
E
L
E
S
S
C
E
E
R
V
J
C
I
O
R
N
O
L
E
R
A
A
R
O
I
J
T
R
N
A
T
R
L
A
A
T
U
T
P
C
U
T
E
R
M
I
N
A
L
U
E
R
Y
A
E
O
P
P
O
S
I
T
I
O
N
R
A
E
U
Ex. 7. Study the resistor colour code.
colour
black
brown
code
0
1
colour
green
blue
code
5
6
red
orange
yellow
2
3
4
violet
grey
white
7
8
9
Ex. 8. Work with a dictionary and find out if there is any difference between
resistivity and resistance.
Ex. 9. Look through the text and answer:
1) What is a resistor?
2) What is its primary function?
Ex. 10. Read and translate the text.
Text A.
Voltage and Current Characteristics of Resistors
The resistor is an electrical device whose primary function is to introduce resistance to
the flow of electric current. The magnitude of opposition to the flow of current is called the
resistance of the resistor. A larger resistance value indicates a greater opposition to current
flow. The resistance is measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that arises when a current
of one ampere is passed through a resistor subjected to one volt across its terminals. The various uses of resistors include setting biases in p-n junction, controlling gain, fixing time constants, matching and loading circuits, voltage division, and heat generation.
14
The resistance of a resistor is directly proportional to the resistivity of the material and
the length of the resistor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area perpendicular
to the direction of current flow. Resistivity is an inherent property of materials. Good resistor
materials typically have resistivities between 2  10-6 and 200  10-6 ·cm.
The resistance can also be defined in terms of sheet resistivity. If the sheet resistivity is
used, a standard sheet thickness is assumed and factored into resistivity. Typically, resistors
are rectangular in shape; therefore the length l divided by the width w gives the number of
squares within the resistor. The number of squares
multiplied
by
the
resistivity
is
the
resistance.
The resistance of a resistor can be defined
in terms of the voltage drop across the resistor and
current through the resistor related by Ohm’s law.
Whenever current is passed through a resistor, a
voltage is dropped across the ends of the resistor.
Ex. 11. Answer the questions to the text A:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
What’s the primary function of a resistor?
How is the magnitude of opposition to the flow of current called?
What is an Ohm?
What are the characteristics of resistors?
What is shown in the scheme below?
A resistor with resistance R
having a current I flowing through
it will have a voltage drop of IR
across it
Resistors connected in series
Ex. 12. Solve the following problems.
1) You have an electrical device. You notice that when 5 volts is applied across the
device, that 10 milliamps flows through the device. What is the resistance of the device?
2) Next, you apply 10 volts across the device and 50 milliamps flows through the
device. What do you conclude?
3) The data below are all taken from measurements of the same resistor. What is the
value of the resistance?
Voltage (v)
Current (ma)
0.95
12.0
2.03
24.8
15
2.99
37.1
5.11
60.0
4) Which is the correct expression for Ohm's law when polarities are defined as
shown below?
Questions
Actually, there are many questions about resistors. Note the following characteristics of resistors.
1) Resistors have voltage directly proportional to the current. That's true at
every instant of time and for every frequency. Is it possible to have a situation in
which voltage and current are not proportional?
2) The voltage across a resistor and the current through the resistor depend
upon the values at the same time. Is it possible to have other kinds of relationships?
And, if Ohm hadn't discovered his famous law – and lost his job and
been blackballed for ten years – you wouldn't be reading this now (see Appendix 2).
1) In diodes – and many other devices, current and voltage are nonlinearly
related. There are many devices in which the relationship is not proportional or linear.
2) In a capacitor, we have i(t) = Cdv(t)/dt.
In an inductor, we have v(t) = Ldi(t)/dt.
Capacitors and inductors have voltage and current related to derivatives!
That's really a different situation because it means you have to learn how to solve differential equations to predict behavior of circuits with these components. That's a
whole new kettle of fish.
Ex. 13. Translate into English.
Слово «резистор» произошло от латинского «resisto», что значит «сопротивляюсь». Резисторы относятся к наиболее распространенным деталям радиоэлектронной
аппаратуры. Основным параметром резисторов является их номинальное сопротивление, измеряемое в омах (Ом), килоомах (кОм) или мегаомах (МОм). Номинальные значения сопротивлений указываются на корпусе резисторов, однако действительная
величина сопротивления может отличаться от номинального значения. Эти отклонения
устанавливаются стандартом в соответствии с классом точности, определяющим величину погрешности.
16
Unit 3.2. Fixed Resistors
Ex. 1. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms. Check up your answers. At home memorize the terms.
fixed resistor
composition resistor semiprecision resistor
power resistor
precision resistor
wire-wound resistor
general-purpose resistor metal-film resistor
1) прецизионный резистор (тип резистора с очень малым отклонением сопротивления от указанного на нём номинала); 2) полупрецизионный резистор; 3) постоянный резистор; 4) силовой резистор; 5) композиционный резистор; 6) проволочный резистор; 7) универсальный/общего назначения резистор; 8) металлопленочный резистор.
Ex. 2. Translate some information from Resistor datasheet specification.
THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
The temperature coefficient of resistance is a ratio which indicates the rate of
increase (decrease) of resistance per degree (°C) increase (decrease) of temperature within a specified range, and is expressed in parts per million per °C (ppm/°C).
17
Ex. 3. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms. Check up your answers. At home memorize the terms.
winding
neighborhood
reactance
vitreous coating
alloy
mixture
tolerance
shunted capacitance
binder
molded
encapsulate
capacitive characteristics
attach
hardened by baking
resistor leads
assembly
1) закалённый обжигом; 2) процесс намотки/обмотка; 3) горячее эмалевое
покрытие/стекловидное покрытие; 4) формованный/отлитый в форме; 5) присоединять/монтировать; 6) связующее вещество; 7) шунтируемая ёмкость; 8) выводы резистора; 9) реактивное сопротивление; 10) предел/погрешность; 11) близлежащая
область/условие; 12) смесь/смешивание; 13) примесь/сплав; 14) емкостные характеристики; 15) сборка/монтаж, 16) герметизировать.
Ex. 4. Choose two terms from Ex. 2 and explain them to your group mates so
that they could guess them.
Ex. 5. Match a word with its definition:
Word
1) Winding
2) Capacitance
3) Attach
4) Alloy
5) Assembly
6) Generalpurpose
Definition
A) a unit consisting of components that have been fitted together
B) metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion
C) the ability of a system to store an electric charge
D) having a range of potential uses or functions; not specialized
in design
E) to join, fasten, or connect
F) an electrical conductor that is wound round a magnetic material,
especially one encircling part of the stator or rotor of an electric motor
or generator or forming part of a transformer
Ex. 6. Find some misspelled words:
Capacitanse
Culomb
Circit
Dencity
Simbol
Devise
18
Ex. 7. Underline the synonyms, found in Ex. 2.
Ex. 8. From Unit 3.1 recollect the following information about resistors:
 What is a resistor?
 What is a resistance of a resistor?
 What is an Ohm?
 What are the interconnections between: a) the resistance of a resistor and the resistivity of a material; b) the resistance of a resistor and the length of the resistor; c) the resistance of a resistor and the cross-sectional area?
 Say the types of resistors you know.
Ex. 9. Translate the following phrases and sentences, mind the proper translation of “either……or” expression.




Either come in or go out.
He can either be a friend or a foe.
A door must be either shut or open.
Data is supplied in either a file, a stream, or as an array.
Ex. 10. Study specification for general-purpose fixed resistors.
Ex. 11. Look through text B quickly and give the title to the text.
Ex. 12. Read the descriptions below and fill in the blanks with a proper term
from the box.
19
Ex. 13. Read the text once more, while reading it, make some notes, so that you
have a scheme of resistor types.
The fixed resistors / Power resistors / Metal-film resistors / Precision resistors / Composition resistors / Semiprecision resistors / Wire-Wound Resistors / General-purpose resistors
Text B
Resistors can be broadly categorized as fixed, variable, and special-purpose.
1) __________________ are those whose value cannot be varied after manufacture.
…………………… are classified into composition resistors, wire-wound resistors, and metalfilm resistors.
2) __________________ are made by winding wire of nickel-chromium alloy on a
ceramic tube covering with a vitreous coating. The spiral winding has inductive and capacitive characteristics that make it unsuitable for operation above 50 kHz. The frequency limit
can be raised by noninductive winding so that the magnetic fields produced by the two parts
of the winding cancel.
3) __________________ are composed of carbon particles mixed with a binder. This
mixture is molded into a cylindrical shape and hardened by baking. Leads are attached axially
to each end, and the assembly is encapsulated in a protective encapsulation coating. Color
bands on the outer surface indicate the resistance value and tolerance. __________________
are economical and exhibit low noise levels for resistances above 1 MOhm.
__________________ are usually rated for temperatures in the neighborhood of 70 °C for
power ranging from 1/8 to 2 W. __________________ have end-to-end shunted capacitance
that may be noticed at frequencies in the neighborhood of 100 kHz, especially for resistance
values above 0.3 MOhm.
4) __________________ are commonly made of nichrome, tin-oxide, or tantalum
nitride, either hermetically sealed or using molded-phenolic cases. __________________ resistors are not as stable as the wire-wound resistors.
Depending on the application, fixed resistors are manufactured as precision resistors,
semiprecision resistors, standard general-purpose resistors, or power resistors.
5) __________________ have low voltage and power coefficients, excellent temperature and time stabilities, low noise, and very low reactance. These resistors are available in
metal-film or wire constructions and are typically designed for circuits having very close resistance tolerances on values.
6) __________________ are smaller than precision resistors and are primarily used
for current-limiting or voltage-dropping functions in circuit applications. ________________
have long-term temperature stability.
7) __________________ are used in circuits that do not require tight resistance tolerances or long-term stability. For __________________, initial resistance variation may be
in the neighborhood of 5 % and the variation in resistance under full-rated power may approach 20 %. Typically, __________________ have a high coefficient of resistance and high
noise levels.
8) __________________ are used for power supplies, control circuits, and voltage
dividers where operational stability of 5 % is acceptable. __________________ are available
in wire-wound and film constructions. Film-type power resistors have the advantage of stability at high frequencies and have higher resistance values than wire-wound resistors for a given
size.
20
Ex. 14. What types of resistors are there below?
Ex. 15. Find 21 words.
E
T
N
O
Q
S
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
Q
C
R
N C A P S U L A T E
F T O L E R A N C E
G J F C A D G F B R
E M P O W E R Y R E
N O H M E V N G C S
E M I P R E C I S I
R E Y O E O R E F S
A T U S Z I T W G T
L A W I N D I N G O
P L H T J K O I H R
U F W I R E W O U N
R I A O K A S S E M
P L G N C U R R E N
O M I X T U R E R U
S V R E A C T A N C
E S I S T A N C E Z
M
A
S
S
D
O
F
I
X
E
D
B
T
E
E
B
E B V
Y R O
T E L
I S T
E I A
N S G
U T E
Y I D
A V R
V I O
A T P
L Y N
L H O
O M L
Y H C
H O T
Unit 3.3. Variable Resistors
Ex. 1. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Relay contacts, the potentiometer, rheostat, section, resistive element, control, motor,
classified, categories, semiconductor resistor, silicon, varistor.
Ex. 2. Fill in the missing derivatives of the words below. Read the following
words. Define their part of speech where it is possible:
diffuse
reduce
compose
provide
diffused
used
reduced
composed
bombarded
diffuser
using
composing
providing
bombarding
21
reducer
composer
diffusion
usage
reduction
provision
bombardment
Ex. 3. Find synonyms. Match them with their translation.
1) шпиндель/стержень/штифт/вал; 2) виток; 3) скользящий/плавающий контакт;
4) налаживать/регулировать; 5) основа; нижний слой; 6) решётка; 7) гравировать;
травить; 8) монтировать, присоединять; 9) распространять, распылять
adjust / turn (n) / shaft / axle, spindle / layer, base / array, grating / regulate / sliding
contact / substrate / movable contact / engrave / attach / etch / twist / diffused / lattice /
spread / mount
№
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Synonym 1
Synonym 2
Translation
Ex. 4. Find antonyms and write down their translation.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Word A
conductor
thick-film
rotate
patterned
shallow layer
Translation
Word B
A) stand still
B) unique
C) general-purpose
D) unlike
E) thin-film resistors
F) fixed resistors
G) deep layer
H) insulator
6) special-purpose
7) variable resistors
8) the same
Translation
Ex. 5. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms. Check up your answers. At home memorize the terms.
Integrated
circuit
bulk resistor
doped
semi- pinched
conductor
resistor
deposited
film resistor
bleeder
circuit
bulk resistivity
ion-implanted
resistor
yield
diffused
resistor
variable resistor/varistor
1) легированный полупроводник; 2) пленочный резистор; 3) пинч-резистор;
4) переменные резисторы / варистор; 5) цепь делителя напряжения; 6) объёмный резистор; 7) интегральная схема; 8) удельное объёмное сопротивление; 9) выход / отдача;
10) диффузионный резистор; 11) ионно-легированный резистор.
22
Ex. 6. Fill in the blanks with the words below.
resistive element / the rheostat terminals / the potentiometer / variable potentiometers /
rheostats
Variable Resistors
_____________ is a special form of _____________ resistor with three terminals.
Two _____________ are connected to the opposite sides of the resistive element, and the
third connects to a sliding contact that can be adjusted as a voltage divider. Potentiometers are
usually circular in form with the movable contact attached to a shaft that rotates.
_____________ are manufactured as carbon composition, metallic film, and wirewound resistors available in single-turn or multiturn units. The movable contact does not go
all the way toward the end of the _____________, and a small resistance is present to prevent
accidental burning of the resistive element.
_____________ is a current-setting device in which one terminal is connected to the
resistive element and the second terminal is connected to a movable contact to place a selected section of the resistive element into the circuit. Typically, _____________ are wire-wound
resistors used as speed controls for motors, ovens, and heater controls and in applications
where adjustments on the voltage and current levels are required, such as voltage dividers and
bleeder circuits.
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with the words below.
pinched resistors / integrated circuit resistors / semiconductor resistors thickness / varistors / ion-implanted resistors / deposited film resistors / diffused semiconductor resistors /
Special-Purpose Resistors
_____________ are classified into two general categories: _____________ and
_____________ Semiconductor resistors use the bulk resistivity of doped semiconductor regions to obtain the desired resistance value. Deposited film resistors are formed by depositing
resistance films on an insulating substrate which are etched and patterned to form the desired
resistive network.
Depending on the _____________ and dimensions of the deposited films, the resistors
are classified into thick-film and thin-film resistors.
Semiconductor resistors can be divided into four types: diffused, bulk, pinched, and
ion-implanted.
_____________ use resistivity of the diffused region in the semiconductor substrate to
introduce a resistance in the circuit. Both n-type and p-type diffusions are used to form the
diffused resistor.
A bulk resistor uses the bulk resistivity of the semiconductor to introduce a resistance
into the circuit.
_____________ are formed by reducing the effective cross-sectional area of diffused
resistors. The reduced cross section of the diffused length results in extremely high sheet resistivities from ordinary diffused resistors.
_____________ are formed by implanting ions on the semiconductor surface by bombarding the silicon lattice with high-energy ions. The implanted ions lie in a very shallow layer along the surface (0.1 to 0.8 mm). For similar thicknesses ion-implanted resistors yield
sheet resistivities 20 times greater than diffused resistors.
_____________ are voltage-dependent resistors that show a high degree of nonlinearity between their resistance value and applied voltage. They are composed of a nonhomogeneous material that provides a rectifying action. _____________ are used for protection of elec23
tronic circuits, semiconductor components, collectors of motors, and relay contacts against
over voltage.
Ex. 8. Consult a dictionary, find all the terms you need and try to describe the
schemes below. You can use the following words: to divide, to subdivide, to connect, to
interconnect, to form, to include, to consist and others.
Резисторы (система классификации)
По характеру
изменения
сопротивления
По способу
защиты
резистивного
Постоянные
Неизолированные
Проволочные
Переменные
Изолированные
Непроволочные
Герметизированные
Металлофольговые
По материалу
резистивного
элемента
По назначению
Общего
назначения
Прецизионные
Подстроечные
Высокочастотные
Высоковольтные
Вакуумные
Высокомегаомные
Микромодульные
24
25
26
MODULE 4. CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Every material in the world can be
defined in terms of how well it conducts
electricity. Certain things, such as cold
glass, never conduct electricity. They're
known as insulators. Materials which do
conduct electricity are called conductors.
Semiconductors don't conduct as well as
conductors, but can carry current. Superconductors are materials which when brought down to very low temperatures turn
into superhighways of current and conduct electricity without any resistance.
This power adapter uses metal wires and connectors to conduct electricity
from the wall socket to a laptop computer. The conducting wires allow electrons to
move freely through the cables, which are shielded by rubber and plastic. These materials act as insulators that don’t allow electric charge to escape outward.
Ex. 1. Challenge. Do you think the following items are more likely conductors or
insulators?
Ex. 2. Look through the text C below and find international words.
Ex. 3. Work with a dictionary and translate the following words:
substance
bound (v)
relative
collide
Ex. 4. Find the words in a bold type in the text C and explain them in English.
You are going to read a text, suggest the content of the text.
27
Ex. 5. Read the text and compare your suggestions with the information from the
text C.
Text C
Some substances, such as metals and salty water, allow charges to move through them
with relative ease. Some of the electrons in metals and similar conductors are not bound to
individual atoms or sites in the material. These free electrons can move through the material
much as air moves through loose sand. Any substance that has free electrons and allows
charge to move relatively freely through it is called a conductor. The moving electrons may
collide with fixed atoms and molecules, losing some energy, but they can move in a conductor. Superconductors allow the movement of charge without any loss of energy. Salty water
and other similar conducting materials contain free ions that can move through them.
Other substances, such as glass, do not allow charges to move through them. These are
called insulators. Electrons and ions in insulators are bound in the structure and cannot move
easily. Pure water and dry table salt are insulators, for example, but molten salt and salty water are conductors.
Ex. 6. How many parts can the text be divided?
Ex. 7. Suggest the titles to them.
Ex. 8. Close your books and try to sum up the content.
Ex. 9. Put all possible questions to the sentence in Italics.
Ex. 10. Study the following specifications and translate them into Russian.
28
Ex. 11. Translate into English.
1) Изолятор (или диэлектрик) – тело, не содержащее внутри свободные электрические заряды. 2) В изоляторах электрический ток невозможен. 3) К диэлектрикам
можно отнести: стекло, пластик, резину, картон, воздух. Тела, изготовленные из диэлектриков, называют изоляторами. 4) Абсолютно непроводящая жидкость – дистиллированная, т.е. очищенная вода, любая другая вода (водопроводная или морская) содержит какое-то количество примесей и является проводником.
Ex. 12. At home surf the internet, find some insulator specifications written in
English and then translate the following insulator specification into English.
29
MODULE 5. CAPACITORS
Half Full or Half Empty? Thoughts on Capacity.
If you put a pint of liquid into a quart pot, the optimist will
declare it half full, but on the other hand the pessimist will complain that it's half empty. Engineers, on the gripping hand, know
that the glass is too large.
Ex. 1. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Electrolytic, dielectric, equivalent, concentrate, material, Farad, coulomb, term, region, combination, object, physical, pulsating, vector, sum, inductive, magnetized, identical,
identification, process, context, linguistic, morphological, syntactic and lexical processes.
Ex. 2. Find the proper Russian equivalents for the following English sentences
and phrases.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Revolutionary changes in tube design.
Practical minor-aperture size.
We have found it practical.
Integrated circuits and memory chips are burned onto crystalline silicon.
To open new horizons for exploration.
Ex. 3. Find the proper Russian equivalents for the following English terms:
unlike
restricted
the same
capacitor
dielectric
discharge
insulation
potential difference
regain
capacitance
plate
1) конденсатор; 2) разный, отличный, непохожий; 3) анод, пластина; 4) разряд,
разряжать; 5) диэлектрик, непроводник; 6) изоляция; 7) разность потенциалов; 8) восстанавливать; 9) одинаковый; 10) емкость; 11) узкий, ограниченный.
Ex. 4. Choose two terms from Ex. 3 and explain them to your group mates so
that they could guess them.
Ex. 5. Work with a dictionary and find out if there is any difference between capacitance and capacity.
Ex. 6. Read and guess the meaning of the following words and word combinations:
capacitance balance, Capacitance Bridge, capacitance coefficient, capacitance coupling, capacitance current, capacitance element.
30
Ex. 7. Search for the words of Ex. 2
CAPACITORESTRICTEDIELECTRICAPACITOREGAINEGATIVE
Ex. 8. Complete the sentences with a word from the box below.
insulation / discharge / capacitance / potential difference / discharge dielectric
charge / plates / restricted
1) Access is severely ________ (mid july to mid aug).
2) ___________ also depends on the ___________ constant of the substance separating the plates.
3) Electric ___________ in gases occurs when electric current flows through a gaseous medium. Depending on several factors, the ___________ may radiate visible light.
4) An easy way to accelerate a ___________ is to allow it to move through a
___________.
5) The distance between the capacitor ___________ can be changed.
6) Electrical ___________ is the absence of electrical conduction.
Ex. 9. What knowledge have you got about capacitor?
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania in
Germany found that charge could be stored by connecting a highvoltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a
hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric. Von Kleist found, after removing the
generator that touching the wire resulted in a painful spark. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented
a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked.
Ex. 10. Look through the text D quickly and say: What is capacitance?
Ex. 11. What do the following uppercase letters W, F, V, C, and J stand for?
Ex. 12. Read the text.
Text D
If a potential difference is found between two points, an electric field exists that is the
result of the separation of unlike charges. The strength of the field will depend on the amount
the charges have been separated. Capacitance is the concept of energy storage in an electric
field and is restricted to the area, shape, and spacing of the capacitor plates and the property of
the material separating them. When electrical current flows into a capacitor, a force is established between two parallel plates separated by a dielectric. This energy is stored and remains even after the input is removed. By connecting a conductor (a resistor, hard wire, or
even air) across the capacitor, the charged capacitor can regain electron balance, that is, discharge its stored energy. The work necessary to transport a unit charge from one plate to the
other is e = kg, where e = volts expressing energy per unit charge, g = coulombs of charge already transported, and k = proportionality factor between work necessary to carry a unit
charge between the two plates and charge already transported. It is equal to 1/C, where C is
31
the capacitance, F. The energy stored in a capacitor is: W = energy, J; C = capacitance, F; and
V = applied voltage, V.
Ex. 13. Complete the following sentences:
1) The strength of the field will depend on …
2) Capacitance is the concept of energy storage in an electric field and is restricted
to…
3) An electric field exists if…
4) When electrical current flows into a capacitor…
5) By connecting a conductor (a resistor, hard wire, or even air) across the capacitor…
Ex. 14. Put all possible Wh-questions to the sentence in italics. Be ready to answer
the questions.
1) What does the separation of unlike charges result in?
2) What is capacitance?
3) What is established between two parallel plates separated by a dielectric when
electrical current flows into a capacitor?
4) In what way can the charged capacitor regain its electron balance?
Ex. 15. Translate into English.
Если двум изолированным друг от друга проводникам сообщить заряды q1 и q2,
то между ними возникает некоторая разность потенциалов Δφ, зависящая от величин
зарядов и геометрии проводников. Разность потенциалов Δφ между двумя точками в
электрическом поле часто называют напряжением и обозначают буквой U. Наибольший практический интерес представляет случай, когда заряды проводников одинаковы
по модулю и противоположны по знаку: q1 = -q2 = q. В этом случае можно ввести понятие электрической емкости.
Электроемкостью системы из двух проводников называется физическая величина, определяемая как отношение заряда q одного из проводников к разности потенциалов Δφ между ними. Единица электроемкости – фарад.
Ex. 16. Explain the types of capacitors connection.
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MODULE 6. INDUCTORS
Unit 6.1. Fundamentals
US scientist Joseph Henry (1797–1878) invented his “electromagnet” consisting of many turns of wire coiled around various iron
shapes. His familiar “horse shoe” magnet could be connected to a battery and used to pick up small magnetic objects and release them
when the current flow was interrupted by an open switch. Joseph Henry used this principle to also operate a second switch that could interrupt an even larger current flow demonstrating the principle of a “relay”.
Samuel Morse, it is said, later swiped this invention to patent it as one
of his own in the invention of the telegraph, also using electro-magnets.
It appears that Joseph Henry did not contest this patent but went on
make further discoveries in electro-magnetism based on concepts of
self-induction, mutual induction (e.g. as used in transformers) and the
first electric motor.
Ex. 1. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Карьера, муниципальный, химический, биология, экология, канал, динамика,
сталь, система, статистика, дисциплина, код, природный ресурс, компьютер, механический, математик, демонстрировать, сигнал, радиус.
Ex. 2. Read the following words and define their part of speech where it is possible:
Induct
Store
Insert
Induct + ance
Stor + ed
Inser + tion
Induct + or
Stor + age
Insert + ing
Induct + ive
Stor + ing
Insert + ed
Induc + tion
Stor + able
Ex. 3. Translate the following words and word combinations:
induction – mutual inductance – total inductance – inductance measurement – inductance meter – inductible – self-inductance.
Ex. 4. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms and match A with B,
pay attention that each word should have only one Russian equivalent. Check up your answers. At home memorize the terms.
storage
lag
coil
impedance
inductor
wave
turn (n)
winding
choke
therefore
sine (adj)
coupled
core
insertion loss
inductive reactance
equation
1) виток; 2) сердечник; 3) обмотка; 4) таким образом; 5) катушка индуктивности;
6) полное сопротивление; 7) заслонка/заглушка/дроссель; 8) хранение, сохранение;
9) волна; 10) отставать; запаздывать; 11) индуктивное сопротивление; 12) уравнение;
33
13) катушка; 14) cинусоидный; 15) связанные (напр. о колебаниях), связанный, соединённый, сцепленный; 16) вносимое затухание, вносимые потери.
Ex. 5. Study the following information from a capacitor specification datasheet.
Ex. 6. Circle the words.
Q
A
E
V
I
N
D
U
C
T
I
V
E
F
R
U
F
R
S
N
A
J
L
A
G
A
O
H
D
E
O
B
C
D
S
B
I
O
U
I
G
C
B
Y
A
C
H
O
K
E
W
P
S
Z
A
D
F
W
R
C
O
K
I
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V
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O
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K
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Q
O
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Q
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J
D
B
N
L
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W
V
S
T
O
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A
G
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M
C
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E
J
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B
S
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A
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N
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D
A
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S
S
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N
G
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W
G
Y
C
A
K
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P
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A
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C
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K
A
F
O
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Q
Z
J
N
W
U
X
Z
O
T
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W
A
V
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C
O
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N
Q
I
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G
U
A
T
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B
A
U
N
Q
E
B
R
S
K
L
R
O
D
E
Q
U
A
T
I
O
N
O
N
E
I
N
Ex. 7. Find antonyms:
Word A
passive
increase
charge
the same
in parallel
divide
Translation
Word B
in series
unlike
multiply
reduce
active
discharge
Translation
Ex. 8. Choose 2 terms from Ex. 4 and try to explain them.
Ex. 9. Look through the text quickly and say: What is inductance used for? How
can one get inductance increase? How can one reduce inductance? What is an inductor?
Are there any perfect inductors? What are they?
Ex. 10. Read the text carefully.
An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive electronic component that stores
energy in the form of a magnetic field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loop
or coil. The inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Inductance
also depends on the radius of the coil and on the type of material around which the coil is
wound. For a given coil radius and number of turns, air cores result in the least inductance.
Inductance is used for the storage of magnetic energy. Magnetic energy is stored as
long as current keeps flowing through the inductor. In a perfect inductor, the current of a sine
wave lags the voltage by 90°.
The type of wire used for its construction does not affect the inductance of a coil. Q of
the coil will be governed by the resistance of the wire. Therefore coils wound with silver or
gold wire have the highest Q for a given design.
To increase inductance, inductors are connected in series. The total inductance will
always be greater than the largest inductor. L T = L1 + L2 + · · · + Ln.
To reduce inductance, inductors are connected in parallel. The total inductance will
always be less than the value of the lowest inductor.
Mutual inductance is the property that exists between two conductors carrying current
when their magnetic lines of force link together.
The coupled inductance can be also determined by the following equations.
In series with fields aiding, L T = L1 + L2 + 2M.
In series with fields opposing, L T = L1 + L 2 – 2M.
Where L T = total inductance, H; L1 and L2 = inductances of the individual coils, H;
and M = mutual inductance, H.
Ex. 11. Complete the sentences with a word from the box below.
storage (2) / coil / wire / winding/ inductive reactance / equation / insertion loss / coil
1) Computer data __________, often called __________ or memory, is a technology
consisting of computer components and recording media used to retain digital data. (1)
2) __________-wound resistors are made by __________ __________ of nickelchromium alloy on a ceramic tube covering with a vitreous coating. (2)
3) You attach an inductance meter to the __________ and see what the inductance of
the __________ is.
35
4) Mathematical statement that asserts the equality of two expressions is _________.
5) __________ is an opposition to the change of current on an inductive element.
6) In telecommunications, __________ is the loss of signal power resulting from the
insertion of a device in a transmission line or optical fiber and is usually expressed in decibels.
Unit 6.2. Coil Inductance
Let's say you take a coil of wire perhaps 6 feet
(2 meters) in diameter, containing five or six loops of wire.
You cut some grooves in a road and place the coil in the
grooves. You attach an inductance meter to the coil and
see what the inductance of the coil is. Now you park a car
over the coil and check the inductance again. The inductance will be much larger because of the large steel object
positioned in the loop's magnetic field. The car parked
over the coil is acting like the core of the inductor, and its
presence changes the inductance of the coil. Most traffic light sensors use the loop in
this way. The sensor constantly tests the inductance of the loop in the road, and
when the inductance rises it knows there is a car waiting!
Ex. 1. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms and match A with B.
Check up your answers. At home memorize the terms.
velocity
angle
multiply
flux
permeability
screw
per
inch
1) проницаемость, проходимость; 2) скорость; 3) умножать; 4) поток; 5) винт,
шуруп, скручивать; 6) дюйм; 7) из расчёта на, за, в; 8) угол.
Ex. 2. Match a word with its definition:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Word
Flux
Permeability
Core
Velocity
5) Per
6) Screw
7) Multiply
8) Angle
9) Inch
Definition
A) the speed of something in a given direction
B) for each (used with units to express a rate)
C) increase or cause to increase greatly in number or quantity
D) a corner, especially an external projection or an internal recess of a
part of a building or other structure
E) a quantity measuring the influence of a substance on the magnetic flux
in the region it occupies
F) a unit of linear measure equal to one twelfth of a foot (2.54 cm)
G) a piece of soft iron forming the centre of an electromagnet or an induction coil
H) the rate of flow of a fluid, radiant energy, or particles across a given
area/the action or process of flowing or flowing out
I) a short, slender, sharp-pointed metal pin with a raised helical thread
running around it and a slotted head, used to join things together by being
rotated so that it pierces wood or other material and is held tightly in place
36
Ex. 3. Translate the following phrases:
per second, per head, per hour, per day, per mil, per mile, per month, per unit, per
year, per inch.
Ex. 4. What do the abbreviations mmf and emf stand for? If you don’t know the
right answer look it for in the text below.
Ex. 5. Read the text below and answer the questions:
1) How does an air gap influence upon the inductance?
2) What connection is there between:
 the permeability of the core material and the inductance;
 a shorted turn and the inductance;
 the length of the winding and the inductance?
Coil Inductance
Inductance is related to the turns in a coil as follows:
1) The inductance is proportional to the square of the turns.
2) The inductance increases as the length of the winding is increased.
3) A shorted turn decreases the inductance, affects the frequency response, and increases the insertion loss.
4) The inductance increases as the permeability of the core material increases.
5) The inductance increases with an increase in the cross-sectional area of the core material.
6) Inductance is increased by inserting an iron core into the coil.
7) Introducing an air gap into a choke reduces the inductance.
The maximum voltage induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field is proportional to the number of magnetic lines of force cut by that conductor. When a conductor
moves parallel to the lines of force, it cuts no lines of force; therefore, no current is generated
in the conductor. A conductor that moves at right angles to the lines of force cuts the maximum number of lines per inch per second, therefore, creating a maximum voltage.
The right-hand rule determines direction of the induced electromotive force (emf). The
emf is in the direction in which the axis of a right-hand screw, when turned with the velocity
vector, moves through the smallest angle toward the flux density vector.
The magnetomotive force (mmf) in ampere-turns produced by a coil is found by multiplying the number of turns of wire in the coil by the current flowing through it.
Ex. 6. Put all possible questions to the underlined sentence.
Ex. 7. Translate from Russian into English.
Катушка индуктивности – это элемент, вносящий в цепь определенную постоянную или регулируемую индуктивность. Катушку индуктивности часто выполняют навивкой проволоки на корпус, сделанный из
изолятора. Навивка может быть одно- или многослойной. Катушки
бывают воздушными (безсердечниковыми) либо с магнитным сердечником. Катушки индуктивности в основном характеризуются следующими параметрами:
индуктивностью и добротностью.
37
Основной единицей индуктивности является генри (Гн). Чаще используют в
тысячу раз меньшую единицу, называемую миллигенри (мГн), и в миллион раз меньшую – микрогенри (мкГн).
Индуктивность катушки возрастает с увеличением ее размеров и числа витков.
Воздушные катушки имеют индуктивность от 1 Гн до нескольких десятков миллигенри. Большие значения индуктивности (даже несколько тысяч генри) получают, когда
катушки индуктивности выполняют на ферромагнитных стержнях. Регулировка индуктивности чаще всего выполняется перемещением сердечника относительно навивки
(например, путем вворачивания или выворачивания сердечника отверткой).
MODULE 7. P-N JUNCTION
In 1956, in a Stockholm concert hall, three American scientists, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain, received
the Nobel prize “for research in semiconductors and the discovery of
transistor effect”. This represented a major breakthrough in physics,
and ensured their names would be forever etched in the history of
science. However, they were not the only ones to carry out such research. Fifteen years earlier, at the beginning of 1941, a young scientist called Vadim Lashkaryov published an article describing how
two sides of a “barrier layer”, located parallel to the interface between copper and cuprous oxide, would exhibit opposite signs of charge carriers. Afterwards, this discovery would be named “p-n junction” (p for “positive”, n for “negative”), and be the phenomenon underpinning the scientific breakthrough for which the
Americans were awarded the Nobel prize. In addition, Lashkaryov’s article revealed
the injection mechanism, a crucial phenomenon providing the operational basis of
semiconductor diodes and transistors. Unfortunately, Lashkaryov’s research did not
reach the West and so he did not receive the credit that his work deserved.
Ex. 1. Translate the following words without a dictionary. Check up your translation.
Формировать, тип, кристалл, ион, материал, транзистор, биполярный, блок, элементарный, диод, роль, управлять (манипулировать), эпитаксия, электронное устройство, специальный, проводимый, поток электричества.
Ex. 2. Match a word with its translation, check it up, and memorize them at
home.
junction
fusion
p-n junction
diffusion
utility
epitaxy
diffusion
diode
solar cell
dopant
to dope
hence
boundary
to deplete
to scatter
p-doped semi- n-doped semi- forward bias reverse bias
conductor
conductor
38
1) рассеивать; 2) электронно-дырочный переход; 3) диффузионный диод; 4) эпитаксия; 5) граница; 6) примесь (легирующий элемент); 7) легировать; 8) прямое смещение; 9) диффузия; 10) полупроводник с дырочной проводимостью; 11) полупроводник с
электронной проводимостью; 12) эффективность; 13) следовательно; 14) фотогальванический элемент; 15) истощать, исчерпывать; 16) сплавление; 17) обратное смещение,
18) соединение-переход.
Ex. 3. Using the following prefixes and affixes, form the derivatives of the verbs.
-er/or -ive -tion -ant/ent -ing -sion -able -ible
-ed semi-
Consume
Conduct
Scatter
Implant
Dope
Diffuse
Ex. 4. Translate the following words, word combinations and phrases.
to inhibit utility, solar cell, p-n junction, in a single crystal, by scattering the electrons
and holes, bipolar junction transistors, to have useful applications, diffusion of dopants, ion
implantation.
Ex. 5. Study some information.
39
Ex. 6. Circle 25 words.
D
I
F
F
U
S
I
O
N
H
A
L
I
E
H
I
P
L
C
B
O
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D
A
R
Y
O
X
M
F
D
O
H
O
L
E
W
O
E
A
X
N
E
C
F
O
W
I
A
A
B
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A
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K
N
R
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K
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A
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Y
S
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S
H
H
C
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W
D
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K
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M
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K
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M
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J
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T
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K
C
X
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H
H
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S
C
A
T
T
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S
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T
E
Ex. 7. Describe the picture below.
Ex. 8. Fill in the blankets with a word from the box.
hole / p-type / semiconductor regions / The dopants / A p-n junction / n-type / acceptor
___________ consists of two
___________ with opposite doping type.
The region on the left is ___________
with an acceptor density Na, while the
region on the right is ___________ with a
donor density Nd. ___________ are assumed to be shallow, so that the electron
(___________) density in the n-type
(p-type) region is approximately equal to
the donor (___________) density.
40
Ex. 9. Guess: what does the abbreviation LED stand for?
Ex. 10. Look through the text below, find the words in bold and explain their
meaning in English.
Ex. 11. Read the text quickly and say if the statements below are true, false or the
text doesn’t say this information:
 A p-n junction is a boundary between p-type and n-type material in a semiconductor
device.
 Various types of semiconductor devices are based on p-n junctions.
Ex. 12. Read the text and answer the questions: “What is a p-n junction and why
is it important in electronics?”
A p-n junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-type semiconductor
created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on
top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material
were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely
inhibits its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.
P-n junctions are elementary “building blocks” of most semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active
sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of
transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p-n junctions in series, in the form
n-p-n or p-n-p.
The discovery of the p-n junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell
Ohl of Bell Laboratories. A Schottky junction is a special case of a p-n junction, where metal
serves the role of the n-type semiconductor.
The p-n junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful applications in
modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of
an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor
regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, p-n junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where
the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage to the p-n junction.
Ex. 13. Suggest a suitable title for each paragraph so that you have a detailed
plan of the text.
Ex. 14. Read the text once again and say what paragraph (1, 2, 3, 4) contains the
following information:
P-n junctions are basic units or elementary “building blocks” of most semiconductor
electronic devices.
Ex. 15. Give the English equivalents for:
Полупроводник, п-н переход, биполярный транзистор, носители заряда, применение, обладать интересными свойствами, на одном кристалле, исчерпанный, непрово41
дящий слой, прямое напряжение, обратное напряжение, ионное внедрение, диффузия,
эпитаксия, легирующая (донорная) примесь, полупроводник п-типа с примесью.
Ex. 16. Put all possible questions to the underlined sentences.
Ex. 17. Explain the meaning of the words in bold.
Ex. 18. Translate the following sentences into English using the active vocabulary
of the unit.
1) В основе большинства полупроводниковых диодов и транзисторов лежит контакт двух полупроводников с различным типом электропроводности.
2) Такой контакт называют электронно-дырочным переходом или p-nпереходом.
3) Он может быть получен, например, путем диффузии донорной примеси в
полупроводник p-типа.
4) Таким образом, через p-n-переход протекают диффузионные потоки основных
носителей заряда.
5) В области контакта появляется встроенное электрическое поле, локализованное вблизи границы.
Ex. 19. Crossword.
1
2
4
3
5
6
7
CROSS
3. A discrete particle or crystal in a metal, igneous rock, etc., typically visible only
when a surface is magnified.
4. A solid substance that has conductivity between that of an insulator and that of
most metals, either due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effects.
6. A semiconductor device with three connections, capable of amplification in addition to rectification.
7. As a consequence; for this reason.
DOWN
1. Using both positive and negative charge carriers.
2. A point where two or more things are joined.
5. The growth of a thin layer on the surface of a crystal so that the layer has the same
structure as the underlying crystal.
42
Ex. 20. Translate the text below from Russian into English.
Электронно-дырочный переход и его свойства
Электронно-дырочным переходом называют тонкий слой между двумя частями
полупроводникового кристалла, в котором одна часть имеет электронную, а другая –
дырочную электропроводность. Технологический процесс создания электроннодырочного перехода может быть различным: сплавление (сплавные диоды), диффузия
одного вещества в другое (диффузионные диоды), эпитаксия – ориентированный рост
одного кристалла на поверхности другого (эпитаксиальные диоды) и др.
По конструкции электронно-дырочные переходы могут быть симметричными и
несимметричными, резкими и плавными, плоскостными и точечными и др. Однако для
всех типов переходов основным свойством является несимметричная электропроводность,
при которой в одном направлении кристалл пропускает ток, а в другом – не пропускает.
MODULE 8. DIODES
Unit 8.1. Fundamentals
Early researchers of semiconductor materials in the
1800s described effects which can be explained by the rectifying properties of a diode. They might, without knowing it, have
had the first diodes. For example Ferdinand Braun (Germany)
investigated metal-lead sulphide junctions in 1874, which were
used in early radio receivers. Even earlier, in 1839, Bequerel
found that an illuminated junction of an insulator (which happened to be a semiconductor) and an electrolyte creates a voltage – the first solar
cell was born! In 1904, J.A. Fleming (UK) invented the vacuum tube diode and
brought rectifying devices into commercial use. In 1926, L.O. Grondahl and
P.H. Geiger (USA) found rectifying properties in a (semiconducting) copper oxidecopper junction and by 1938 W. Schottky (Germany) developed a theoretical explanation for it. The p-n-diode (all the above were Schottky diodes) finally was described
by W. Schockley (USA) in 1949, even after J. Bardeen, W.H. Brattain and
W. Schockley had invented the transistor.
Ex. 1. Translate from Russian into English.
Диод, ток, полупроводник, отрицательно заряженные носители, процесс производства, увеличение напряжения, варистор, варактор.
Ex. 2. Use a dictionary and translate the following word combinations.
твердотельный / полное сопротивление / арсенид галлия / карбид кремния / трансформировать / примесь, загрязняющее вещество / подходящий, соответствующий /
материал-основа
solid-state
impedance
to modify
silicon-carbide
host
impurity
gallium-arsenide
appropriate
43
Ex. 3. Find in the text below the words in bold and explain their meaning.
Ex. 4. Look through the text and: 1) find different types of diodes and try to
translate them; 2) try to explain what a diode is; 3) recollect the types of a diode you
know; 4) look through text and say: what phenomenon is the base for diode operation;
5) say if the following sentence is true: “Diodes are made in order to meet the purpose
for which they will be used”; 6) read the text and be ready to translate it.
A diode is a p-n junction semiconductor that allows current to flow in only one direction. A diode generally refers to a two-terminal solid-state semiconductor device that presents
low impedance to current flow in one direction and high impedance to current flow in the opposite direction. Most diodes are made from a host crystal of silicon (Si) with appropriate impurity elements introduced to modify, in a controlled manner, the electrical characteristics of
the device. These diodes are the typical p-n junction (or bipolar) devices used in electronic
circuits. Another type is the Schottky diode (unipolar), produced by placing a metal layer directly onto the semiconductor. The metal semiconductor interface serves the same function as
the p-n junction in the common diode structure. Other semiconductor materials such as gallium-arsenide (GaAs) and silicon-carbide (SiC) are also in use for new and specialized applications of diodes. Diodes are made, based on the purpose for which they are going to be used.
For example, a varactor diode is used as a variable capacitor and a zener diode is operated in
the reverse biased mode, hence their manufacturing process is also different. An LED is constructed, in such a way that the holes and electrons on recombination, release energy in the
form of light. Hence, they are manufactured from materials like gallium arsenide, gallium
phosphide, etc. instead of silicon, so as to have a higher potential barrier.
Ex. 5. Put all possible questions to the sentence in Italics.
Ex. 6. Divide the text into several parts, give the titles to them.
Ex. 7. Sum up the information of the text.
Ex. 8. Translate into English.
1) Полупроводниковый диод – прибор, обладающий способностью хорошо пропускать через себя электрический ток одного направления и плохо – ток противоположного направления.
2) Это свойство диода используют, например, в выпрямителях для преобразования переменного тока в постоянный.
3) Слово «диод» образовалось от греческой приставки «ди» – «дважды» и
сокращения слова «электрод».
4) Полупроводниковый диод представляет собой полупроводниковую пластинку
с двумя областями разной проводимости: электронной (n-типа) и дырочной (р-типа).
Между ними – разделяющая граница, называемая р-n переходом.
44
Unit 8.2. V-I characteristic
Ex. 1. Match a word with its definition.
режим обратного смещения / пороговое напряжение / напряжение пробоя / отталкивать / режим прямого смещения / заставлять / график / вольт-амперные характеристики / причина / размещенный, помещенный
graph
V-I characteristics
breakdown voltage
repel
reverse biased mode
cause
forward biased mode
threshold voltage
plotted
voltage controlled
device
Ex. 2. Look through the text quickly and suggest a possible title for it.
Ex. 3. Answer the following questions:
1) What is important to understand a diode operation?
2) When is a diode in in the forward biased mode?
3) What happens to the charge in the forward biased mode?
To know how a diode works, we will need to understand its V-I characteristics.
V-I characteristic is the graph plotted between the voltage and the current, at which the diode
is working. A diode is a voltage controlled device. In a diode, current flows in the forward
biased mode, while there is no flow of charge, when the diode is reverse biased. A diode is
said to be in the forward biased mode when the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the p-terminal and negative side of the diode is connected to the n-terminal. Once the voltage
is applied to the diode in the forward biased mode, the diode immediately does not allow the
charge to flow. On increasing the voltage, in such a way that it reaches the breakdown voltage, the current flow starts increasing and reaches its maximum. This breakdown voltage is
different for different semiconductor materials. For silicon, the breakdown voltage is 0.7 volt.
On applying the voltage, the positively charged holes are repelled by the positive terminal of
the battery and the negatively charged electrons are repelled by the negative terminal of the
battery and start flowing in the opposite directions. This causes flow of charge in the positive
to negative direction.
Ex. 4. Fill in the blankets with a word from the box below.
reverse direction / depletion region / diode / a wide range of applications / junction / holes /
electrons
Recombination of the _____________ and _____________ takes place at the junction
and a small region is developed at the _____________. It consists of minority carriers, electrons in the p-layer and majority carriers, holes in the n-layer. This limited region on both
sides of the junctions is known as the _____________. Once the depletion region is formed,
the current flow becomes practically constant. Further increase in voltage can destroy the depletion region and hence the diode. Most diodes when operated in the reverse biased mode get
destroyed on increasing the voltage to a large extent. When a _____________ is operated in
the reverse biased mode, there is practically no flow of charge initially. When the voltage is
45
increased and reaches the reverse threshold voltage, current increases indefinitely and flows in
the _____________, destroying the diode. However, zener diode is operated in the reverse
biased mode and finds _______________.
Ex. 5. Write down the scientists names below the pictures and match them with a
description of a discovery.
____________
___________
____________
____________
Joseph Henry (USA) / W. Schockley (USA) / W. Schottky (Germany) / Ewald Georg von Kleist
1) ______________ German administrator and cleric who the Leyden jar, a fundamental electric circuit element for storing electricity, now usually referred to as a capacitor.
2) ______________ His research has been centred on energy bands in solids;
order and disorder in alloys; theory of vacuum tubes; self-diffusion of copper; theories of dislocations and grain boundaries; experiment and theory on ferromagnetic domains; experiments on photoelectrons in silver chloride; various topics in transistor physics and operations
research on the statistics of salary and individual productivity in research laboratories.
3) ______________ In 1938 he created a theory that explained the rectifying
behavior of a metal-semiconductor contact as dependent on a barrier layer at the surface of
contact between the two materials. The metal semiconductor diodes later built on the basis of
this theory are called ……………… barrier diodes. He also discovered that the current emitted from the metal cathode into the vacuum in a valve depends on the metals' work function,
and that this function was lowered from its normal value by the presence of image forces and
by the electric field at the cathode. This effect later became known as the ______________
effect.
4) ______________ invented his “electro-magnet”.
Ex. 6. Sum up all information you have learnt from module 8, make a plan of
your report and be ready to speak on the topic (see Appendix 3).
46
Ex. 7. Study Schottky diodes specification datasheet.
47
MODULE 9. FROM THE HISTORY OF TRANSISTORS
Before you start reading:
 Ask yourself “What must I find out from the research text?”
 Look for a series of dates; words in bold or italic script, names and surnames.
Think: “What information do they give me?”
While you are reading:
 Highlight the topic sentences;
 Think: “which paragraph(s) will probably give me the answer to my research questions?”
 Read these paragraphs first;
 Make notes.
After reading:
Think: Did the text answer all my research questions?
Using the topic sentences to summarize:
The topic sentences of a text normally make a good basis for a summary.
Follow this procedure:
 Locate the topic sentences;
 Paraphrase them – rewrite them in your own words so that the meaning is the
same. Do not simply copy them. (This is a form of plagiarism.)
 Add supporting information.
If cells are the building blocks of life, transistors are the building blocks of the digital
revolution. Without transistors, the technological wonders you use every day – cell phones,
computers, cars – would be vastly different, if they existed at all.
Before transistors, product engineers used vacuum tubes and electromechanical
switches to complete electrical circuits. Tubes were far from ideal. They had to warm up before they worked (and sometimes overheated when they did), they were unreliable and bulky
and they used too much energy. Everything from televisions, to telephone systems, to early
computers used these components, but in the years after World War II, scientists were looking
for alternatives to vacuum tubes. They'd soon find their answer from work done decades earlier.
In the late 1920's, Polish American physicist Julius Lilienfeld filed patents for a threeelectrode device made from copper sulfide. There's no evidence that he actually created the
component, but his research helped develop what today is a field effect transistor, the building
block of silicon chips.
Twenty years after Lilienfeld filed his patents, scientists were trying to put his ideas to
practical use. The Bell Telephone System, in particular, needed something better than vacuum tubes to keep its communications systems working. The company assembled what
amounted to an all-star team of scientific minds, including John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and
William Shockley, and put them to work researching vacuum tube substitutes.
In 1947, Shockley was director of transistor research at Bell Telephone Labs. Brattain
was an authority on solid-state physics as well as expert on nature of atomic structure of solids and Bardeen was an electrical engineer and physicist. Within a year, Bardeen and Brittain
used the element germanium to create an amplifying circuit, also called a point-contact transistor. Soon afterward, Shockley improved on their idea by developing a junction transistor.
48
The next year, Bell Labs announced to the world that it had invented working transistors. The original patent name for the first transistor went by this description: Semiconductor
amplifier; three-electrode circuit element utilizing semi conductive materials. It was an innocuous-sounding phrase. But this invention netted the Bell team the 1956 Nobel Prize for Physics,
and allowed scientists and product engineers far greater control over the flow of electricity.
It's no exaggeration that transistors have enabled some of humankind's biggest leaps in
technology. Keep reading to see exactly how transistors work, how they altered the course of
technology, and in the process, human history, too.
MODULE 10. JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
1) The word transistor is a combination of “transconductance” (transfer of a
charge) and “variable resistor” or “varistor.”
2) Early transistors were used to amplify audio signals.
3) A computer can't operate without an integrated circuit (chip), and a chip
can't operate without a transistor.
4) The first Intel computer chip had 2,300 transistors, while the latest one has
820 million.
Ex. 1. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Control (v), model, normally, mobile, algebraic, sinusoid, sinusoidal vibrations, reflex,
distribution, chaos, pulse, synchronous, orbit, pyramid, type.
49
Ex. 2. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms and match the
words from the table with their translation below the table; check up your answers; at
home memorize the terms.
gate / gate electrode
drain / drain electrode
pinch-off
available
reverse bias
reverse bias voltage
pinch-off voltage
entirety
source
n-type channel
to contribute
depletion region
to constrict
gate-to-source voltage
1) сток/электрод, подключенный к каналу; 2) затвор/управляющий электрод;
3) обратное напряжение; 4) напряжение отсечки/пороговое напряжение; 5) цельность;
6) способствовать; 7) сжимать/ограничивать; 8) напряжение между затвором и истоком;
9) канал n-типа; 10) доступный; 11) регион обеднения; 12) обратное смещение;
13) исток, 14) отсечка.
Ex. 3. Using the following affixes form the derivatives:
-er/or -ive
-tion -ant/ent -ing
-sion
-able
-ible -ed semi-
deplete
constrict
apply
contribute
reverse
reduce
Ex. 4. Read the first paragraph and answer: What does abbreviation JFET
stand for?
Ex. 5. Match a sentence with its translation.
Thus as the gate voltage increases, the
cross-sectional areas of the n-type channel
available for current flow decreases
The gate-to-channel pn junction is normally kept reverse-biased
As the gate voltage increases, the channel
gets further constricted, and the current
flow gets smaller
At this point the current flow between drain
and source is reduced to essentially zero
The depletion region extends mostly into
the n-type channel because of the heavy
doping on the p+side
С увеличением напряжения затвора,
канал дальше становится узким и поток
тока уменьшается
В этом месте поток тока между стоком
и истоком сокращается до нуля
Область, обеднённая носителями зарядов,
образуется в канале n-типа
из-за сильного легирования p-области
Таким образом, вместе с увеличением
напряжения затвора, уменьшается площадь поперечного сечения канала n-типа,
доступного для потока тока
Затвор выполнен в виде обратно смещенного p-n перехода
50
Ex. 6. Look through the text quickly and translate the sentences and phrases in
italic into Russian.
A junction field-effect transistor, or the junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET/FET
or JUGFET), is a type of transistor in which the current flow through the device between the
drain and source electrodes is controlled by the voltage applied to the gate electrode.
A simple physical model of the JFET is shown in
Fig. 1. In this JFET an n-type conducting channel exists
between drain and source. The gate is a p+region that
surrounds the n-type channel. The gate-to-channel pn
junction is normally kept reverse-biased. As the reverse
bias voltage between gate and channel increases, the depletion region width increases, as shown in Fig. 2. The
depletion region extends mostly into the n-type channel
because of the heavy doping on the p+side. The depletion
region is depleted of mobile charge carriers and thus
cannot contribute to the conduction of current between
drain and source. Thus as the gate voltage increases, the
cross-sectional areas of the n-type channel available for
current flow decreases. This reduces the current flow between drain and source. As the gate voltage increases,
the channel gets further constricted, and the current flow
gets smaller. Finally when the depletion regions meet in
the middle of the channel, as shown in Fig. 3, the channel
is pinched off in its entirety between source and drain. At
this point the current flow between drain and source is
reduced to essentially zero. This voltage is called the
pinch-off voltage, V P. The pinch-off voltage is also
represented by VGS (off) as being the gate-to-source
voltage that turns the drain-to source current I DS off. We
have been considering here an n-channel JFET. The
complementary device is the p-channel JFET that has an
n+gate region surrounding a p-type channel. The operation of a p-channel JFET is the same as for an n-channel
device, except the algebraic signs of all dc voltages and currents are reversed. We have been
considering the case for VDS small compared to the pinch-off voltage such that the channel is
essentially uniform from drain to source.
51
Ex. 7. Describe the pictures below, using active vocabulary.
Ex. 8. Divide the text into several parts and give the titles to them so that you
could have a plan of the text.
Ex. 9. How can you describe the figures above?
Ex. 10. Find in the text the answers for the following questions:




What is JFET? What peculiarities does it have?
What does the gate voltage increase result in?
What are the relations between the reverse bias voltage and depletion region width?
What is pinch-off voltage?
52
 What happens when the depletion regions meet in the middle of the channel? What
does it result in?
Ex. 11. Give antonyms to the underlined words in the text above.
Ex. 12. Explain the meaning of the words in bold.
Ex. 13. Put all possible questions to the underlined sentences.
Ex. 14. Translate into English.
Транзистор – полупроводниковый элемент электронной техники, который позволяет управлять током, протекающим через него, с помощью прилагаемого к дополнительному электроду напряжения.
Транзисторы являются основными элементами современной электроники.
Обычно они применяются в усилителях и логических электронных схемах. В микросхемах в единый функциональный блок объединены тысячи и миллионы отдельных
транзисторов.
По строению и принципу действия транзисторы делятся на два больших класса:
биполярные транзисторы и полевые транзисторы. В каждый из этих классов входят
многочисленные типы транзисторов, отличающихся по строению и характеристикам.
Ex. 15. Circle 16 words.
G
P
I
N
C
H
O
F
F
V
A
V
A
I
L
A
B
L
E
O
T
O
P
R
Q
F
P
Q
E
L
E
V
G
E
B
I
A
S
F
T
E
I
V
V
V
E
I
O
F
A
L
Q
Z
E
Z
L
D
U
E
G
E
M
U
R
M
D
Z
R
C
E
C
O
N
S
T
R
I
C
T
I
T
Q
O
E
Q
O
M
E
P
Q
R
E
N
T
I
R
E
T
Y
R
O
J
U
N
C
T
I
O
N
E
D
R
A
I
N
I
D
O
I
G
E
L
E
C
T
R
O
D
E
I
C
I
R
C
U
I
T
H
N
O
MODULE 11. JUNCTION BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (BJT)
The invention of the bipolar transistor in 1948
ushered in a revolution in electronics. Technical feats
previously requiring relatively large, mechanically
fragile, power-hungry vacuum tubes were suddenly
achievable with tiny, mechanically rugged, powerthrifty specks of crystalline silicon. This revolution
made possible the design and manufacture of lightweight, inexpensive electronic devices that we now
take for granted.
53
D
E
P
L
E
T
I
O
N
N
Ex. 1. Translate the words below without a dictionary.
Биполярный, транзистор, сэндвич, коллектор, база, эффект, концентрировать,
разнообразие, проводимость, зоны, полярность, величина, формировать, пара.
Ex. 2. Work with a dictionary, translate the following terms and match the
words from the table with their translation below the table; check up your answers; at
home memorize the terms.
therefore
collector
filling
base
exhibit
emitter
provided that
back-to-back
moderate
valence band
conduction band
1) область проводимости; 2) показывать; 3) наполнение; 4) коллектор; 5) при
условии, что; 6) эмиттер; 7) умеренный; 8) валентная область; 9) поэтому; 10) последовательно; 11) база.
Ex. 3. Choose two terms from Ex. 2 and explain them to your group mates so
that they could guess them.
Ex. 4. Jumbled words.
abes_____________
nlceave___________
hrrteoefe______________
ticnodncou____________
xieithb______________
tremtei______________
Ex. 5. Circle 10 words from modules 10, 11.
F
M
O
D
E
R
A
T
E
I
S
E
X
H
I
B
I
T
L
O
D
M
B
G
A
T
E
L
U
R
U
I
E
N
A
U
I
R
A
A
B
T
D
U
B
N
C
I
E
A
U
T
O
E
G
E
N
B
S
A
O
E
U
C
O
L
L
E
C
T
O
R
Ex.6. Before reading Text E recollect some information on text research from
module 9 (see Appendix 4).
Ex. 7. Read text E according to the scheme of module 9.
Text E
A Bipolar Transistor essentially consists of a pair of PN Junction Diodes that are
joined back-to-back. This forms a sort of a sandwich where one kind of semiconductor is
placed in between two others. There are therefore two kinds of Bipolar sandwich, the NPN
54
and PNP varieties. The three layers of the sandwich
are conventionally called the Collector, Base, and
Emitter.
Some of the basic properties exhibited by a
Bipolar Transistor are immediately recognizable as
being diode-like. However, when the 'filling' of the
sandwich is fairly thin some interesting effects become possible that allow using the Transistor as an
amplifier or a switch. To see how the Bipolar Transistor works we can concentrate on the NPN variety.
Figure 1 shows the energy levels in an NPN
transistor when we aren't externally applying any
voltages. The arrangement looks like a back-to-back pair of PN Diode junctions with a thin Ptype filling between two N-type slices of 'bread'. In each of the N-type layers conduction can
take place by the free movement of electrons in the conduction band. In the P-type (filling)
layer conduction can take place by the movement of the free holes in the valence band. However, in the absence of any externally applied electric field, depletion zones form at both PNJunctions, so no charge wants to move from one layer to another.
What happens when we apply a moderate voltage between the Collector and Base
parts of the transistor? The polarity of the applied voltage is chosen to increase the force pulling the N-type electrons and P-type holes apart. (i.e. we make the Collector positive with respect to the Base.) This widens the depletion zone between the Collector and base and so no
current will flow. In effect we have reverse-biased the Base-Collector diode junction. The
precise value of the Base-Collector voltage doesn't really matter to what happens provided we
don't make it too big and blow up the transistor!
Ex. 8. Divide text A into paragraphs and prepare 2 questions on the text to your
group mates.
55
Ex. 9. Fill in the blanks with a word from the box.
N type emitter / thin / resistivity / ensures / doping / lightly / operation
How a transistor is doped.
The _____________ of the transistor is very
dependent on the degree of _____________ of the
various parts of the semiconductor crystal. The
_____________ is very heavily doped to provide
many free electrons as majority charge carriers.
The _____________ doped P type base region is
extremely _____________, and the N type collector is very heavily doped to give it a low
_____________ apart from a layer of less heavily
doped material near to the base region. This change
in the resistivity of the collector close to the base
_____________ that a large potential is present
within the collector material close to the base.
Ex. 10. Translate into English.
Биполярным транзистором называется полупроводниковый прибор, имеющий два взаимодействующих
между собой p-n перехода. Технология изготовления биполярных транзисторов может быть различной (сплавление, диффузия, эпитаксия), что в значительной мере
определяет характеристики прибора. В зависимости от
последовательности чередования областей с различным
типом проводимости различают n-p-n транзисторы и p-n-p
транзисторы. Средняя часть структуры называется базой,
одна крайняя область – коллектором, а другая – эмиттером. Работа транзисторов основана на управлении токами
электродов в зависимости от приложенных к его переходам напряжений.
Ex. 11. Study the following information about transistor specifications.
56
57
58
MODULE 12. SUPPLEMENTARY READING
59
60
61
62
63
64
CONCLUSION
Top Salary
The top 10 percent of electrical engineers earn a monthly salary of $10,972 or more,
according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. This is equivalent to an annual full-time salary of $131,660, or an hourly wage of $63.30. Salaries in the range of $11,000 per month or
more usually go to engineers with at least 10 years experience, according to ElectricalEngineerSalary.com. By way of comparison, the average monthly income for 154,250 electrical
engineers nationwide was $7,433 in 2011, according to the bureau survey.
Electronics engineer: salary and conditions
 Starting salaries for newly graduated electrical/electronics engineers are in the
range of £18,000-£29,000. Salaries for PhD holders may be higher.
 Qualified electronics engineers can earn between £35,000 and £45,000, with more
senior engineers earning between £40,000 and £55,000. Highly experienced engineers can
earn in excess of £65,000.
 Salaries vary from company to company, with some sectors attracting higher salaries due to demand. Hours of work can vary and this may affect the final salary. A 40-hour
week is typical. However, the commercial pressures associated with electronic design mean
that extra hours during evenings and weekends may be required at busy times in order to meet
deadlines. Contract staff are often recruited to meet peaks in workloads.
 Work usually takes place in a laboratory or office environment, although some projects may require you to work in workshops, factories, or even outdoors.
 Self-employment and freelance work are sometimes possible for qualified engineers with a good track record and experience. Short-term contract work is possible, and is
often arranged through agencies.
Job Outlook
Employment of electrical and electronics engineers is expected to grow 6 percent from
2010 to 2020, slower than the average for all occupations.
You can also get the qualification of electrical or electronics engineer here:
65
APPENDIX 1
CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
APPENDIX 2
ARITHMETIC SYMBOLS
+
±
×
/
÷
=
≈
≡
≠
>
<
>>
<<
┴
║
3
plus
minus
plus or minus
multiplied by
over; divided by
divided
equals
approximately, similar
equivalent to; identical
not equal to
greater than
less than
much greater than
much less than
perpendicular to
parallel to
squared
cubed
to the fourth; to the power four
to the n; to the nth; to the power n
root; square root
cube root
/'plʌs/
/'maɪnəs/
/'plʌs ɔ:'maɪnəs/
/'mʌltɪplaɪdbaɪ/
/'əuvə/ /dɪ'vaɪdəd/
/dɪ'vaɪdəd/
/'ɪ:kwəlz/
/ə'prɒksəmətlɪ / /'sɪmɪlə/
/ɪ'kwɪvələnt tu/ /aɪ'dentɪkl/
/'nɒt 'i:kwəl tu/
/'greɪtə ðən/
/'les ðən/
/'mʌtʃ 'greɪtə ðən/
/'mʌtʃ 'les ðən/
/pɜ:pən'dɪkjulə tu/
/'pærəlel tu/
/'skweəd/
/'kju:bd/
/tə ðə 'fɔ:θ/ /tə ðə 'pauə fɔ:/
/tə ðɪ en/ /tə ðɪ enθ/ /tə ðɪ'pauəen/
/ru:t/ /skweə ru:t/
/kju:b ru:t/
4
fourth root
/fɔ:θru:t/
%
∞
percent
infinity
dot
double dot
is to, ratio of
f; function
f dash; derivative
f double-dash; second derivative
f triple-dash; f treble-dash; third derivative
f four; fourth derivative
partial derivative, delta
integral
sum
log
therefore
because
gives, leads to, approaches
per
belongs to; a member of; an element of
/pər'sent/
/ɪn'fɪnətɪ/
/dɒt/
/dʌbldɒt/
/reɪʃɪəu/
/ef/ /'fʌŋkʃən/
/dæʃ/ /dɪ'rɪvətɪv/
/'dʌbl dæʃ/ /'sekənd dɪ'rɪvətɪv/
/trɪpldæʃ/ /trebl dæʃ/ /ɵɜ:d dɪ'rɪvətɪv /
2
3
4
n
√
•
¨
:
f(x) fx
f'(x)
f''(x)
f'''(x)
f(4)

∫
∑
log


→
/

74
/fɔ:θ dɪ'rɪvətɪv/
/'pɑ:ʃəl dɪ'rɪvətɪv/ /deltə/
/'ɪntɪgrəl/
/sʌm/
/lɒg/
/'ðɛəfɔ:/
/bɪ'kɒz/
/gɪvz/ /li:dz tu/ /əprəutʃəz/
/pɜ:/
/bɪ'lɒŋz/ /'membə/ /'elɪmənt/





cos x
sin x
tan x
x
°C
°F
°K
mm
cm
cc, cm3
m
km
mg
g
kg
AC
DC
does not belongs to; is not a member
of; is not an element of
contained in; a proper subset of
contained in; subset
intersection
union
cos x; cosine x
sine x
tangent x
mod x; modulus x
/nɒt bɪ'lɒŋ/ /nɒt ə 'membə/ /nɒt ən
'elɪmənt/
/kən'teɪnd ɪn/ /'prɒpə 'sʌbset/
/'sʌbset/
/'ɪntərsekʃən/
/'ju:nɪən /
/kɒz/
/saɪn/
/tan/
/mɒd/ /'mɒdjuləs/
degrees Centigrade
degrees Fahrenheit
degrees Kelvin
millimetre
centimetre
cubic centimeter; centimeter cubed
metre
kilometre
milligram
gram
kilogram
A.C.
D.C.
/dɪ'gri:z sentɪgreɪd/
/dɪ'gri:z 'færənhaɪt/
/dɪ'gri:z 'kelvɪn/
/'mɪlɪmi:tə/
/'sentɪmi:tə/
/kju:bɪk 'sentɪmi:tə/ /'sentɪmi:tə 'kju:bd/
/'mi:tə/
/kɪ'lɒmɪtə/
/'mɪlɪgræm/
/græm/
/'kɪləgræm/
/eɪ si:/
/di: si:/
Examples
x+1
x-1
x±1
xy
(x - y)(x + y)
x/y
x÷y
x=5
x≈y
x≡y
x≠y
x>y
x<y
x≥y
x≤y
0<x<1
0≤x≤1
x2
x3
x4
x plus one
x minus one
x plus or minus one
x y; x times y; x multiplied by y
x minus y, x plus y
x over y; x divided by y
x divided by y
x equals 5; x is equal to 5
x is approximately equal to y
x is equivalent to y; x is identical with y
x is not equal to y
x is greater than y
x is less than y
x is greater than or equal to y
x is less than or equal to y
zero is less than x is less than 1; x is greater than zero and less than 1
zero is less than or equal to x is less than or equal to 1; x is greater than or
equal to zero and less than or equal to 1
x squared
x cubed
x to the fourth; x to the power four
75
xn
x-n
√x
3
x
4
x
n
x
(x + y)2
(x/y)2
n!
x%
∞
x y
x  1/y
x
x
f(x) fx
f'(x)
f''(x)
f'''(x)
f(4)
v
v

2
 v
 2
dv
dv
d
2
d v
d 2
∫

0
∑
n

x to the n; x to the nth; x to the power n
x to the minus n; x to the power of minus n
root x; square root x; the square root of x
the cube root of x
the fourth root of x
the nth root of x
x plus y all squared
x over y all squared
n factorial; factorial n
x percent
infinity
x varies as y; x is (directly) proportional to y
x varies as one over y; x is indirectly proportional to y
x dot
x double dot
f of x; the function of x
f dash x; the (first) derivative of f with respect to x
f double-dash x; the second derivative of f with respect to x
f triple-dash x; f treble-dash x; the third derivative of f with respect to x
f four x; the fourth derivative of f with respect to x
the partial derivative of v
delta v by delta theta, the partial derivative of v with respect to θ
delta two v delta theta squared; the second partial derivative of v with
respect to θ
the derivative of v
d v by d theta, the derivative of v with respect to theta
d 2 v by d theta squared, the second derivative of v with respect to theta
integral
integral from zero to infinity
sum
the sum from i equals 1 to n
i 1
w.r.t.
logey


→
m/sec
xA
18 °C
70 °F
with respect to
log to the base e of y; log y to the base e; natural log (of) y
therefore
because
gives, approaches
meters per second
x belong to F; x is a member of A; x is an element of A
eighteen degrees Centigrade
seventy degrees Fahrenheit
76
APPENDIX 3
DIODES AND ISOLATORS APPLICATION
77
78
APPENDIX 4
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
79
Учебное издание
Кутузова Наталья Сергеевна
ENGLISH FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS
Учебное пособие
Научный редактор – доцент Е. Ю. Першина
Редактор Т. Н. Карпова
Подписано в печать 10.09.2014.
Формат 60  84 1/8. Бумага 60 г/м2. Ризограф EZ570E.
Усл. печ. л. 9,76. Уч.-изд. л. 6,24. Тираж 100 экз. Заказ 26410.
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высшего профессионального образования
«Комсомольский-на-Амуре государственный технический университет»
681013, г. Комсомольск-на-Амуре, пр. Ленина, 27.
Полиграфическая лаборатория
Федерального государственного бюджетного образовательного учреждения
высшего профессионального образования
«Комсомольский-на-Амуре государственный технический университет»
681013, г. Комсомольск-на-Амуре, пр. Ленина, 27.
80

circuit | loop |

Категория: Иностранный язык.

Technology. Practise vocabulary. 10 класс

Technology.

Match each word with its definition.

1. Gadget	a) showing information in the form of an electronic image
2. Digital	b) to copy or move programs or information into a computer’s memory
3. Scanner	c) a small device or machine with a particular purpose
4. Hardware	d) a device for making images of the inside of the body or for reading information into a computer system
5. Network	e) the physical and electronic parts of a computer
6. Palmtop	f) an electronic device that allows one computer to send information to another through standard phone lines and therefore over long distances
7. To download	g) a type of computer that is small enough to hold with one hand
8. Modem	h) a large system consisting of many similar parts that are connected together

Complete the following definitions:

tested – engineering -knowledge – truths– technology – phenomena – creation– practice – experimentation

According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of science is «………………………. . attained through study or……………………. . ,» or «knowledge covering general……………………. . of the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and …………………. . through scientific method [and] concerned with the physical world. » Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and ……………………………. to describe and explain natural………………………. . . The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. While …………………. is the branch of knowledge that deals with the…………………… and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as industrial arts, ………………………, applied science, and pure science.

Fill in the following table.

verb	noun
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . discover innovate invent ………………………	creation ……………………… ……………………… ……………………… experiment

Match the phrases in the first column to those in the second.

1. to connect to	a) the website
2. type in	b) on a link
3. click	c) the website address
4. download	d) the internet
5. browse	e) the information

Метки: Иностранный язык

If the equations are not displayed correctly, please use the desktop view

Branches, Nodes, and Loops are essential for electric circuit analysis. Electric circuit elements can be connected to each other in various ways. Because of it, we need to understand the basic knowledge behind an electric circuit such as network topology and circuit. Even though they sound like the same thing, both network and circuit are different things.

• A network is an interconnection of devices or elements.
• A circuit is a network consisting of one or more closed paths.

In network topology analysis, we will find various ways of electric elements interconnection and configuration. The connection between circuit elements will form branches, nodes, and loops. What are they? We will learn them in this post, read this until the end.

What is a Branch in Electric Circuit

A branch is a path between two nodes. What is a node? We will learn it after this. If you haven’t known what a node is, we will learn a branch with easier explanation.

With simple explanation, a branch is generally a two-terminal element we use to build an electric circuit. Every time we use a circuit element, the electric circuit will connect to both of its terminals forming a closed path.

Just as mentioned above, circuit elements are connected between two nodes of the circuit. The path formed between two nodes is called a branch. Using a more advanced term, a branch is a path between two nodes which is able to absorb or deliver energy in an electric circuit.

But more thing to remember, a branch without any element or short circuit is still a branch.

In conclusion:

A branch is a circuit element such as voltage or current source or a resistor, capacitor, inductor.

For a better understanding, you can observe the circuit example below:

The circuit above we can see that we have five branches:

1. The 10V voltage source
2. The 5Ω resistor
3. The 2Ω resistor
4. The 3Ω resistor
5. The 2A current source

What is a Node in Electric Circuit

We have already mentioned what is node above and we’ll understand it completely now. If a branch is a path between two nodes or a circuit element, then a node is a point through a circuit element. If we use circuit element terms, a node is a point where two or more elements’ terminals are connected together.

In conclusion:

A node is the point where two or more branches are connected together.

Node is represented by a dot in an electric circuit. Understand that if a short circuit (a plain conducting wire) is connected to two nodes, these two nodes form a single node. Observe the example circuit below:

In the circuit above we can list three nodes that exist inside it: nodes a, b, and c. The three nodes connected to a single wire form a single node b.

Just as node b, we can also treat node c as the same. After understand a bit about node, we can redraw the circuit above into circuit below:

Don’t worry, both circuits are identical.

What is a Loop in Electric Circuit

In a short explanation, a loop is formed from a node passing through a set of nodes and returning to the starting point or node without passing the same node twice or more.

We can call a loop independent if the loop contains at least one branch which is not a part of another independent loop.

In conclusion:

A loop is a closed path inside an electric circuit.

Observe the circuit below:

It is a common thing to find an independent loop where it doesn’t contain such a branch. In the circuit above we list the independent loop:

1. The path abca with 2Ω resistor.
2. The path bcb with 3Ω resistor and current source.
3. The path with 3Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor in parallel.

Conclusion of Branches, Nodes, and Loops

After learning about branches, nodes, and loops we can draw some conclusions to close our study here. Assume that we have a network consists of:

• b branches
• n nodes
• l loops

These three numbers will satisfy the basic theorem of network topology:

The equation above will help us greatly on studying voltage and current in an electric circuit. The term node can be used to distinguish between series and parallel circuits.

A series circuit is when two or more circuit elements share a single node and carry the same amount of current.

A parallel circuit is when two or more circuit elements are connected to the same two nodes and carry the same voltage across them.

For better understanding let us review the examples below:

Observe the circuit below and count the number of branches and nodes. Also identify which parts are in series or parallel.

The circuit above has four element, thus it has four branches:

• 10V voltage source,
• 5Ω resistor,
• 6Ω resistor, and
• 2A current source

It has three nodes as shown the circuit below:

The series connection is formed from a 10V voltage source and 5Ω resistor. The parallel connection is formed from a 6Ω resistor and 2A current source connected to nodes 2 and 3.

Frequently Asked Questions